Question: What is the Japanese word for Japan?

Japan
Nihon
etymology of japan
japanese financial sector
Japanese financial sector
JPN
nippon
Republic of Japan
rìběn
nihon
JapaN
nippon koku
State of Japan
Modern–era Japan
The State of Japan
Riben
Japang
state of japan
riben
modern–era japan
Jpan
Japan (country)
日本國
japan country
JAPAN
japoa
Japian
jpn
Nippon-koku
Japoa
Rìběn
Nihon-koku
ISO 3166-1:JP
japian
Nippon
japao
Etymology of Japan
nihon koku
日本
iso 3166 1 jp
republic of japan
jpan
🗾
Ja-pan
日本国
japang
Japao
ja pan
japan

Names of Japan

Names of Japan The word "Japan" is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by a large number of languages. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon ( ) and Nihon ( ). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji . Both "Nippon" and "Nihon" literally mean "the sun's origin", that is, where the sun originates, and are often translated as the "Land of the Rising Sun". This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastern position relative to China. Before "Nihon" came into official use, Japan was

Japan

its major contributions to science and modern technology. The Japanese word for Japan is , which is pronounced "Nihon" or "Nippon" and literally means "the origin of the sun". The character means "sun" or "day"; means "base" or "origin". The compound therefore means "origin of the sun" and is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun". The earliest record of the name "Nihon" appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, the "Old Book of Tang". At the end of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan requested that "Nihon" be used as

Names of Japan

refers to a place in Japan and is speculated to originally mean "Mountain Gate" (山戸). Such words which use certain kanji to name a certain Japanese word solely for the purpose of representing the word's meaning regardless of the given kanji's on'yomi or kun'yomi, a.k.a. jukujikun, is not uncommon in Japanese. Other original names in Chinese texts include "Yamatai country" (), where a Queen Himiko lived. When "hi no moto", the indigenous Japanese way of saying "sun's origin", was written in kanji, it was given the characters . In time, these characters began to be read using Sino-Japanese readings, first

Names of Japan

introduction of Chinese into the language, and they show up in historical texts for prehistoric legendary dates and also in names of gods and Japanese emperors: The katakana transcription ("Japan") of the English word "Japan" is sometimes encountered in Japanese, for example in the names of organizations seeking to project an international image. Examples include ("Japan Netto Ginkō") (Japan Net Bank), ("Japan Kappu") (Japan Cup), ("Waiyaresu Japan") (Wireless Japan), etc. "Dōngyáng" () and "Dōngyíng" () – both literally, "Eastern Ocean" – are Chinese terms sometimes used to refer to Japan exotically when contrasting it with other countries or regions in

Names of Japan

description of Japan as the "Land of the Rising Sun". "Nichi", in compounds, often loses the final "chi" and creates a slight pause between the first and second syllables of the compound. When romanised, this pause is represented by a doubling of the first consonant of the second syllable; thus "nichi" plus "kō" (light) is written and pronounced "nikkō", meaning sunlight. Japanese and were historically pronounced "niti" (or "jitu", reflecting a Late Middle Chinese pronunciation) and "pon", respectively. In compounds, however, final voiceless stops (i.e. "p", "t", "k") of the first word were unreleased in Middle Chinese, and the pronunciation

Names of Japan

Names of Japan

The word "Japan" is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by many languages. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon () and Nihon (). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji .

During the third-century CE Three Kingdoms period, Japan was inhabited by the Yayoi people who lived in Kyushu up to the Kanto region. They were called "Wa" in Chinese, and the kanji for their name can be translated as "dwarf" or "submissive". Japanese scribes found fault with its offensive connotation, and officially changed the characters they used to spell the native name for Japan, "Yamato", replacing the ("dwarf") character for "Wa" with the homophone ("peaceful, harmonious"). "Wa" was often combined with ("great") to form the name , which is read as "Yamato" (see also Jukujikun for a discussion of this type of spelling where the kanji and pronunciations are not directly related). The earliest record of appears in the Chinese "Old Book of Tang", which notes the change in 703 when Japanese envoys requested that its name be changed. It is believed that the name change within Japan itself took place sometime between 665 and 703. During the Heian period, was gradually replaced by , which was first pronounced with the Chinese reading (on'yomi) "Nippon" and later as "Nifon", and then in modern usage "Nihon", reflecting shifts in phonology in Early Modern Japanese. and "iippon". Since then many derived names of Japan appeared on ancient European maps.

Japanese language

Japanese language

Little is known of the language's prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century AD recorded a few Japanese words, but substantial Old Japanese texts did not appear until the 8th century. From the Heian period (794–1185), there was a massive influx of Sino-Japanese vocabulary into the language, affecting the phonology of Early Middle Japanese. Late Middle Japanese (1185–1600) saw extensive grammatical changes and the first appearance of European loanwords. The basis of the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region (modern Tokyo) in the Early Modern Japanese period (early 17th century–mid 19th century). Following the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, and words from English roots have proliferated.

Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with relatively simple phonotactics, a pure vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length, and a lexically significant pitch-accent. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, and sentence structure is topic–comment. Sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or form questions. Nouns have no grammatical number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person. Japanese adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a complex system of honorifics, with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and persons mentioned.

The Japanese writing system combines Chinese characters, known as , with two unique syllabaries (or moraic scripts) derived by the Japanese from the more complex Chinese characters: ( or , 'simple characters') and ( or , 'partial characters'). Latin script ( ) is also used in a limited fashion (such as for imported acronyms) in Japanese writing. The numeral system uses mostly Arabic numerals, but also traditional Chinese numerals.

Japan

Glossary of Japanese words of Portuguese origin

Many Japanese words of Portuguese origin entered the Japanese language when Portuguese Jesuit priests introduced Christian ideas, Western science, technology and new products to the Japanese during the Muromachi period (15th and 16th centuries).

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach Japan and the first to establish direct trade between Japan and Europe, in 1543. During the 16th and 17th century, Portuguese Jesuits had undertaken a great work of Catechism, that ended only with religious persecution in the early Edo period (Tokugawa Shogunate). The Portuguese were the first to translate Japanese to a Western language, in the Nippo Jisho (日葡辞書, literally the "Japanese-Portuguese Dictionary") or Vocabulario da Lingoa de Iapam compiled by Portuguese Jesuit João Rodrigues, and published in Nagasaki in 1603, who also wrote a grammar . The dictionary of Japanese-Portuguese explained 32,000 Japanese words translated into Portuguese. Most of these words refer to the products and customs that first came to Japan via the Portuguese traders.

Gaijin

Gaijin

Some feel the word has come to have a negative or pejorative connotation, while other observers maintain it is neutral. is a more neutral and somewhat more formal term widely used in the Japanese government and in media. "Gaijin" does not specifically mean a foreigner that is also a white person; instead, the term hakujin (白人, "white person") can be considered as a type of foreigner, and kokujin (黒人, "black person") would be the black equivalent.

Japan

the Japanese), which has been used by the Chinese as a designation for the Japanese as early as the third century Three Kingdoms period. Another form of , "Wei" in Chinese) was used for an early state in Japan called Nakoku during the Han dynasty. However, the Japanese disliked some connotation of Wa (which has been associated in China with concepts like "dwarf" or "pygmy"), and it was therefore replaced with the substitute character , meaning "togetherness, harmony". The English word Japan possibly derives from the historical Chinese pronunciation of . The Old Mandarin or possibly early Wu Chinese pronunciation

Names of Japan

Indonesian language. The Japanese introduced "Nippon" and "Dai Nippon" into Indonesia during the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945) but the native "Jepang" remains more common. In Korean, Japan is called "Ilbon" (Hangeul: , Hanja: ), which is the Korean pronunciation of the Sino-Korean name, and in Sino-Vietnamese, Japan is called "Nhật Bản" (also rendered as "Nhựt Bổn"). In Mongolian, Japan is called "Yapon" (Япон). "Ue-kok" () is recorded for older Hokkien speakers. In the past, Korea also used , pronounced "Waeguk" (). Names of Japan The word "Japan" is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by a large

Names of Japan

of the Language of Japan") illustrates that the Portuguese word for Japan was by that time "Iapam". Historically, Japanese has undergone a number of phonological changes. Originally *, this weakened into and eventually became the modern . Modern is still pronounced when followed by . Middle Japanese "nifon" becomes Modern Japanese "nihon" via regular phonological changes. Before modern styles of romanization, the Portuguese devised their own. In it, is written as either "ii" or "ji". In modern Hepburn style, "iippon" would be rendered as "Jippon". There are no historical phonological changes to take into account here. Etymologically, "Jippon" is similar

Names of Japan

still "Zeppen" . The colloquial pronunciation of the character is , which is closer to "Nippon". The Malay and Indonesian words "Jepang", "Jipang", and "Jepun" were borrowed from non-Mandarin Chinese languages, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled "Giapan". In English, the modern official title of the country is simply "Japan", one of the few nation-states to have no "long form" name. The official Japanese-language name is "Nippon-koku"

Names of Japan

(e.g., Dai Nippon Printing, Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, etc.). Though "Nippon" or "Nihon" are still by far the most popular names for Japan from within the country, recently the foreign words "Japan" and even "Jipangu" (from "Cipangu", see below) have been used in Japanese mostly for the purpose of foreign branding. Portuguese missionaries arrived in Japan at the end of the 16th century. In the course of learning Japanese, they created several grammars and dictionaries of Middle Japanese. The 1603–1604 dictionary Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam contains two entries for Japan: "nifon" and "iippon". The title of the dictionary ("Vocabulary

Names of Japan

"Nihon Ginkō". Nippon is used always or most often in the following constructions: Nihon is used always or most often in the following constructions: In 2016, element 113 on the periodic table was named nihonium to honor its discovery in 2004 by Japanese scientists at RIKEN. This is unrelated to "nipponium". As mentioned above, the English word "Japan" has a circuitous derivation; but linguists believe it derives in part from the Portuguese recording of the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese word for Japan: "Cipan" (), which is rendered in pinyin as "Rìběn" (IPA: ʐʅ˥˩pən˨˩˦), and literally translates to "sun

Names of Japan

to "Nippon" in that it is an alternative reading of . The initial character may also be read as or . Compounded with (), this regularly becomes "Jippon". Unlike the "Nihon"/"Nippon" doublet, there is no evidence for a *"Jihon". The Japanese name for Japan , , can be pronounced either "Nihon" or "Nippon". Both readings come from the on'yomi. ("nichi") means "sun" or "day"; ("hon") means "base" or "origin". The compound means "origin of the sun" or "where the sun rises" (from a Chinese point of view, the sun rises from Japan); it is a source for the popular Western

Names of Japan

etymology was a secondary development. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote "Wa" or "Yamato" "Japan" with the Chinese character until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it due to its offensive connotation, replacing it with "harmony, peace, balance". Retroactively, this character was adopted in Japan to refer to the country itself, often combined with the character , literally meaning "Great", so as to write the preexisting name "Yamato" () (in a manner similar to "e.g." Great Qing Empire, Greater British Empire). However, the pronunciation "Yamato" cannot be formed from the sounds of its constituent characters; it

Wa (Japan)

Japan" ("Liushi Han-Ying cidian" 劉氏漢英辭典 [Liu's Chinese-English Dictionary] 1978) and more sophisticated semantic distinctions like "(1) A dwarf. (2) Formerly, used to refer to Japan" ("Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage" 1972). Beta (B) "compliant; Japanese" is illustrated by ""demütig" [humble; submissive; meek], "gehorchen" [obey; respond]" ("Praktisches zeichenlexikon chinesisch-deutsch-japanisch" [A Practical Chinese-German-Japanese Character Dictionary] 1983). Gamma (Γ) "type definitions such as ""depreciatingly" Japanese" (e.g., "A Beginner's Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu)" 1964) include usage labels such as "derogatory," "disparaging," "offensive," or "contemptuous". Some Γ notations are restricted to subentries like ""Wōnú" 倭奴 (in modern usage, derogatively) the

Glossary of Japanese words of Dutch origin Japanese words of Dutch origin started to develop when the Dutch East India Company initiated trading in Japan from the factory of Hirado in 1609. In 1640, the Dutch were transferred to Dejima, and from then on until 1854 remained the only Westerners allowed access to Japan, during Japan's ""sakoku"" seclusion period. Numerous exchanges occurred, leading to a branch of Western learning in Japan known as "rangaku" (蘭学), or "Dutch learning" where the "ran" (蘭) in "rangaku" comes from "Oranda" the Japanese word for Holland, and means Dutch while "gaku" (学) is of

Names of Japan

"Nippon" and later "Nihon," although the two names are interchangeable to this day. "Nippon" appeared in history only at the end of the 7th century. The Old Book of Tang (), one of the Twenty-Four Histories, stated that the Japanese envoy disliked his country's name "Woguo" (Chinese) (), and changed it to "Nippon" (Japanese; in Chinese, "Riben") (), or "Origin of the Sun". Another 8th-century chronicle, True Meaning of Shiji (), however, states that the Chinese Empress Wu Zetian ordered a Japanese envoy to change the country's name to "Nippon". The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and

Japanese language

in the same way as in Japanese. The popularity of many Japanese cultural exports has made some native Japanese words familiar in English, including "futon, haiku, judo, kamikaze, karaoke, karate, ninja, origami, rickshaw" (from "jinrikisha"), "samurai, sayonara, Sudoku, sumo, sushi, tsunami, tycoon". See list of English words of Japanese origin for more. Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the Chinese writing system, by way of Baekje before the 5th century. Using this language, the Japanese king Bu presented a petition to Emperor Shun of Liu Song in AD 478. After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars

Japan

of Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as "Cipangu". In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters Japan is "Zeppen" . The old Malay word for Japan, "Japun" or "Japang", was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect, probably Fukienese or Ningpo – and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia in the 16th century. These Early Portuguese traders then brought the word to Europe. The first record of this name in English is in a book published in 1577 and spelled "Giapan", in a translation of a 1565 letter written by a Portuguese

Sino-Japanese origin and means "Learning". In the process, a number of terms were adopted from Dutch into the Japanese language. At one point, some 3,000 words are thought to have been used, especially in the areas of technical and scientific vocabulary. About 160 such words of Dutch origin remain in use today in standard Japanese. Glossary of Japanese words of Dutch origin Japanese words of Dutch origin started to develop when the Dutch East India Company initiated trading in Japan from the factory of Hirado in 1609. In 1640, the Dutch were transferred to Dejima, and from then on until

Romanization of Japanese

of representing long vowels are authorized by the Japanese Foreign Ministry for use in passports. This chart shows in full the three main systems for the romanization of Japanese: Hepburn, Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki: This chart shows the significant differences among them. Japanese is written without spaces between words, and in some cases, such as compounds, it may not be completely clear where word boundaries should lie, resulting in varying romanization styles. For example, , meaning "to marry", and composed of the noun ("kekkon", "marriage") combined with ("suru", "to do"), is romanized as one word "kekkonsuru" by some authors but two


Question: In what country did the Romani ethnic group originate?

les indes
ভারত গণরাজ্য
bharat ganrajya
ISO 3166-1 alpha-3/IND
जुम्हूरियत भारत
hindio
etymology of india
indian republic
Indya
भारतमहाराज्यम्
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भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक
భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యము
The Republic of India
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union of india
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Bhārat Gaṇarājya
ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র
India
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Union of India
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hindistan
Republic of india
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Indian Republic
bhārat gaṇarājya
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india country
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republic of india
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INDIA
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Indian republic
Indian State
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indian state
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இந்தியக் குடியரசு
ભારતીય ગણતંત્ર
India (country)
ഭാരത മഹാരാജ്യം
indya
Republic Of India
భారత రిపబ్లిక్
Bhārtiya Prajāsattāk
ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ଯ

Romani diaspora

19th century. The Machvaya came from present-day Serbia (then Austria-Hungary), the Kalderash from Romania, the Lovari from Italy, and the Horahane from Greece and Turkey. Initially, the Romani in Brazil were believed to be descended from ancestors who were exiled in the colony by the Portuguese Inquisition but more has been learned about the peoples. The current population of ethnic Romani is estimated at 600,000. Most are descended from ethnic Kalderash, Macwaia, Rudari, Horahane, and Lovara. A sizeable population of Romani people live in Chile. As they continue their traditions and language, they are a distinct minority who are widely

Romani people in the Czech Republic

suggest that the Romani originated in North Western India and migrated as a group. The study indicates that the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of North India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestors of modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora. During

Romani people

most concentrated populations are located in Europe, especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe (including Turkey, Spain and Southern France). The Romani originated in northern India and arrived in Mid-West Asia and Europe around 1,000 years ago. They have been associated with another Indo-Aryan group, the Dom people: the two groups have been said to have separated from each other or, at least, to share a similar history. Specifically, the ancestors of both the Romani and the Dom left North India sometime between the 6th and 11th century. The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies (or

Romani people

Romani people The Romani (also spelled Romany , ), colloquially known as Gypsies or Roma, are an Indo-Aryan, traditionally itinerant ethnic group living mostly in Europe and the Americas and originating from the northern Indian subcontinent, from the Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab regions of modern-day India. Genetic findings appear to confirm that the Romani "came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago." Genetic research published in the "European Journal of Human Genetics" "revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma." They are a dispersed people, but their

Romani people in Albania

in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of the modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part

Romani people

Romani people

The Romani (also spelled Romany or Rromani , ), colloquially known as the Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. They live in Europe and Anatolia, and have diaspora populations located worldwide, with significant concentrations in the Americas.

In the English language, the Romani people are widely known by the exonym Gypsies (or Gipsies), which is considered pejorative by many Romani people due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity as well as its historical use as a racial slur. For versions (some of which are cognates) of the word in many other languages (e.g., , , , , and ) this perception is either very small or non-existent. At the first World Romani Congress in 1971, its attendees unanimously voted to reject the use of all exonyms for the Romani people, including "Gypsy", due to their aforementioned negative and stereotypical connotations.<ref name=pickering/>

Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the Roma originated in the Indian subcontinent; in particular, the region of Rajasthan. They are dispersed, but their most concentrated populations are located in Europe, especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe, Southern France, as well as Western Asia (mainly Turkey). The Romani people arrived in West Asia and Europe around the 14th century.

Since the 19th century, some Romani people have also migrated to the Americas. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States In migrations since the late 19th century, Romani people have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. Though often confused with them, the Romani people are culturally different from Irish Travellers and the Yenish people, two groups who may be related to each other.

Romani is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence. It is divided into several dialects, which together are estimated to have more than two million speakers. Because it has traditionally been an oral language, many Romani people are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence or of mixed languages combining the dominant language with a dialect of Romani; those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani.

The Romani began to leave India about 1,000 years ago. They most likely left to escape the invasion of Afghan general Mahmud of Ghazni early in the 11th century. Mahmud's troops likely pushed the Romani out of northern India and into the area that is now Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran.

Romani people in Bulgaria

Romani people in Bulgaria

Romani people in Bulgaria (; ) constitute Europe's densest gypsy minority. The Romani people in Bulgaria may speak Bulgarian, Turkish or Romani, depending on the region.

According to the latest census in 2011, the number of the Romani is 325,343, constituting 4.4% of the total population, in which only one ethnic group could be opted as an answer and 10% of the total population did not respond to the question on ethnic group. The former head of the National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria, Reneta Indzhova claims to have been fired by the Bulgarian Prime Minister in 2014 for attempting to check the actual number of the Romani and implied that neither the census did enumerate the Romani, nor its statistics did provide the "real data".

The previous 2001 census recorded 370,908 Romani (4.7% of the population). The preceding 1992 census recorded 313,396 Romani (3.7% of the population), while a secret backstage 1992 census ordered by the Ministry of Interior recorded a figure of 550,000 Romani (6.5% of the population); the Ministry of Interior ordered at least two other secret censuses to enumerate the Romani in denial, the one in 1980 recorded 523,519 Romani, while the one in 1989 recorded that the number of the Romani was 576,927 (6.5% of the population) and that over half of the Romani identified as Turks. The majority of the estimated 200,000-400,000 Muslim Romani tend to identify themselves as ethnic Turks, some deny their origin, or identify as Bulgarians.

The demographic collapse in Bulgaria affects only ethnic groups other than the Romani.
According to data of the European Commission, to which Eurostat belongs, the Romani in Bulgaria number 750,000 and they constitute 10.33% of the population.

History of the Romani people

History of the Romani people

The Romani people, also referred to as Roma, Sinti or Kale, depending on the sub-group, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group which primarily lives in Europe. The Romani may have migrated from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire. The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.

Romani people in Romania

Romani people in Romania

Romani people (Roma; Romi, traditionally "Țigani", (often called "Gypsies" though this term is considered a slur) constitute one of Romania's largest minorities. According to the 2011 census, their number was 621.573 people or 3.3% of the total population, being the second-largest ethnic minority in Romania after Hungarians. For example, the Council of Europe estimates that approximately 1.85 million Roma live in Romania, a figure equivalent to 8.32% of the population.

Irish Travellers

Irish Travellers

Irish Travellers (, meaning "the walking people"), also known as Pavees or Mincéirs (Shelta: Mincéirí), are a traditionally peripatetic indigenous ethno-cultural group in Ireland.

They are predominantly English-speaking, though many also speak Shelta, a language of mixed English and Irish origin.<ref name="Wolniak 2019"/> The majority of Irish Travellers are Roman Catholic, the predominant religion in the Republic of Ireland. They are one of several groups identified as "Travellers", a closely related group being the Scottish Travellers.

They are often incorrectly referred to as "Gypsies", Genetic analysis has shown Travellers to be of Irish extraction, and that they likely diverged from the settled Irish population in the 1600s, likely during the time of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Centuries of cultural isolation have led Travellers to become genetically distinct from the settled Irish. Traveller rights groups long advocated for ethnic status from the Irish government, succeeding in 2017.

Irish Traveller communities can be found in Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. As of 2016, there are 32,302 Travellers within Ireland. They represent 0.7% of the total population of the Republic of Ireland. There are different estimates about the size of the total population of people with Traveller ancestry, because many people of Traveller descent do not declare themselves Travellers. The United Kingdom alone is believed to be home to up to 300,000 Traveller people.

Romani people

Slovaks, 2 percent among Croats, 1 percent among Macedonians from Skopje, 3 percent among Macedonian Albanians, 1 percent among Serbs from Belgrade, 3 percent among Bulgarians from Sofia, 1 percent among Austrians and Swiss, 3 percent among Romanians from Ploiesti, 1 percent among Turks. They may have emerged from the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region, Sindh and Baluchistan of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BC. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about AD 500. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may

Romani people in Croatia

or daily routines. More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of the modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of

Romani people in Bulgaria

the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of the modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora. The Romani people emigrated from Northern India, presumably from the northwestern Indian states of Rajasthan and Punjab, possibly as early as 600 A.D. They emigrated to the Middle East and then reached the European continent.

History of the Romani people

study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romanies are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups". The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago". The Burushos of Hunza have a paternal lineage genetic marker that is grouped with Pamiri speakers from Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and the Sinti or Sindhi Romani ethnic

Romani people in Canada

It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the

Romani people in Austria

the Sinte Romani dialect of the Romani language. Since 1960, there are also a significant Roma population which hails originally from former yugoslavian countries, especially from Serbia (Gurbeti and Kalderash Roma-Groups) and Ashkali from Kosovo. The Romani people originate from the Northern India, presumably from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan and Punjab. The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts or daily routines. More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with

Romani people

modern European Roma. In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago." They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago and then spread throughout Europe. The team found that, despite some isolation, the Roma were "genetically similar to other Europeans." Genetic research published in "European Journal of Human Genetics" "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma." Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India. The Romani have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated

Romani people

Americas, and are estimated in total at more than two million. Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity. The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation. Findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma. Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about the Romani's migration early history are based on linguistic theory. There is also no known record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma. According to a legend

Romani diaspora

the Romani people as a national ethnic minority, and today, around 8,000 Roma are present in Colombia. Their language has been officially recognized as a minority language. Romani diaspora The Roma people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma and the Iberian Calé or Caló, who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century, from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier. They settled in present-day Turkey, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Croatia, Moldova, Bulgaria, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Hungary and Slovakia, by order of volume, and Spain. From the Balkans,

Romani people in Austria

Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a

Itinerant groups in Europe

often set themselves apart from them. The best known of these communities are the Romani people (also "Romany", "Romanies" "Tzigani", "Rromani", and variants). The Romani are of Indo-Aryan origin and first entered Europe via the Middle East during the 14th century. They spread further through Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, separating into various subgroups in the process. There are multiple Gypsy and Traveller groups in Scotland: the indigenous Scottish Highland Travellers also known as "Ceardannan" (Scottish Gaelic which means "the craftsmen" or 'Black Tinkers') or more poetically as the "Summer Walkers", Scottish Border Gypsies (who are a Romani

Romani diaspora

beginning of the 19th century, the first major Romani group, the Romanichal from Great Britain, arrived in North America, although some had also immigrated during the colonial era. They settled primarily in the United States, which was then more established than most English-speaking communities in Upper Canada. Later immigrants also settled in Canada. The ancestors of the majority of the contemporary local Romani population in the United States, who are Eastern European Roma, started to immigrate during the second half of the century, drawn by opportunities for industrial jobs. Among these groups were the Romani-speaking peoples such as the Kalderash,

Romani diaspora

Machvaya, Lovari and Churari, as well as groups who had adopted the Romanian language, such as the Boyash (Ludari). Most arrived either directly from Romania after their liberation from slavery between 1840 and 1850, or after a short-period in neighboring states, such as Russia, Austria-Hungary, or Serbia. The Bashalde arrived from what is now Slovakia (then Austria-Hungary) about the same time. Many settled in the major industrial cities of the era. Immigration from Eastern Europe decreased drastically in the post-World War II era, during the years of Communist rule. It resumed in the 1990s after the fall of Communism. Romani

Romani people in the Republic of Macedonia

be done concerning the education and integration of the Romani. The Romani people originate from Northern India, presumably from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan and Punjab. The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts or daily routines. More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in

Romani diaspora

of Romani living outside Europe are primarily in the Middle East and North Africa and in the Americas, and are estimated in total at more than two million. Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity. The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation. The main branches are: The Romani have additional internal distinctions, with groups identified as Bashaldé; Churari; Luri; Ungaritza; Lovari (Lovara) from Hungary; Machvaya (Machavaya, Machwaya, or Macwaia) from Serbia; Romungro from Hungary and neighbouring Carpathian countries; Erlides (also "Yerlii" or "Arli"); Xoraxai (Horahane) from Greece/Turkey; Boyash


Question: Who was the demon barber of Fleet Street?

Sweeny Todd
Tobias %22Toby%22 Ragg
Sweeney Tod
sweeney todd character
sweeny tod
Sweeney Todd
Sweeney todd
Sweney Todd
The Barber of Fleet Street
barber of fleet street
Sweeney Todd (character)
Sweeny tod
tobias 22toby 22 ragg
sweenie todd
sweeny todd
sweeney tod
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sweney todd
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of shaving cream. Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1936 film) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 1936 British drama horror film produced and directed by George King, and written by Frederick Hayward, H.F. Maltby, and George Dibdin-Pitt. The film features actor Tod Slaughter in one of his most famous roles as the barber Sweeney Todd. The film starts in 1936 as a barber tells a patron the story of the infamous Sweeney Todd. Sweeney Todd (Tod Slaughter) is a barber with a shop near the docks of London. One day, as the mercantile

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (also known simply as Sweeney Todd) is a 2007 British-American musical period slasher film directed by Tim Burton and an adaptation of Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler's Tony Award-winning . The film re-tells the Victorian melodramatic tale of Sweeney Todd, an English barber and serial killer who murders his customers with a straight razor and, with the help of his accomplice, Mrs. Lovett, processes their corpses into meat pies. The film stars Johnny Depp as the title character and Helena Bonham Carter

his old Fleet Street shop, situated above Mrs. Nellie Lovett's meat pie shop, where she sells the "worst pies in London". Lovett tells him that Turpin raped Lucy, who then poisoned herself with arsenic. The couple's daughter, Johanna, is now Turpin's ward. Todd vows revenge, and re-opens his barber shop after Mrs. Lovett, who loves him unrequitedly, presents him with his old straight razors. Anthony becomes enamored with Johanna, but is caught by Turpin and driven away by his henchman, Beadle Bamford. Todd denounces faux-Italian barber Adolfo Pirelli's hair tonic as a fraud and humiliates him in a public shaving

who is now hiding in the sewers after finding human remains in Mrs Lovett's bakehouse. Meanwhile, Anthony brings Johanna, disguised as a sailor, to the shop, and has her wait there while he leaves to find a coach. A beggar woman enters the shop in search of Bamford, and Johanna hides in the trunk. The woman recognizes Todd, but upon hearing Turpin coming, Todd kills her and sends her through the trapdoor in the floor. As Turpin enters, Todd explains that Johanna had repented and is coming to him, then offers a free shave in the meantime. When Turpin finally

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1936 film) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 1936 British drama horror film produced and directed by George King, and written by Frederick Hayward, H.F. Maltby, and George Dibdin-Pitt. The film features actor Tod Slaughter in one of his most famous roles as the barber Sweeney Todd. The film starts in 1936 as a barber tells a patron the story of the infamous Sweeney Todd. Sweeney Todd (Tod Slaughter) is a barber with a shop near the docks of London. One day, as the mercantile ship The Golden

Sweeney Todd

Sweeney Todd

Sweeney Todd is a fictional character who first appeared as the villain of the penny dreadful serial "The String of Pearls" (1846–47). The original tale became a feature of 19th-century melodrama and London legend. A barber from Fleet Street, Todd murders his customers with a straight razor and gives their corpses to Mrs. Lovett, his partner in crime, who bakes their flesh into meat pies. The tale has been retold many times since in various media.

Claims that Sweeney Todd was a historical person although possible legendary prototypes exist.<ref name = "Mack-2007"/>

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film ...

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (often referred to simply as Sweeney Todd) is a musical play with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by Hugh Wheeler. It is based on the 1973 play of the same name by Christopher Bond. The character of Sweeney Todd first appeared in a Victorian penny dreadful titled "The String of Pearls" (1846-7).

"Sweeney Todd" opened on Broadway in 1979 and in the West End in 1980. It won the Tony Award for Best Musical and Olivier Award for Best New Musical. It has been revived in many productions as well as inspiring a .

The original logo for the musical is a modified version of an advertising image from the 19th century, with the sign replaced by a straight razor. There is also a woman wearing a blood-stained dress and holding a rolling pin next to the man.

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1936 film ...

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street: The Motion ...

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 1979 musical thriller with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. The musical is based on the 1973 play "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street" by Christopher Bond. "Sweeney Todd" opened on Broadway in 1979 and in the West End in 1980. It won the Tony Award for Best Musical and Olivier Award for Best New Musical. It has since had numerous revivals as well as a . The character of Sweeney Todd had its origins

was a familiar character to most Victorians. Sondheim’s musical was, in fact, based on Christopher Bond’s 1973 spooky melodrama, which introduced a psychological background to Todd’s crimes. In Bond's reincarnation of the character, Todd was the victim of a ruthless judge who raped his young wife and exiled him to Australia. Sondheim first conceived of a musical version of the story in 1973, after he went to see Bond's ghoulish take on the story at Theatre Royal Stratford East. Bond's sophisticated plot and language significantly elevated the lurid nature of the tale. Sondheim once noted, “It had a weight to

relationship between Todd, Mrs. Lovett, and Toby. DreamWorks announced Burton's appointment in August 2006, and Johnny Depp was cast as Todd. Christopher Lee, Peter Bowles, Anthony Head, and five other actors were set to play the ghost narrators, but their roles were cut (Head does appear in an uncredited cameo as a gentleman who congratulates Depp after the shaving contest). According to Lee, these deletions were due to time constraints caused by a break in filming during March 2007, while Depp's daughter recovered from an illness. Burton's domestic partner Helena Bonham Carter was cast in October 2006, as well as

Fleet Street

moved to Somerset House on the Strand. The barber Sweeney Todd is traditionally said to have lived and worked in Fleet Street in the 18th century, where he would murder customers and serve their remains as pie fillings. An urban myth example of a serial killer, the character appears in various English language works starting in the mid-19th century. Adaptations of the story include the 1936 George King , the 1979 Stephen Sondheim , and the 2007 Tim Burton based on the musical, all titled "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street". Fleet Street is mentioned in several of

2016. Directed by Steven Stead and designed by Greg King, the production starred Jonathan Roxmouth (Sweeney Todd), Charon Williams-Ros (Mrs Lovett), Michael Richard (Judge Turpin), Jaco van Rensburg (Tobias), Anne Marie Clulow (Beggar Woman), Adam Pelkowitz (Beadle Bamford), Cameron Botha (Anthony), Sanli Jooste (Johanna), Germandt Geldenhuys (Adolfo Pirelli) and Weslee Swain Lauder (Jonas Fogg), with an ensemble comprising Candice van Litsenborgh, Luciano Zuppa, Pauline du Plessis, Claire Simonis, Megan Rigby, Schoeman Smit and Earl Gregory. The musical director for the show was Rowan Bakker, with costume designs by Neil Stuart Harris and lighting by Tina le Roux. The Tooting Arts

vocal performance, despite being criticized as lacking certain musical qualities, was generally thought by critics to suit the part. "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street" was released in the United States on December 21, 2007 and in the United Kingdom on January 25, 2008 to largely positive reviews from critics. The film was chosen by National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2007 and won a number of awards, including Golden Globes for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actor – Musical or Comedy, as well as the Academy Award

Hope readies to leave, Todd watches Johanna Oakley (Eve Lister) and Mark Ingerstreet (Bruce Seton). They are in love, but Mark is shipping out and laments he's a poor man unable to win the approval of Johanna's father, Governor Oakley (D. J. Williams). Nearby, Johanna's servant Nan (Davina Craig) asks Mark's fellow sailor Pearley (Jerry Verno) to buy her various luxury goods while he's away. Pearley points out he hasn't the money to buy them. Simultaneously, Todd watches all his potential customers and thinks of the money he can make. Back at the barbershop, Todd has been sent a new

Sacha Baron Cohen. In December 2006, Alan Rickman was cast. In January 2007, Laura Michelle Kelly was cast as Lucy Barker. Timothy Spall was added to the cast, and said he was urged to audition by his daughter, who wanted him to work with Depp. He recalled, "I really wanted this one – I knew Tim was directing and that Johnny Depp was going to be in it. My daughter, my youngest daughter, really wanted me to do it for that reason – Johnny Depp was in it. (She came on set to meet Depp) and he was really delightful

orchestra from twenty-seven musicians to seventy-eight. The "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street Deluxe Complete Edition" soundtrack was released on December 18, 2007. Johnny Depp's singing was described by a "New York Times" reviewer as "harsh and thin, but amazingly forceful". Another critic adds that, though Depp's voice "does not have much heft or power", "his ear is obviously excellent, because his pitch is dead-on accurate... Beyond his good pitch and phrasing, the expressive colorings of his singing are crucial to the portrayal. Beneath this Sweeney's vacant, sullen exterior is a man consumed with a murderous rage that

finally rises, horrified, from her hiding place, surprising Todd. Todd next decides to kill her too, before Mrs. Lovett shrieks from the bakehouse below, providing a distraction for Johanna to escape. Downstairs, Mrs. Lovett is struggling with the dying Judge, who claws at her. She then attempts to drag the Beggar Woman's body into the oven, but Todd arrives and sees the lifeless face clearly for the first time: the Beggar Woman is his wife Lucy. Todd is shocked, accusing Lovett of lying to him. Lovett frantically explains that indeed, Lucy did poison herself–but she lived, though the attempt left

the unsuspecting victim head-first into the basement. Mrs. Lovatt then disposes of the bodies for a share of the stolen money. She is, however, increasingly annoyed with Todd for robbing the bodies preemptively and taking more than his share of the money. The Golden Hope returns to London, with Mark a newly wealthy man. Todd lures him into his barbershop. Mark foolishly talks about his love for Johanna and shows off his new riches. Todd sends Mark down the chute but Mrs. Lovatt quickly hides him in a cupboard. When Todd comes down, he is surprised to see that the

They hurry to save her. As the barbershop burns down and a crowd gathers around, Todd watches from a nearby alleyway. When Mark go inside to save Johanna, Todd follows and attempts to slash his throat. Mark manages to knock Todd unconscious and gets out with Johanna. On the street Johanna and Mark kiss. Beside them lies Todd's bag of riches in the alleyway. Todd regains consciousness. As he attempts to escape, his special chair flips him into the fiery cellar. Returning to 1936, the barber's terrified patron runs out of the shop while still wearing his a full face

the show was. Any movie is a risk, but it is nice to be able to do something like that that doesn't fit into the musical or slasher movie categories." After the filming, Burton said of the cast, "All I can say is this is one of the best casts I've ever worked with. These people are not professional singers, so to do a musical like this which I think is one of the most difficult musicals, they all went for it. Every day on the set was a very, very special thing for me. Hearing all these guys sing,

Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street: The Motion Picture Soundtrack Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street: The Motion Picture Soundtrack is a soundtrack to the , released on December 18, 2007. "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street" is the second film in Burton's directing career not to include music composed by Danny Elfman (the first being "Ed Wood"). Burton wanted to avoid the traditional approach of patches of dialogue interrupted by song. He cut the show's famous opening number, "The Ballad of Sweeney Todd", explaining, "Why have a chorus singing about 'attending the tale

Todd asks after her empty upstairs apartment, she reveals that its former tenant, Benjamin Barker, was transported on false charges by Judge Turpin, who, along with his servant, Beadle Bamford, then lured Barker's wife Lucy to the Judge's home and raped her ("Poor Thing"). Todd's reaction reveals that he is himself Benjamin Barker. Promising to keep his secret, Lovett explains that Lucy poisoned herself and that their then-infant daughter, Johanna, became a ward of the Judge. Todd swears revenge on the Judge and Beadle, and Mrs. Lovett presents Todd with his old collection of sterling silver straight razors, which persuades


Question: "What is the American name for the board game known in England as ""draughts""?"

Draughts (game)
Draughts
Checkers
⛃
draughts
draughts game
checkers
⛁
⛀
⛂

English draughts

finish with a draw. However, not all positions that could result from imperfect play have been analysed. English draughts English draughts (British English) or checkers (American English; see spelling differences), also called American checkers or straight checkers, is a form of the strategy board game draughts. It is played on an 8×8 chequered board with 12 pieces per side. The pieces move and capture diagonally forward, until they reach the opposite end of the board, when they are crowned and can thereafter move and capture both backward and forward. As in all forms of draughts, English draughts is played by

English draughts

English draughts English draughts (British English) or checkers (American English; see spelling differences), also called American checkers or straight checkers, is a form of the strategy board game draughts. It is played on an 8×8 chequered board with 12 pieces per side. The pieces move and capture diagonally forward, until they reach the opposite end of the board, when they are crowned and can thereafter move and capture both backward and forward. As in all forms of draughts, English draughts is played by two opponents, alternating turns on opposite sides of the board. The pieces are traditionally black, red, or

Draughts

also adopted for the chess queen. The rule forcing players to take whenever possible was introduced in France in around 1535, at which point the game became known as "Jeu forcé", identical to modern English draughts. The game without forced capture became known as "Le jeu plaisant de dames", the precursor of international draughts. The 18th-century English author Samuel Johnson wrote a foreword to a 1756 book about draughts by William Payne, the earliest book in English about the game. English draughts (American 8×8 checkers) has been the arena for several notable advances in game artificial intelligence. In the 1950s,

Draughts

Draughts Draughts (British English) or checkers (American English) is a group of strategy board games for two players which involve diagonal moves of uniform game pieces and mandatory captures by jumping over opponent pieces. Draughts developed from alquerque. The name derives from the verb to draw or to move. The most popular forms are English draughts, also called American checkers, played on an 8×8 checkerboard; Russian draughts, also played on an 8×8, and international draughts, played on a 10×10 board. There are many other variants played on 8×8 boards. Canadian checkers and Singaporean/Malaysian checkers (also locally known as "dum") are

Draughts

called "latrunculi", or the game of the Little Soldiers. The pieces, and sporadically the game itself, were called "calculi" ("pebbles"). An Arabic game called "Quirkat" or "al-qirq", with similar play to modern draughts, was played on a 5×5 board. It is mentioned in the 10th-century work Kitab al-Aghani. Al qirq was also the name for the game that is now called Nine Men's Morris. Al qirq was brought to Spain by the Moors, where it became known as "Alquerque", the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name. The rules are given in the 13th-century book "Libro de los juegos". In about

Draughts

same term as the kings in draughts. A case in point includes the Greek terminology, in which draughts is called "ντάμα" (dama), which is also one term for the queen in chess. The World Championship in English draughts began in 1840. The winners in men's have been from the United Kingdom, United States, Barbados, and most recently Italy (3-Move division). The women's championship in English draughts started in 1993. The women's winners have been from Ireland, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. The World Championship in International draughts began in 1885 in France, and since 1948 has been organized by the World Draughts

Draughts

Arthur Samuel created one of the first board game-playing programs of any kind. More recently, in 2007 scientists at the University of Alberta developed their "Chinook" program to the point where it is unbeatable. A brute force approach that took hundreds of computers working nearly two decades was used to solve the game, showing that a game of draughts will always end in a draw if neither player makes a mistake. The solution is for the draughts variation called go-as-you-please (GAYP) checkers and not for the variation called three-move restriction checkers. As of December 2007, this makes English draughts the

English draughts

are often manufactured with indentations to aid stacking. Each player starts with 12 men on the dark squares of the three rows closest to that player's side (see diagram). The row closest to each player is called the "kings row" or "crownhead". The player with the darker-coloured pieces moves first. There are two different ways to move in English draughts: "Multiple jumps" are possible, if after one jump, another piece is immediately eligible to be jumped—even if that jump is in a different diagonal direction. If more than one multi-jump is available, the player can choose which piece to jump

English draughts

to the 1840s, predating the men's Draughts World Championship, the championship for men in International draughts, by several decades. Noted world champions include Andrew Anderson, James Wyllie, Robert Martins, Robert D. Yates, James Ferrie, Alfred Jordan, Newell W. Banks, Robert Stewart, Asa Long, Walter Hellman, Marion Tinsley, Derek Oldbury, Ron King, Michele Borghetti, Alex Moiseyev, Patricia Breen, and Amangul Durdyyeva. Championship held in GAYP (Go As You Please) and 3-Move versions. The winners in men's have been from the United Kingdom, United States, Barbados, and most recently Italy in the 3-Move division. The woman's championship is more recent and started

History of games

Nepal and Tibet while a Muslim version of the game played during the mughal period from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as "Chutes and Ladders" (an "improved new version of England's famous indoor sport") by game pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943. The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map-based game published in 1759 by John Jefferys, a Geography and

American Pool Checkers

American Pool Checkers American Pool checkers, also called "American Pool", is a variant of draughts, mainly played in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern United States and in Puerto Rico. As in the related game English draughts (also known as "American checkers" or "straight checkers"), the game is played on an 8x8 board with the double corner (corner without a checker) to each player's right. The opponent playing the dark pieces will start the game by making the first move. One difference from the rules of English checkers is that a piece may capture both forward and backward. A player must capture

English draughts

white. Enemy pieces are captured by jumping over them. The 8×8 variant of draughts was weakly solved in 2007 by the team of Canadian computer scientist Jonathan Schaeffer. From the standard starting position, both players can guarantee a draw with perfect play. Though pieces are traditionally made of wood, now many are made of plastic, though other materials may be used. Pieces are typically flat and cylindrical. They are invariably split into one darker and one lighter colour. Traditionally and in tournaments, these colours are red and white, but black and red are common in the United States, as well

Draughts

corner. A similar game has been played for thousands of years. A board resembling a draughts board was found in Ur dating from 3000 BC. In the British Museum are specimens of ancient Egyptian checkerboards, found with their pieces in burial chambers, and the game was played by Queen Hatasu. Plato mentioned a game, πεττεία or "petteia", as being of Egyptian origin, and Homer also mentions it. The method of capture was placing two pieces on either side of the opponent's piece. It was said to have been played during the Trojan War. The Romans played a derivation of petteia

English draughts

one of the most complicated game playing programs written at the time, it is also well known for being one of the first adaptive programs. It learned by playing games against modified versions of itself, with the victorious versions surviving. Samuel's program was far from mastering the game, although one win against a blind checkers master gave the general public the impression that it was very good. In the 1990s, the strongest program was "Chinook", written in 1989 by a team from the University of Alberta led by Jonathan Schaeffer. Marion Tinsley, world champion from 1955–1962 and from 1975–1991, won

International draughts

was 3 minutes and 52.98 seconds. Some older well known programs are: International draughts International draughts (also called Polish draughts or international checkers) is a strategy board game for two players, one of the variants of draughts. The gameboard comprises 10×10 squares in alternating dark and light colours, of which only the 50 dark squares are used. Each player has 20 pieces, light for one player and dark for the other, at opposite sides of the board. In conventional diagrams the board is displayed with the light pieces at the bottom; in this orientation the lower-left corner square must be

Canadian checkers

Canadian checkers Canadian checkers (or Canadian draughts) is a variant of the strategy board game draughts. It is one of the largest draughts games, played on a 12×12 checkered board with 30 game pieces per player. The game was invented by the French settlers of Quebec, Canada; it was named "Grand jeu de dames". It is unknown when the game was first played in Canada. The "huff" rule was dropped in 1880 after a dispute developed during the Canadian championship match. The idea of an increased-size international draughts game is older still; boards with 12×12 squares were on sale in

Draughts

from capturing further by a piece already jumped. Flying kings are not used in English draughts; a king's only advantage over a man is the ability to move and capture backwards as well as forwards. In most non-English languages (except those that acquired the game from English speakers), draughts is called "dame", "dames", "damas", or a similar term that refers to ladies. The pieces are usually called "men", "stones", "peón" (pawn) or a similar term; men promoted to kings are called "dames" or ladies. In these languages, the queen in chess or in card games is usually called by the

Three men's morris

for love often comes into being during play. Boards were carved into the cloister seats at the English cathedrals at Canterbury, Gloucester, Norwich, Salisbury and Westminster Abbey; the game was quite popular in England in the 13th century. These boards used holes, not lines, to represent the nine spaces on the board—hence the name "nine-holes"—and forming a diagonal row did not win the game. The name of the game may be related to Morris dances (and hence to Moorish). However, according to Daniel King, "the word 'morris' has nothing to do with the old English dance of the same name.

World Checkers/Draughts Championship

losing a piece). The other is GAYP (Go as you please), where players start from the very beginning. World Checkers/Draughts Championship The World Checkers/Draughts Championship is the tournament of English draughts (also known as "American checkers" or "straight checkers") which determines the world champion. It is organised by the World Checkers/Draughts Federation. The first edition of the men's championship was held in the 1840s, predating the men's Draughts World Championship by several decades. The women's championship has been held since 1993. There are championships held in two versions. One is 3-Move, where players don't begin their game in the starting

American-style board game

American-style board game American-style board games are a loose category of tabletop games that generally feature a prominent theme, encourage direct conflict between players (even in some co-op games such as ""), and have a significant degree of luck. They are distinguished from Eurogames (German-style board games) in that American-style games often have longer playtimes and mechanics designed to suit the theme. Not all games from the United States fall under this category; party games and family games with simpler rulesets are usually not included. These games are sometimes referred to as Ameritrash, which is used occasionally as a term


Question: What is VIII plus XXIV?

Factor VIII

Factor VIII Factor VIII (FVIII) is an essential blood-clotting protein, also known as anti-hemophilic factor (AHF). In humans, factor VIII is encoded by the "F8" gene. Defects in this gene result in hemophilia A, a recessive X-linked coagulation disorder. Factor VIII is produced in liver sinusoidal cells and endothelial cells outside the liver throughout the body. This protein circulates in the bloodstream in an inactive form, bound to another molecule called von Willebrand factor, until an injury that damages blood vessels occurs. In response to injury, coagulation factor VIII is activated and separates from von Willebrand factor. The active protein

Xv (software)

Xv (software) xv is a shareware program written by John Bradley to display and modify digital images under the X Window System. While popular in the early 1990s ("XV is widely considered to be the preeminent image viewer for the X Window System"), no official releases have been made since December 1994. Bradley was unable to negotiate the LZW patent licence necessary for encoding the then-popular GIF format. The patent has now expired, so this legal constraint is no longer relevant. Until at least 2000, Bradley collected third-party updates to xv, for example, support for the PNG image format. These

Xv6

Xv6 xv6 is a modern reimplementation of Sixth Edition Unix in ANSI C for multiprocessor x86 systems. It is used for pedagogical purposes in MIT's Operating Systems Engineering (6.828) course. Unlike Linux or BSD, xv6 is simple enough to cover in a semester, yet still contains the important concepts and organization of Unix. Rather than study the original V6 code, the course uses xv6 since PDP-11 machines are not widely available and the original operating system was written in archaic pre-ANSI C. One feature of the Makefile for xv6 is the option to produce a PDF of the entire source

Xv (software)

While this concept limits what xv can do compared to some alternatives, the functionality it provides can be applied very conveniently and efficiently. Xv (software) xv is a shareware program written by John Bradley to display and modify digital images under the X Window System. While popular in the early 1990s ("XV is widely considered to be the preeminent image viewer for the X Window System"), no official releases have been made since December 1994. Bradley was unable to negotiate the LZW patent licence necessary for encoding the then-popular GIF format. The patent has now expired, so this legal constraint

Vii

Vii JungleTac's Sport Vii (; lit. "Power Stick" or "The Power is Great") is a Shanzhai video game console similar in aspect to Nintendo's Wii. It was originally released in China in 2007. The Vii was not intended to be a seventh-generation console like the Wii, and was instead part of the dedicated console genre of inexpensive consoles with built-in games. It is based on the 16-bit Sunplus SPG CPU. The Vii's Puppy Rod 威力棒 controller is similar in size and design to the Wii Remote. It features motion detection but not the pointing capability of the Wii Remote. The

Super Bowl VIII

Super Bowl VIII

Super Bowl VIII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Minnesota Vikings and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Miami Dolphins to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1973 season. The Dolphins defeated the Vikings by the score of 24–7 to win their second consecutive Super Bowl, the first team to do so since the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowls I and II, and the first AFL/AFC team to do so.

The game was played on January 13, 1974 at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas. This was the first time the Super Bowl venue was not home to that of an NFL franchise. At the time, the Astrodome seated just over 50,000, and was considered too small to host a Super Bowl. This was also the first Super Bowl not to be held in either the Los Angeles, Miami or New Orleans areas. It was also the last Super Bowl, and penultimate game overall (the 1974 Pro Bowl in Kansas City played the next week was the last) to feature goal posts at the front of the end zone (they were moved to the endline, in the back of the end zone, the next season).

This was the Dolphins' third consecutive Super Bowl appearance. They posted a 12–2 record during the regular season, then defeated the Cincinnati Bengals and the Oakland Raiders in the playoffs. The Vikings were making their second Super Bowl appearance after also finishing the regular season with a 12–2 record, and posting postseason victories over the Washington Redskins and the Dallas Cowboys.

Super Bowl VIII was largely dominated by the Dolphins, who scored 24 unanswered points during the first three quarters, including two touchdowns on their first two drives. Minnesota's best chance to threaten Miami occurred with less than a minute left in the first half, but Vikings running back Oscar Reed fumbled the ball away at the Dolphins' 6-yard line, and his team was unable to overcome Miami's lead in the second half. The Dolphins' Larry Csonka became the first running back to be named Super Bowl MVP; both his 145 rushing yards and his 33 carries were Super Bowl records.

List of Super Bowl records

List of Super Bowl records

This is a list of Super Bowl records. The list of records is separated by individual players and teams. Players and teams, along with their records, are noted with the Super Bowl game played. All records can be referenced at the National Football League (NFL)'s official website, NFL.com.<ref name="Records" /><ref name="Historys"/>

Date of Easter

Date of Easter

As a moveable feast, the date of Easter is determined in each year through a calculation known as (). Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the Paschal full moon, which is the first full moon on or after 21 March (a fixed approximation of the March equinox). Determining this date in advance requires a correlation between the lunar months and the solar year, while also accounting for the month, date, and weekday of the Julian or Gregorian calendar. The complexity of the algorithm arises because of the desire to associate the date of Easter with the date of the Jewish feast of Passover which, Christians believe, is when Jesus was crucified.

It was originally feasible for the entire Christian Church to receive the date of Easter each year through an annual announcement by the Pope. By the early third century, however, communications in the Roman Empire had deteriorated to the point that the church put great value in a system that would allow the clergy to determine the date for themselves, independently yet consistently. Additionally, the church wished to eliminate dependencies on the Hebrew calendar, by deriving the date for Easter directly from the March equinox.

In "The Reckoning of Time" (725), Bede uses as a general term for any sort of calculation, although he refers to the Easter cycles of Theophilus as a "Paschal ." By the end of the 8th century, came to refer specifically to the calculation of time.
The calculations produce different results depending on whether the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar is used. For this reason, the Catholic Church and Protestant churches (which follow the Gregorian calendar) celebrate Easter on a different date from that of the Eastern Orthodox Churches (which follow the Julian calendar). It was the drift of 21 March from the observed equinox that led to the Gregorian reform of the calendar, to bring them back into line.

Clash of the Champions

Supermarine Spitfire (Griffon-powered variants)

The Rolls-Royce Griffon engine was designed in answer to Royal Navy specifications for an engine capable of generating good power at low altitudes. Concepts for adapting the Spitfire to take the new engine had begun as far back as October 1939; Joseph Smith felt that "The good big 'un will eventually beat the good little 'un." and Ernest Hives of Rolls-Royce thought that the Griffon would be "a second power string for the Spitfire". The first of the Griffon-engined Spitfires flew on 27 November 1941.

Although the Griffon-engined Spitfires were never produced in the large numbers of the Merlin-engined variants they were an important part of the Spitfire family, and in their later versions kept the Spitfire at the forefront of piston-engined fighter development. This article describes the Griffon-powered Spitfire variants.

XXV (Vader album)

Maurycy "Mauser" Stefanowicz, and drummer Dariusz "Daray" Brzozowski, and the only studio recording with bassist Marcin "Novy" Nowak. The release was preceded by the single "v.666", released on January 15, 2008. A music video was shot for the song "Carnal", which was directed by Carlos Abysmo. Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes. v.666 is the sixth single by the Polish death metal band Vader. It was released only in Poland on January 15, 2008 by Empire Records. The release features two songs "Carnal (v.666 Version)", and "Vicious Circle (v.666 Version)". XXV (Vader album) XXV is

Final Fantasy VIII

Final Fantasy VIII Final Fantasy VIII is a role-playing video game developed and published by Square for the PlayStation console. Released in 1999, it is the eighth main installment in the "Final Fantasy" series. Set on an unnamed fantasy world with science fiction elements, the game follows a group of young mercenaries, led by Squall Leonhart, as they are drawn into a conflict sparked by Ultimecia, a sorceress from the future who wishes to compress time. During the quest to defeat Ultimecia, Squall struggles with his role as leader and develops a romance with one of his comrades, Rinoa Heartilly.

John VIII of Constantinople

John VIII of Constantinople John VIII Xiphilinos (; c. 1010 – 2 August 1075), a native of Trebizond, was a Byzantine intellectual and Patriarch of Constantinople from 1064–1075. He was the uncle of John Xiphilinos the Epimator. He is considered "an innovator in the field of the methodology of jurisprudential research." John Xiphilinos was born in Trebizond. He pursued studies at the University of Constantinople and eventually became "nomophylax" of its School of Law. Later he became a monk and was eventually selected by Emperor Constantine X (1059–67) to succeed Constantine Leichoudes. In 1072 John VIII presided over an assembly

SPARC64 V

was announced for the low-end M3000. The VII+ is socket-compatible with its predecessor, the VII. Existing high-end SPARC Enterprise M-Series servers are able to upgrade to the VII+ processors in the field. The SPARC64 VIIIfx ("Venus") is an eight-core processor based on the SPARC64 VII designed for high-performance computing (HPC). As a result, the VIIIfx did not succeed the VII, but existed concurrently with it. It consists of 760 million transistors, measures 22.7 mm by 22.6 (513.02 mm;), is fabricated in Fujitu's 45 nm CMOS process with copper interconnects, and has 1,271 I/O pins. The VIIIfx has a peak performance

Vi

Vi vi is a screen-oriented text editor originally created for the Unix operating system. The portable subset of the behavior of vi and programs based on it, and the ex editor language supported within these programs, is described by (and thus standardized by) the Single Unix Specification and POSIX. The original code for vi was written by Bill Joy in 1976, as the visual mode for a line editor called ex that Joy had written with Chuck Haley. Bill Joy's ex 1.1 was released as part of the first Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) Unix release in March 1978. It was

Decretales Gregorii IX

doubtful points of the ancient ecclesiastical law by adding some new decretals. He indicated by the words et infra the passages excised by him in the former collections. They are called "partes decisae". The new compilation bore no special title, but was called "Decretales Gregorii IX" or sometimes "Compilatio sexta", i. e. the sixth collection with reference to the "Quinque compilationes antiquæ". It was also called "Collectio seu liber extra", i. e. the collection of the laws not contained ("vagantes extra") in the "Decretum" of Gratian. Hence the custom of denoting this collection by the letter X (i.e. extra, here

Saxon VIII V2

Saxon VIII V2 The Saxon Class VIII formula_1 was a twin-coupled tender locomotive procured for passenger services by the Royal Saxon State Railways. In 1925, the Deutsche Reichsbahn grouped these engines into their Class 36.9-10. The design of the locomotives was derived from the Class VIII V express engines. As passenger locomotives the VIII V were given smaller coupled wheelsets, however. To distinguish them from the express engines, the new machines were give annotated with the subscript "2". Between 1896 and 1902 118 locomotives were placed in service by the Royal Saxon State Railways. As well as their in-house suppliers,

Les XX

Les XX Les XX was a group of twenty Belgian painters, designers and sculptors, formed in 1883 by the Brussels lawyer, publisher, and entrepreneur Octave Maus. For ten years ""Les Vingt"" (), as they called themselves, held an annual exhibition of their art; each year twenty international artists were also invited to participate in the exhibition. Artists invited over the years included Camille Pissarro (1887, 1889, 1891), Claude Monet (1886, 1889), Georges Seurat (1887, 1889, 1891, 1892), Paul Gauguin (1889, 1891), Paul Cézanne (1890), and Vincent van Gogh (1890, 1891). "Les XX" was in some ways a successor to the

Shady XV

Shady XV Shady XV (stylized as SHADYXV) is a hip hop compilation album performed by various artists of Shady Records. The double disc album was released on November 24, 2014, by Shady Records and Interscope Records. The album was released in honor of the label's 15th anniversary and as its 15th project (excluding Eminem's solo releases). The compilation consists of two discs, the first featuring new material from Shady Records artists such as Slaughterhouse, Bad Meets Evil, D12 and Yelawolf, as well as the label's founder Eminem. The second disc includes the label's greatest hits, also featuring former Shady Records

Factor VIII

protein is now divided to a heavy chain, consisting of the A1-A2 domains, and a light chain, consisting of the A3-C1-C2 domains. Both form non-covalently a complex in a calcium-dependent manner. This complex is the pro-coagulant factor VIIIa. FVIII is a glycoprotein procofactor. Although the primary site of release in humans is ambiguous, it is synthesized and released into the bloodstream by the vascular, glomerular, and tubular endothelium, and the sinusoidal cells of the liver. Hemophilia A has been corrected by liver transplantation. Transplanting hepatocytes was ineffective, but liver endothelial cells were effective. In the blood, it mainly circulates in

Equivalent VIII

Equivalent VIII Equivalent VIII, occasionally referred to as The Bricks, is the last and most famous of a series of minimalist sculpture by Carl Andre. The exhibit comprises one-hundred-and-twenty fire bricks, arranged in two layers, in a six-by-ten rectangle. All eight structures in the series have the same height, mass and volume, but different shapes. Thus they are all "equivalent". Constructed in 1966, it was bought by the Tate Gallery in 1972 for $6,000 (then £2,297), half of the 1966 price. As none of the pieces had been sold during their New York gallery exhibition, Andre had returned the original

Factor VIII

US markets, but was sold to Asian, Latin American, and some European countries. The product was tainted with HIV, a concern that had been discussed by Bayer and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the early 1990s, pharmaceutical companies began to produce recombinant synthesized factor products, which now prevent nearly all forms of disease transmission during replacement therapy. Factor VIII Factor VIII (FVIII) is an essential blood-clotting protein, also known as anti-hemophilic factor (AHF). In humans, factor VIII is encoded by the "F8" gene. Defects in this gene result in hemophilia A, a recessive X-linked coagulation disorder. Factor

ETS-VIII

ETS-VIII JAXA Engineering Test Satellite ETS-VIII (Kiku 8) is the eighth technology test satellite in a series which started with ETS-1 in 1975 by NASDA. It was launched with the H-2A on December 18, 2006. ETS-VIII was developed by JAXA in cooperation with NICT and NTT. The aim of ETS-VIII is to enable satellite communications with small terminals. Unlike the Iridium satellites for mobile communication, ETS-VIII is positioned at GEO. However to fulfill the task the satellite must carry two very large antennas. It was the first use of the 204 configuration (four strap-on boosters) of the H-IIA launch vehicle.

ETS-VIII

Chrysler IV-2220

Chrysler IV-2220 The Chrysler XIV-2220 (XI-2220 from 1944) was an experimental 2,500 hp 2,220 cubic inch/36.4 litre liquid-cooled inverted-V-16 aircraft engine designed by Chrysler starting in 1940. Although several aircraft designs had considered using it, by the time it was ready for use in 1945 the war was already over. Only a few engines were built during the program, and it retained its 'X' designation the entire time as the XIV-2220, later XI-2220. The IV-2220 is historically important as it was Chrysler's first hemi, a design that would re-appear for many years later and is now a Chrysler trademark. Chrysler


Question: In what year did the War of 1812 start?

1812
one thousand, eight hundred and twelve
one thousand eight hundred and twelve

Timeline of United States military operations

in so irregular a manner that his measures were disavowed by the President. 1812–1815: War of 1812: On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war against the United Kingdom. Among the issues leading to the war were British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, interception of neutral ships and blockades of the United States during British hostilities with France. 1815:Battle of New Orleans: On January 15, 1815, General Andrew Jackson went to New Orleans to stop the British from attacking them from the back. They hide and start shooting the British and win, even though the war

War of 1812

the Indians' lack of power was apparent and the stage was set for further incursions of territory by the United States in subsequent decades. War of 1812 The War of 1812 was a conflict fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies from June 1812 to February 1815. Historians in Britain often see it as a minor theater of the Napoleonic Wars; in the United States and Canada, it is seen as a war in its own right, though it was separate. From the outbreak of war with Napoleonic France, Britain had enforced a naval blockade

War of 1812

War of 1812 The War of 1812 was a conflict fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies from June 1812 to February 1815. Historians in Britain often see it as a minor theater of the Napoleonic Wars; in the United States and Canada, it is seen as a war in its own right, though it was separate. From the outbreak of war with Napoleonic France, Britain had enforced a naval blockade to choke off neutral trade to France, which the US contested as illegal under international law. To man the blockade, Britain impressed American merchant

1810s

in the War of 1812. The U.S. reasons for war included the humiliation in the "Chesapeake incident" of 1807, continued British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, restrictions on trade with France, and arming hostile American Indians in Ohio and the western territories. United States President James Madison signed a declaration of war on June 18, 1812. The United States conducted two failed invasion attempts in 1812, first by General William Hull across the Detroit River into what is now Windsor, Ontario, and a second offensive at the Niagara peninsula. A major American success came in 1813, when

War of 1812

1815. These late victories were viewed by Americans as having restored national honour, leading to the collapse of anti-war sentiment and the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings, a period of national unity. News of the treaty arrived shortly thereafter, halting military operations. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the US Senate on February 17, 1815, ending the war with no boundary changes. Historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States.

War of 1812

Origins of the War of 1812

French invasion of Russia

Burning of Washington

Burning of Washington

The Burning of Washington was a British invasion of Washington City (now Washington, D.C.), the capital of the United States, during the Chesapeake Campaign of the War of 1812. It is the only time since the American Revolutionary War that a foreign power has captured and occupied the capital of the United States.

Following the defeat of American forces at the Battle of Bladensburg on August 24, 1814, a British force led by Major General Robert Ross marched to Washington. That night, British forces set fire to multiple government and military buildings, including the White House (then called the "Presidential Mansion"), the Capitol building, as well as other facilities of the U.S. government. The attack was in part a retaliation for American destruction in Upper Canada: U.S. forces had burned and looted its capital the previous year and then had burned buildings in Port Dover. Less than four days after the attack began, a heavy thunderstorm—possibly a hurricane—and a tornado extinguished the fires and caused further destruction. The occupation of Washington lasted for roughly 26 hours.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

President James Madison, military officials, and his government evacuated and were able to find refuge for the night in Brookeville, a small town in Montgomery County, Maryland; President Madison spent the night in the house of Caleb Bentley, a Quaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley's house, known today as the Madison House, still exists. Following the storm, the British returned to their ships, many of which required repairs due to the storm.

Battle of Lake Erie

Battle of Lake Erie

The Battle of Lake Erie, also known as the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, on Lake Erie off the shore of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of the British Royal Navy. This ensured American control of the lake for the rest of the war, which in turn allowed the Americans to recover Detroit and win the Battle of the Thames to break the Indian confederation of Tecumseh. It was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812.

War of 1812

sailors into the Royal Navy. Incidents such as the "Chesapeake–Leopard" affair, which happened five years before the war, inflamed anti-British sentiment in the US. In 1811, the British were in turn outraged by the "Little Belt" affair, in which 11 British sailors died. Britain supplied Native Americans who raided American settlers on the frontier, hindering American expansion and provoking resentment. Historians debate whether the desire to annex some or all of British North America (Canada) contributed to the American decision to go to war. On June 18, 1812, US President James Madison, after heavy pressure from the War Hawks in

Origins of the War of 1812

in American history. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted in favor of the war; critics of war subsequently referred to it as "Mr. Madison's War." Origins of the War of 1812 The War of 1812, a war between the United States, Great Britain, and Britain's Indian allies, lasted from 1812 to 1815. The U.S. declared war and historians have long debated the multiple factors behind that decision. There were several causes for the U.S. declaration of war: First, a series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, a country with which Britain was

Origins of the War of 1812

Origins of the War of 1812 The War of 1812, a war between the United States, Great Britain, and Britain's Indian allies, lasted from 1812 to 1815. The U.S. declared war and historians have long debated the multiple factors behind that decision. There were several causes for the U.S. declaration of war: First, a series of trade restrictions introduced by Britain to impede American trade with France, a country with which Britain was at war (the U.S. contested these restrictions as illegal under international law); second, the impressment (forced recruitment) of seamen on U.S. vessels into the Royal Navy (the

Origins of the War of 1812

were very effective fighters for the British on the Mississippi, helping to defeat Fort Madison and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien. Oxford historian Paul Langford looks at the decisions by the British government in 1812: In the United States House of Representatives, a group of young Democratic-Republicans known as the "War Hawks" came to the forefront in 1811, led by Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The War Hawks advocated going to war against Great Britain for all of the reasons listed above, though concentrating on the grievances more than

War of 1812

at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed. Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at Sackett's Harbor in northwestern New York. Commodore Isaac Chauncey took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York; they completed the second warship built there in a

War of 1812 Campaigns

victory at the Thames River (5 October), which reestablished American control over the Detroit Area. A Campaign Streamer, which was embroidered Canada, 18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815 was awarded for this campaign. An American advance from Plattsburg in March 1814, led by Maj. Gen. James Wilkinson, was checked just beyond the border, but on 3 July, 500 men under General Brown seized Fort Erie across the Niagara in a coordinated attack with Commodore Isaac Chauncey's fleet designed to wrest control of Lake Ontario from the British. In subsequent troop maneuvers in the Niagara region, Brig. Gen. Winfield Scott's

Origins of the War of 1812

the territorial expansion. On the first of June 1812, President James Madison gave a speech to the U.S. Congress, recounting American grievances against Great Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison's speech, the House of Representatives quickly voted (79 to 49) to declare war, and the Senate by 19 to 13. The conflict formally began on 18 June 1812 when Madison signed the measure into law. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation, and the Congressional vote would prove to be the closest vote to declare war

War of 1812

the commander of the British post at Fort St. Joseph to initiate offensive operations against U.S. forces in northern Michigan, who it turned out, were not yet aware of their own government's declaration of war. The resulting Siege of Fort Mackinac on July 17 was the first major land engagement of the war, and ended in an easy British victory. The war was conducted in three theaters: Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most

History of United States foreign policy

control) used ambushes and raids to kill settlers, thus delaying the expansion of frontier settlements into the Midwest (Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, especially). In 1812 diplomacy had broken down and the U.S. declared war on Britain. The War of 1812 was marked by very bad planning and military fiascoes on both sides. It ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1815. Militarily it was a stalemate as both sides failed in their invasion attempts, but the Royal Navy blockaded the coastline and shut down American trade (except for smuggling supplies into British Canada). However the British achieved their main goal

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

war to restore their honor, despite their complete unpreparedness. The War of 1812 was a minor sideshow to the British, but the American army performed very poorly, and was unable to successfully attack Canada. In 1813, the Americans took control of Lake Erie and thereby of western Ontario, knocking most of the Indian tribes out of the war. When Napoleon surrendered for the first time in 1814, three separate forces were sent to attack the Americans in upstate New York, along the Maryland coast (burning Washington but getting repulsed at Baltimore), and up the Mississippi River to a massive defeat

Origins of the War of 1812

controversy is the question whether an American war goal was to permanently acquire Canadian lands (especially western Ontario), or whether it was planned to seize the area temporarily as a bargaining chip. The American desire for Canadian land has been a staple in Canadian public opinion since the 1830s, and was much discussed among historians before 1940, but has become less popular since then. The idea was first developed by Marxist historian Louis M. Hacker and refined by diplomatic specialist Julius Pratt. In 1925, Pratt argued that Western Americans were incited to war by the prospect of seizing Canada. Pratt's

History of the United States

with Britain, Congress declared war on June 18, 1812. The war was frustrating for both sides. Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American high command remained incompetent until the last year. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada, while Andrew Jackson

War of 1812

to the United States. Some British officers and Canadians objected to handing back Prairie du Chien and especially Mackinac under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent. However, the Americans retained the captured post at Fort Malden, near Amherstburg, until the British complied with the treaty. Fighting between Americans, the Sauk, and other indigenous tribes continued through 1817, well after the war ended in the east. In 1812, Britain's Royal Navy was the world's largest, with over 600 cruisers in commission and some smaller vessels. Although most of these were involved in blockading the French navy and protecting British trade

Presidency of James Madison

ongoing Napoleonic Wars. Initially, American merchants had benefited from the war in Europe since it allowed them to increase their shipping activities, but both the British and French began attacking American ships in an attempt to cut off trade. In response to persistent British attacks on American shipping and the British practice of impressment, the United States declared war on Britain, beginning the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass, as the United States had neither a strong army nor financial system, and the United States failed to conquer Canada. In 1814, the British entered Washington and set

War of 1812 Campaigns

Fort Bowyer. On 14 February, they learned that the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war, had been signed on 24 December 1814. War of 1812 Campaigns The following is a synopsis of the land campaigns of the War of 1812. This campaign includes all operations in the Canada-US border region except the battle of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. The invasion and conquest of western Canada was a major objective of the United States in the War of 1812. Among the significant causes of the war were the continuing clash of British and American interests in the Northwest Territory and the