Question: Which international treaties of 1899 and 1907 cover the use of weapons in war?

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Raufoss Mk 211

conduct of non-signatory parties. Further, the Hague treaties of 1899 and 1907 – which superseded the St. Petersburg Declaration, and were signed by a far wider circle of nations – do permit the use of such ammunition for auto-cannons and heavy machine guns. Machine guns firing .50 cal/12.7mm ammunition are heavy machine guns. At best, the ICRC's position can be applied to only a small group of nations that were parties to the St. Petersburg Declaration; at worst, the ICRC's position is made moot by more than 100 years of subsequent international treaties. Trials conducted by Forsvarets Forskningsinstitutt (Norwegian Defence

the immediate run up to World War II. The most relevant of these treaties is the Hague Convention of 1907 because it was the last treaty ratified before 1939 which specify the laws of war regarding the use of bombardment. In the Hague Convention of 1907, there are two which have a direct bearing on this issue of bombardment. These are "Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); 18 October 1907" and "Laws of War: Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War (Hague IX); 18 October 1907". It is significant that there is a

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

lead to horrific consequences in any future war. The protocol has since been augmented by the Biological Weapons Convention (1972) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). Many of the rules laid down at the Hague Conventions were violated in World War I. The German invasion of Belgium, for instance, was a violation of Convention (III) of 1907, which states that hostilities must not commence without explicit warning. Poison gas was introduced and used by all major belligerents throughout the war, in violation of the Declaration (IV, 2) of 1899 and Convention (IV) of 1907, which explicitly forbade the use of

Anti-personnel weapon

forbidden. Very few nations were parties to the St. Petersburg Declaration, however, and that declaration does not govern the conduct of non-signatory parties. Further, the Hague treaties of 1899 and 1907 – which superseded the St. Petersburg Declaration, and were signed by a far wider circle of nations – do permit the use of such ammunition for auto-cannons and heavy machine guns. Machine guns firing .50 cal/12.7mm ammunition are heavy machine guns. At best, the ICRC's position can be applied to only a small group of nations that were parties to the St. Petersburg Declaration; at worst, the ICRC's position

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. Along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, but it did not take place due to the start of World War I. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 were the first multilateral treaties

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. Along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, but it did not take place because of the start of World War I.

Geneva Conventions

Geneva Conventions

The Geneva Conventions are four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish international legal standards for humanitarian treatment in war. The singular term "Geneva Convention" usually denotes the agreements of 1949, negotiated in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–1945), which updated the terms of the two 1929 treaties and added two new conventions. The Geneva Conventions extensively define the basic rights of wartime prisoners (civilians and military personnel), established protections for the wounded and sick, and provided protections for the civilians in and around a war-zone; moreover, the Geneva Convention also defines the rights and protections afforded to non-combatants. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in their entirety or with reservations, by 196 countries. The Geneva Conventions concern only prisoners and non-combatants in war; they do not address the use of weapons of war, which are instead addressed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which concern conventional weapons, and the Geneva Protocol, which concerns biological and chemical warfare.

Geneva Protocol

Geneva Protocol

The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts. It was signed at Geneva on 17 June 1925 and entered into force on 8 February 1928. It was registered in "League of Nations Treaty Series" on 7 September 1929. The Geneva Protocol is a protocol to the Convention for the Supervision of the International Trade in Arms and Ammunition and in Implements of War signed on the same date, and followed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.

It prohibits the use of "asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices" and "bacteriological methods of warfare". This is now understood to be a general prohibition on chemical weapons and biological weapons, but has nothing to say about production, storage or transfer. Later treaties did cover these aspects – the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).

A number of countries submitted reservations when becoming parties to the Geneva Protocol, declaring that they only regarded the non-use obligations as applying to other parties and that these obligations would cease to apply if the prohibited weapons were used against them.

The main elements of the protocol are now considered by many to be part of customary international law.

Aerial bombardment and international law

Air warfare must comply with laws and customs of war, including international humanitarian law by protecting the victims of the conflict and refraining from attacks on protected persons.

These restraints on aerial warfare are covered by the general laws of war, because unlike war on land and at sea—which are specifically covered by rules such as the 1907 Hague Convention and Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions, which contain pertinent restrictions, prohibitions and guidelines—there are no treaties specific to aerial warfare.<ref name="Gomez"/>

To be legal, aerial operations must comply with the principles of humanitarian law: "military necessity", "distinction", and "proportionality":<ref name="Gomez"/> An attack or action must be intended to help in the military defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.

War crime

War crime

A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hostages, unnecessarily destroying civilian property, deception by perfidy, wartime sexual violence, pillaging, and for any individual that is part of the command structure who orders any attempt to committing mass killings including genocide or ethnic cleansing, the granting of no quarter despite surrender, the conscription of children in the military and flouting the legal distinctions of proportionality and military necessity.

The formal concept of war crimes emerged from the codification of the customary international law that applied to warfare between sovereign states, such as the Lieber Code (1863) of the Union Army in the American Civil War and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 for international war.<ref name="Cassese"/> In the aftermath of the Second World War, the war-crime trials of the leaders of the Axis powers established the Nuremberg principles of law, such as that international criminal law defines what is a war crime. In 1949, the Geneva Conventions legally defined new war crimes and established that states could exercise universal jurisdiction over war criminals.<ref name="Cassese"/> In the late 20th century and early 21st century, international courts extrapolated and defined additional categories of war crimes applicable to a civil war.<ref name="Cassese"/>

Geneva Protocol

non-use obligations as applying to other parties and that these obligations would cease to apply if the prohibited weapons were used against them. The main elements of the protocol are now considered by many to be part of customary international law. In the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, the use of dangerous chemical agents were outlawed. In spite of this, the First World War saw large-scale chemical warfare. France used tear gas in 1914, but the first large-scale successful deployment of chemical weapons was by the German Empire in Ypres, Belgium in 1915, when chlorine gas was released as

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

Pacific Settlement of International Disputes has been ratified by 20 additional states. Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. Along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, but it did not take place due to the start of World War I.

Geneva Protocol

into force as the French Third Republic objected to the submarine provisions of the treaty. At the 1925 Geneva Conference for the Supervision of the International Traffic in Arms the French suggested a protocol for non-use of poisonous gases. The Second Polish Republic suggested the addition of bacteriological weapons. It was signed on 17 June. Several countries have deployed or prepared chemical weapons in spite of the treaty. Spain and France did so in the Rif War before the treaty came into effect in 1928, Japan used chemical weapons against Taiwan in 1930 during the Wushe Massacre, Italy used mustard

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

were defeated by the other powers, led by Germany, which feared a British attempt to stop the growth of the German fleet. Germany also rejected proposals for compulsory arbitration. However, the conference did enlarge the machinery for voluntary arbitration and established conventions regulating the collection of debts, rules of war, and the rights and obligations of neutrals. The treaties, declarations, and final act of the Second Conference were signed on 18 October 1907; they entered into force on 26 January 1910. The 1907 Convention consists of thirteen treaties—of which twelve were ratified and entered into force—and one declaration: The Brazilian

Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868

it does not prohibit such ammunition for use in autocannon or artillery rounds. The influence of this declaration on international humanitarian law were elucidated in the Japanese case "Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State" (1963): Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 The Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 or in full Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight is an international treaty agreed in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, November 29 / December 11, 1868. It succeeded the First Geneva Convention of 1864. It was a predecessor of the well-known Hague Conventions of 1899

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

negotiations concerning disarmament, the laws of war and war crimes. A major effort in both conferences was the creation of a binding international court for compulsory arbitration to settle international disputes, which was considered necessary to replace the institution of war. This effort, however, failed at both conferences; instead a voluntary forum for arbitration, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, was established. Most of the countries present, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, France, China, and Persia, favored a process for binding international arbitration, but the provision was vetoed by a few countries, led by Germany. The First Hague

Law of war

1907, having been widely accepted by "all civilised nations" for about half a century, were by then part of the customary laws of war and binding on all parties whether the party was a signatory to the specific treaty or not. Interpretations of international humanitarian law change over time and this also affects the laws of war. For example, Carla Del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia pointed out in 2001 that although there is no specific treaty ban on the use of depleted uranium projectiles, there is a developing scientific debate and

Geneva Protocol

belonging to the losing side, the Central powers. Russian bolsheviks and Britain continued the use of chemical weapons in the Russian Civil War and possibly in the Middle East in 1920. Three years after World War I, the Allies wanted to reaffirm the Treaty of Versailles, and in 1922 the United States introduced the Treaty relating to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare at the Washington Naval Conference. Four of the war victors, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan, gave consent for ratification, but it failed to enter

Law of war

1909 the law of war’s "epoch of highest repute." The defining aspect of this period was the establishment, by states, of a positive legal or legislative foundation (i.e., written) superseding a regime based primarily on religion, chivalry, and customs. It is during this "modern" era that the international conference became the forum for debate and agreement between states and the "multilateral treaty" served as the positive mechanism for codification. In addition, the Nuremberg War Trial judgment on "The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity" held, under the guidelines Nuremberg Principles, that treaties like the Hague Convention of

Glenbrook Tunnel

at the conference for the supervision of the international trade in arms and ammunition, which was held in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations from 4 May to 17 June 1925. France suggested that a protocol be drawn up on non-use of poisonous gases. At Poland's suggestion the prohibition was extended to bacteriological weapons. In the years prior to World War Two most major powers ratified the protocol, except the U.S. and Japan. The British reserved the right to waive the protocol if in time of war their enemies disregarded the terms of the agreement. Countries around

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907

for both the 1899 and 1907 delegations. He later won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1909 for his efforts. Though not negotiated in The Hague, the Geneva Protocol to the Hague Conventions is considered an addition to the Conventions. Signed on 17 June 1925 and entering into force on 8 February 1928, its single article permanently bans the use of all forms of chemical and biological warfare. The protocol grew out of the increasing public outcry against chemical warfare following the use of mustard gas and similar agents in World War I, and fears that chemical and biological warfare could

HPCR Manual on International Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare

in air and missile technology in the last few decades have completely altered military strategy and created distinct challenges to the protection of civilians in time of armed conflict. Although a number of international treaties have been adopted in response to modern warfare, including the four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims, the two Additional Protocols of 1977, and various conventions regarding cultural property, biological weapons, and chemical weapons, many important aspects of air and missile operations are not included. Also, some of these instruments, especially AP/I, are not binding on all states, including the United States.

Ottawa Treaty

in World War II. 1977 During the Geneva Convention, one provision is amended to prohibit the targeting of civilian populations by indiscriminate weapons in wartime. 1980 October: The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (CCW) is adopted by a United Nations Conference in Geneva. Among the three annexed Protocols the "Protocol on prohibitions or restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices (Protocol II) established some restrictions on the use of anti-personnel landmines. 1991 Six NGOs supporting a ban

Arms control

control agreements were recorded, except theoretical proposals and those imposed on defeated armies. One treaty which was concluded was the Strasbourg Agreement of 1675. This is the first international agreement limiting the use of chemical weapons, in this case, poison bullets. The treaty was signed between France and The Holy Roman Empire The 1817 Rush–Bagot Treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom was the first arms control treaty of what can be considered the modern industrial era, leading to the demilitarization of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain region of North America. This was followed by the 1871

German war crimes

violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which explicitly forbade the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare. In August 1914, as part of the Schlieffen Plan, the German Army invaded and occupied the neutral nation of Belgium without explicit warning, which violated a treaty of 1839 that the German chancellor dismissed as a "scrap of paper" and the 1907 Hague Convention on Opening of Hostilities. Within the first two months of the war, the German occupiers terrorized the Belgians, killing thousands of civilians and looting and burning scores


Question: Madeleine Allbright was appointed by Bill Clinton as the USA's first woman to hold what position?

Secretariat of State
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Madeleine Albright

Madeleine Albright Madeleine Jana Korbel Albright (born Marie Jana Korbelová; May 15, 1937) is an American politician and diplomat. She is the first female United States Secretary of State in U.S. history, having served from 1997 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. Albright emigrated to the United States in 1948 from Czechoslovakia with her family. Her diplomat father, Josef Korbel, settled their family in Denver, and she became a U.S. citizen in 1957. Albright graduated from Wellesley College in 1959 and earned a PhD from Columbia University in 1975, writing her thesis on the Prague Spring. She worked as an

Madeleine Albright

Security Council, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy and became the only U.N. Secretary-General ever to be denied a second term. The United States then fought a four-round veto duel with France, forcing it to back down and accept Kofi Annan as the next Secretary-General. In his memoirs, Clarke said that "the entire operation had strengthened Albright's hand in the competition to be Secretary of State in the second Clinton administration." When Albright took office as the 64th U.S. Secretary of State on January 23, 1997, she became the first female U.S. Secretary of State and the highest-ranking woman in the history

Madeleine Albright

400 pounds. Albright was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by the "Guardian" in March 2013. Madeleine Albright Madeleine Jana Korbel Albright (born Marie Jana Korbelová; May 15, 1937) is an American politician and diplomat. She is the first female United States Secretary of State in U.S. history, having served from 1997 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. Albright emigrated to the United States in 1948 from Czechoslovakia with her family. Her diplomat father, Josef Korbel, settled their family in Denver, and she became a U.S. citizen in 1957. Albright graduated from Wellesley College in 1959 and

Madeleine Albright

Albright was employed to handle the transition to a new administration at the National Security Council. In January 1993, Clinton nominated her to be U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, her first diplomatic posting. Albright was appointed Ambassador to the United Nations shortly after Clinton was inaugurated, presenting her credentials on February 9, 1993. During her tenure at the U.N., she had a rocky relationship with the U.N. Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, whom she criticized as "disengaged" and "neglect[ful]" of genocide in Rwanda. Albright wrote: "My deepest regret from my years in public service is the failure of the United States

Madeleine Albright

traveled to Poland for her research, interviewing dissidents in Gdańsk, Warsaw and Kraków. Upon her return to Washington, her husband announced his intention to divorce her for another woman. Albright joined the academic staff at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., in 1982, specializing in Eastern European studies. She also directed the university's program on women in global politics. She served as a major Democratic Party foreign policy advisor, briefing Vice-Presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and Presidential candidate Michael Dukakis in 1988 (both campaigns ended in defeat). In 1992, Bill Clinton returned the White House to the Democratic Party, and

Madeleine Albright

Madeleine Albright

Madeleine Jana Korbel Albright (born Marie Jana Korbelová; May 15, 1937 – March 23, 2022) was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as the 64th United States secretary of state from 1997 to 2001. A member of the Democratic Party, Albright was the first woman to hold that post.

Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, Albright immigrated to the United States after the 1948 communist coup d'état when she was eleven years old. Her father, diplomat Josef Korbel, settled the family in Denver, Colorado, and she became a U.S. citizen in 1957. Albright graduated from Wellesley College in 1959 and earned a PhD from Columbia University in 1975, writing her thesis on the Prague Spring. She worked as an aide to Senator Edmund Muskie from 1976 to 1978, before serving as a staff member on the National Security Council under Zbigniew Brzezinski. She served in that position until 1981, when President Jimmy Carter left office.

After leaving the National Security Council, Albright joined the academic faculty of Georgetown University in 1982 and advised Democratic candidates regarding foreign policy. Following the 1992 presidential election, Albright helped assemble President Bill Clinton's National Security Council. She was appointed United States ambassador to the United Nations from 1993 to 1997, a position she held until elevation as secretary of state. Secretary Albright served in that capacity until President Clinton left office in 2001.

Albright served as chair of the Albright Stonebridge Group, a consulting firm, and was the Michael and Virginia Mortara Endowed Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy at Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama in May 2012. Albright served on the board of the Council on Foreign Relations.

List of female United States Cabinet members

Condoleezza Rice

Richard Holbrooke

Richard Holbrooke

Richard Charles Albert Holbrooke (April 24, 1941 – December 13, 2010) was an American diplomat and author. He was the only person to have held the position of Assistant Secretary of State for two different regions of the world (Asia from 1977 to 1981 and Europe from 1994 to 1996).

From 1993 to 1994, he was U.S. Ambassador to Germany. He was long well-known among journalists and in diplomatic circles. Holbrooke became familiar to the wider public in 1995 when, with former Swedish prime minister Carl Bildt, they brokered a peace agreement among the warring factions in Bosnia leading to the signing of the Dayton Peace Accords. Holbrooke was a prime contender to succeed Warren Christopher as Secretary of State but was passed over in 1996 as President Bill Clinton chose Madeleine Albright instead. From 1999 to 2001, Holbrooke served as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations.
He was an adviser to the presidential campaign of Senator John Kerry in 2004. Holbrooke then joined the presidential campaign of Senator Hillary Clinton and became a top foreign policy adviser. Holbrooke was considered a likely candidate for Secretary of State had Kerry or Hillary Clinton been elected president. In January 2009, Holbrooke was appointed as a special adviser on Pakistan and Afghanistan, working under President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.

Holbrooke's unfulfilled ambition was to become Secretary of State; he, along with George Kennan and Chip Bohlen, were considered among the most influential U.S. diplomats who never achieved that position. Several considered Holbrooke's role in the Dayton Accords to merit the Nobel Peace Prize.

Bill Richardson

Bill Richardson

William Blaine Richardson III (born November 15, 1947) is an American politician, author, and diplomat who served as the 30th governor of New Mexico from 2003 to 2011. He was also the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations and Energy Secretary in the Clinton administration, a U.S. Congressman, chairman of the 2004 Democratic National Convention, and chairman of the Democratic Governors Association.

In December 2008, Richardson was nominated for the cabinet-level position of Secretary of Commerce in the first Obama administration but withdrew a month later, as he was being investigated for possible improper business dealings in New Mexico. Although the investigation was later dropped, it was seen to have damaged Richardson's career as his second and final term as New Mexico governor concluded.

Richardson has occasionally provided advice on diplomatic issues pertaining to North Korea and has visited the nation on several occasions, including efforts to release American detainees.<ref name="nyt 160315" /> He has completed a number of private humanitarian missions, one of which secured the release of U.S. journalist Danny Fenster from a Myanmar prison in November 2021.<ref name=":0" />

Madeleine Albright

aide to Senator Edmund Muskie before taking a position under Zbigniew Brzezinski on the National Security Council. She served in that position until the end of President Jimmy Carter's lone term. After leaving the National Security Council, Albright joined the academic staff of Georgetown University and advised Democratic candidates regarding foreign policy. After Clinton's victory in the 1992 presidential election, she helped assemble Clinton's National Security Council. In 1993, Clinton appointed her to the position of U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations. She held that position until 1997, when she succeeded Warren Christopher as Secretary of State. She served as

Madeleine Albright

co-chair of the Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor and was the chairwoman of the Council of Women World Leaders "Women's Ministerial Initiative" up until November 16, 2007, succeeded by Margot Wallström. On October 25, 2005, Albright guest starred on the television drama "Gilmore Girls" as herself. She also made a guest appearance on "Parks and Recreation", in the eighth episode of the seventh season. At the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. on November 13, 2007, Albright declared that she with William Cohen would co-chair a new "Genocide Prevention Task Force" created by the United States Holocaust Memorial

Madeleine Albright

women who supported Clinton's primary rival, Senator Bernie Sanders, which many women found "startling and offensive." In a "New York Times" op-ed published several days after the remark, Albright said: "I absolutely believe what I said, that women should help one another, but this was the wrong context and the wrong time to use that line. I did not mean to argue that women should support a particular candidate based solely on gender." Albright holds honorary degrees from Brandeis University (1996), the University of Washington (2002), Smith College (2003), Washington University in St. Louis (2003), University of Winnipeg (2005), the

Madeleine Albright

of the U.S. government at the time of her appointment. Not being a natural-born citizen of the U.S., she was not eligible as a U.S. Presidential successor and was excluded from nuclear contingency plans. During her tenure, Albright considerably influenced American policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Middle East. According to Albright's memoirs, she once argued with Colin Powell for the use of military force by asking, "What's the point of you saving this superb military for, Colin, if we can't use it?" As Secretary of State she represented the U.S. at the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong

Madeleine Albright

Secretary of State until Clinton left office in 2001. Albright currently serves as chair of Albright Stonebridge Group and as a professor of International Relations at Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service. In May 2012, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by U.S. President Barack Obama. Secretary Albright also serves as a director on the board of the Council on Foreign Relations. Born Marie Jana Korbelová in 1937 in the Smíchov district of Prague, Czechoslovakia, she is a daughter of Anna (néee Spieglová) and Josef Korbel, a Czech diplomat. At the time of her birth, Czechoslovakia had been

Presidency of Bill Clinton

and was replaced by former deputy chief of staff Erskine Bowles. Madeleine Albright became the first female Secretary of State, Sandy Berger succeeded Lake as National Security Adviser, and former Republican Senator William Cohen became the Secretary of Defense. According to reporter John Harris, Berger's close rapport with Clinton made him the leading foreign policy figure of Clinton's second term, as well as the most influential National Security Advisor since Henry Kissinger. John Podesta assumed the position of Chief of Staff in 1998, while Lawrence Summers replaced Rubin as Treasury Secretary in 1999. Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme

Presidency of Bill Clinton

whom had served in the Carter administration. Vice President Gore and First Lady Hillary Clinton emerged as two of the most influential figures of the Clinton administration, and Clinton solicited their opinions on a wide range of issues. Clinton decided to appoint the first female Attorney General, settling on little-known corporate lawyer Zoë Baird. In what became known as the Nannygate matter, the Senate Judiciary Committee revealed that Baird had hired a Peruvian couple, both illegal immigrants, to work in her home. Baird withdrew her nomination and Clinton next chose Kimba Wood, who was quickly forced to withdraw due to

Madeleine Albright

the role of journalists in the Prague Spring of 1968. She also took a graduate course given by Zbigniew Brzezinski, who later became her boss at the U.S. National Security Council. Albright returned to Washington, D.C., in 1968, and commuted to Columbia for her PhD degree, which she received in 1975. She began fund-raising for her daughters' school, involvement which led to several positions on education boards. She was eventually invited to organize a fund-raising dinner for the 1972 presidential campaign of U.S. Senator Ed Muskie of Maine. This association with Muskie led to a position as his chief legislative

Melanne Verveer

the President's Interagency Council on Women. First as Deputy Chief of Staff (1993-1996) and then as Chief of Staff to the First Lady (1997 2000), she served as Mrs. Clinton's chief assistant for her international activities. (See: Office of the First Lady of the United States) These included overseeing her global initiatives on women's rights as human rights, democracy-building micro enterprise, girls' education and other development programs. She organized the first lady's foreign trips to over 70 countries. She helped to create the US government's Vital Voices Democracy Initiative to promote women's economic and political progress. The initiative grew out

Madeleine Kunin

President Bill Clinton, serving as deputy secretary of education of the United States from 1993 until 1997, when she became the ambassador to her native Switzerland, as well as to Liechtenstein. Prior to joining the Clinton Administration she worked in Clinton's campaign as a member of the search committee for the Vice Presidential nominee and on the transition team. Kunin is the author of the books "The New Feminist Agenda: Defining the Next Revolution for Women, Work, and Family" (2012), "Pearls, Politics, and Power: How Women Can Win and Lead" (2008) and "Living a Political Life" (1995) which chronicles her

Madeleine Albright

by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by the Jefferson Awards Foundation. Following Albright's term as Secretary of State, many speculated that she might pursue a career in Czech politics. Czech President Václav Havel spoke openly about the possibility of Albright succeeding him. Albright was reportedly flattered, but denied ever seriously considering the possibility of running for office in her country of origin. In 2001, Albright was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Also in 2001, Albright founded the Albright Group, an international strategy consulting firm based in Washington, D.C. that

Political positions of Hillary Clinton

which was signed by President Jimmy Carter in 1980 but never ratified by the Senate. Clinton said in 2016 that if elected president, she will fill half of her Cabinet with women, a move that would be historic in the United States. Gender-equal cabinets are rare worldwide. Clinton gave an influential speech called "Women's Rights are Human Rights" on September 5, 1995 at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. In 2013, she launched a partnership between the Bill, Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to gather and study data on

Louise Fréchette

Ottawa. She was later promoted to deputy minister of national defense, the first woman to hold that position. In 1997, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan announced a series of reforms at the world body, including the creation of the position of deputy secretary-general to handle many of the administrative responsibilities which had previously been the responsibility of the secretary-general. Fréchette was offered the position and accepted and has been responsible for overseeing numerous reforms at the UN. While at the United Nations, Fréchette – working with her U.S. counterpart Madeleine K. Albright, among others – was pivotal in devising a

Madeleine Albright

on July 1, 1997. She along with the British contingents boycotted the swearing-in ceremony of the Chinese-appointed Hong Kong Legislative Council, which replaced the elected one. According to several accounts, Prudence Bushnell, U.S. Ambassador to Kenya, repeatedly asked Washington for additional security at the embassy in Nairobi, including in an April 1998 letter directly to Albright. Bushnell was ignored. She later stated that when she spoke to Albright about the letter, she told her that it had not been shown to her. In "Against All Enemies", Richard Clarke writes about an exchange with Albright several months after the U.S. embassies

United States Department of State

May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington; the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom." Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet when she was appointed Secretary of State in 1997. Condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Clinton became the third female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex


Question: During his visit in May 2009, the Pope was urged to complain about the state of what landmark between Israel and Jordan?

Nahr Al-Urdun
Jordan River (symbolism)
jordan river symbolism
River jordon
jordan river symbolic
river jordon
jordan river
river jordan
Yardein
Jordan (river)
jordan
nahr al urdun
The River Jordan
Jordan river
Jordan River (symbolic)
The Jordan
yardein
Jordan River Valley
Ha-Yarden
Jordan River
jordan river valley
River Jordan
Jordan river Valley
ha yarden

Palestinian Christians

government changes its treatment. They highlighted improved access to places of worship and ending the taxation of church properties as key concerns. The Pope began his five-day visit to Israel and the Palestinian Authority on Sunday, 10 May, planning to express support for the region's Christians. In response to Palestinian public statements, Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman Yigal Palmor criticized the political polarization of the papal visit, remarking that "[i]t will serve the cause of peace much better if this visit is taken for what it is, a pilgrimage, a visit for the cause of peace and unity". In November 2009,

Holy See–Israel relations

Wall not to allow bearing crosses during the Papal visit was thwarted at an early stage. At the Notre Dame Centre in Jerusalem, the same Imam Tamimi who had spoiled a similar inter-religious event during the papal visit in 2000, delivered an anti-Jewish invective in front of Pope Benedict, who interrupted the meeting by leaving earlier than planned. Gestures that could mean upgrading relations with Israel, were taken into account as well. Before entering Israel, the Pope made an unexpected gesture in his speech on Arab-Muslim soil on Mt. Nebo, invoking Moses, the Promised Land and its link to the

Holy See–Israel relations

"has never been and will never be used by the Catholic Church as a means of proselytism ... nor is it a disguised invitation to baptism." Without doubt, though, the positive highlight of Ratzinger's Papacy was the May 2009 visit of Pope Benedict XVI to Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian Authority – although this trip had at first been put in doubt because of persistent political fighting in Gaza. In November 2008, the first operative steps were set in motion in order to implement Pope Benedict's long-standing desire to visit Israel and the Holy Land. By securing official invitations from

Holy See–Israel relations

Israel and the Palestinian Authority in March 2000, within the framework of the Second Millennium celebrations. The long-time pre-announced Papal visit took place without a formal invitation – the Pope's personal desire overruling objections held by his advisors and of local Palestinian Catholics. The program included – among others – acts of recognition "de facto" by visiting the President at his official residence in Jerusalem. His personal affection towards Jews was demonstrated by the longer than planned visit at Yad Vashem, as he spoke to Holocaust survivors from Kraków. His dramatic gesture of asking forgiveness from God at the Western

Holy See–Israel relations

August 1978. He strongly defended inter-religious dialogue in the spirit of "Nostra aetate". He was also the first Pope to mention the Palestinian people by name. He voiced mild criticism of the Israeli policy towards the Palestinians, while refraining from expressing any actual positions on the solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict. In January 1964, he was the first Pope in modern times to visit Jordan and Israel. He had expressed his wish to visit Israel already in November 1962, when serving as Archbishop of Milan, and in December 1963 he announced such an intention as Pope. The visit took place

Criticism of the BBC

Criticism of the BBC

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) took its present form on 1 January 1927 when John Reith became its first Director-General. Reith stated that impartiality and objectivity were the essence of professionalism in broadcasting.

Allegations that the corporation lacks impartial and objective journalism are regularly made by observers on both the left and the right of the political spectrum.

Another key area of criticism is the mandatory licence fee, as commercial competitors argue that means of financing to be unfair and to result in limiting their ability to compete with the BBC.

Also, accusations of waste or over-staffing occasionally prompt comments from politicians and the other media.

Ken Loach

Ken Loach

Kenneth Charles Loach (born 17 June 1936) is a British film director and screenwriter. His socially critical directing style and socialist ideals are evident in his film treatment of social issues such as poverty ("Poor Cow", 1967), homelessness ("Cathy Come Home", 1966), and labour rights ("Riff-Raff", 1991, and "The Navigators", 2001).

Loach's film "Kes" (1969) was voted the seventh greatest British film of the 20th century in a poll by the British Film Institute. Two of his films, "The Wind That Shakes the Barley" (2006) and "I, Daniel Blake" (2016), received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, making him one of only nine filmmakers to win the award twice.

Nostra aetate

Nostra aetate

It is the shortest of the 16 final documents of the Council and "the first in Catholic history to focus on the relationship that Catholics have with Jews." Similarly, is considered a monumental declaration in describing the Church's positive relationship with Muslims. It "reveres the work of God in all the major faith traditions." It begins by stating its purpose of reflecting on what humankind has in common in these times when people are being drawn closer together. The preparation of the document was largely under the direction of Cardinal Augustin Bea as President of the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity, along with his "periti", such as John M. Oesterreicher, Gregory Baum and Bruno Hussar.

Following an approach by Jules Isaac, a French-born Jew who was associated with the Seelisberg Conference of the International Council of Christians and Jews, in which, he claimed that what he called "Christian antisemitism", had prepared the way for the Holocaust, a sympathetic Pope John XXIII endorsed the creation of a document which would address a new, less adversarial, approach to the relationship between the Catholic Church and Rabbinic Judaism. Within the Church, conservative Cardinals were suspicious and Middle Eastern Catholics strongly opposed the creation of such a document. With the Arab–Israeli conflict in full swing, the governments of Arab nations such as Egypt (in particular), Lebanon, Syria and Iraq vocally lobbied against its development (the document was subjected to several leaks during its development due to the involvement of the intelligence agencies of several nations). Jewish organisations such as the American Jewish Committee, B'nai B'rith and the World Jewish Congress also lobbied for their side with the assistance of sympathetic liberal clergymen.<section end=Modern criticism of the Catholic Church transclusion/> After going through numerous drafts, compromises were made and a statement was added on Islam to mollify the security concerns of the Arab Christians. Finally, statements on Eastern religions; Buddhism and Hinduism; were also added.

2000s

Diocletianic Persecution

Holy See–Israel relations

Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir at the Vatican, which was the first meeting between a Pope and an Israeli Prime Minister. At the meeting, the Pope brought up the issues of peace in the Middle East, refugees and the status of the holy places, but no agreement was reached. According to Meir's own account of the meeting, the Pope criticized the Israeli government for its treatment of the Palestinians, and she said in reply: Your Holiness, do you know what my earliest memory is? A pogrom in Kiev. When we were merciful and when we had no homeland and when

Holy See–Israel relations

recognized that the State of Israel has the right to exist, and to enjoy peace and security within internationally agreed borders. Let it be likewise acknowledged that the Palestinian people have a right to a sovereign independent homeland, to live with dignity and to travel freely." Pope Francis began his papacy with an expression of friendship towards the people of Israel when he met at the Vatican Israeli president Shimon Peres on 30 April 2013. During a meeting with Israeli Deputy Foreign Minister Ze'ev Elkin on 6 June 2013, the Pope announced it was his intention to visit Israel, but

Holy See–Israel relations

since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 that an Israeli citizen was appointed to that position. A major progress in relations between the Vatican and Israeli Rabbis took place in October 2008, when Rabbi Shear Yashuv Hacohen became the first ever Rabbi to speak before a Synod of Bishops at the Vatican. In early 2009, the Holy See officially protested about a TV program by Israeli comedian Lior Shlein, who claimed that Mary wasn't really a virgin and that Jesus did not walk on water. Throughout 2009, the "Permanent Bilateral Working Commission between Israel and the Holy

Pope Benedict XVI and Judaism

good" and said he believed there was "a lot of potential for the cooperation" between the Vatican and Israel. In May 2009, Pope Benedict XVI visited Israel to stress the shared roots of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He said that his pilgrimage to the Middle East was a reminder of the "inseparable bond" between the Catholic Church and the Jewish people. He spoke from Mount Nebo, the wind-swept hill overlooking the Jordan valley from where the Bible says Moses saw the Promised Land. The sun broke through the morning mist just before he arrived at the site. The Government of

Holy See–Israel relations

in January 1964. It was a clear expression of avoidance vis-a-vis any act that might be misconstrued as recognition of the State of Israel." Nostra aetate" had not yet been promulgated. Its aim, beyond the act of pilgrimage, was the meeting with the Greek-Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras in Jerusalem. He also met the Israeli President near Meggido, but Vatican official statements regarding the visit refrained from mentioning the State of Israel by name, rather referring to "the Holy Land". In October 1969, the Pope met at the Vatican Israeli Foreign Minister Abba Eban. On 15 January 1973, the Pope met

Holy See–Israel relations

we were weak, we were led to the gas chambers. Following the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, the Vatican attempted to mediate between the Israeli and Syrian governments on prisoners exchange. He would later voice his concern to Egyptian President Sadat, to the Syrian Ambassador to the Vatican, and to King Hussein of Jordan In 1978, he held a reception for Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Dayan on 12 January 1978, in which he expressed his concern for the Holy Places and the internationalization of Jerusalem. The Pontificate of John Paul I – brief as it was –

Holy See–Israel relations

chosen people, implying – perhaps – the Christians. Moreover, on the same occasion he stressed the inseparable link of Christianity to the Jewish people while invoking their common heritage of the Tanach (Old Testament) and their common tradition of pilgrimage. In Jerusalem, Benedict XVI paid a courtesy visit to the presidential residence, a gesture that was absent in Jordan and in the PA. In the newly designed presidential garden, both the host and the papal guest planted an olive tree. In his remarkable farewell speech, Pope Benedict raised the planting of the olive tree in Jerusalem to the rank of

Holy See–Israel relations

history have had a tense relationship, but now are firmly committed to building bridges of lasting friendship." During the reception that was held for him in Bethlehem on 13 May, the Pope said: the Holy See supports the right of your people to a sovereign Palestinian homeland in the land of your forefathers, secure and at peace with its neighbors, within internationally recognized borders. The political positions of the Holy See towards the PA and Israel were balanced. In his farewell speech before leaving to Rome on 15 May 2009, this balance was expressed as follows: "Let it be universally

Holy See–Israel relations

did not specify a date. On 3 December 2013, the pope met Prime Minister Netanyahu at the Vatican. During that visit, Netanyahu invited the Pope to visit Israel. Pope Francis visited Israel in May 2014. The Jerusalem Post noted in 2015 that Israelis give the Roman Catholic Church's Pope Francis the highest approval rating given by any non-Christian country, a higher rating than Israelis give to their country's Chief Rabbinate. Israelis participating in a Pew Research poll gave Pope Francis an approval rate of 50 percent, in contrast to the "very unfavorable" view of the Chief Rabbinate. Following an election

Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria

his first visit to Jordan, before attending the general assembly of the Middle East Council of Churches on 6 – 8 September (1 – 3 Pi Kogi Enavot). The pope also visited Mount Nebo and the baptism site of John the Baptist, and praised King Abdullah and Jordan for encouraging religious tolerance and protecting holy sites. In 2017, Pope Tawadros visited the United Kingdom and Ireland. On 10 September 2017 (8 Mesori 1733), Pope Tawadros II visited Australia to officially open Eporo Tower in the diocese of Bishop Suriel. On February 21, 2015 (Meshir 14, 1731), Pope Tawadros II announced

Holy See–Palestine relations

the Holy Land. John Paul II met with Yasser Arafat in 1987 and generally supported greater rights for Palestinians. He was an advocate of the 1990s peace negotiations. On February 15, 2000, the Holy See concluded a basic agreement with the Palestinian Authority. Pope Benedict made a 2009 trip to Jordan and Palestine, although the trip had been put in doubt because of persistent infighting in the Israeli-occupied Gaza. Pope Benedict has paid great attention to the sufferings of people in the Holy Land, and especially on the part of the Palestinian people. On 24 October 2010, the final statement

Holy See–Israel relations

protest of Israeli control over East Jerusalem. The Pope had a strategic aim to work for the upgrading of the positions of the Catholic communities in the Middle East from a passive minority to active citizens, participating in formulating their countries' agendas, as he pointed out in a speech made on 11 October 1992 at the Pontifical Lateran University. On 29 July 1992, a bilateral working commission titled "Permanent Bilateral Working Commission between Israel and the Holy See" was established to resolve issues of relations between the Israeli government and the Vatican. The Fundamental Agreement between the Holy See and

Foreign relations of Israel

refugees and repeated his call for an "international status" as the best form of protection for the holy places. In January 1964, Pope Paul VI visited Israel, the first such Papal visit. Following the Six-Day War, the Vatican modified its position on the holy places. In an address to the College of Cardinals in December 1967, Pope Paul VI called for a ""special statute", internationally guaranteed" for Jerusalem and the Holy Places, thus changing the previous demand for the internationalization of Jerusalem. Diplomatic relations between the Israeli government and the Vatican were established in 1994, following the conclusion of the

Holy See–Jordan relations

Paul II and Benedict XVI have made visits to Jordan. In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI made a visit to Jordan where he “ encouraged all Jordanians, whether Christian or Muslim, to build on the firm foundations of religious tolerance that enable the members of different communities to live together in peace and mutual respect. ... I want you to know that I hold in my heart the people of the Hashemite Kingdom and all who live throughout this region. ” Holy See–Jordan relations Holy See–Jordan relations are foreign relations between the Holy See and Jordan. Both countries established diplomatic relations

Holy See–Israel relations

Roman Jews vehemently object, vocal elements within the Roman Jewish community called for the cancellation of the Papal visit to their Great Synagogue. The Jewish leadership were faced with a resentful public, on one hand, and the realization that the cancellation of the visit would have dramatic import upon Jewish–Catholic relations. Thus, Israeli diplomatic channels were mobilized to lend the necessary support from Israel by increasing the scope of and upgrading the Israeli presence. The deputy Prime Minister was present, as was a high-level delegation of the Chief Rabbinate, and the opposition was greatly diffused. At the beginning of John


Question: What is the more common name for the white crystalline salt called hydrated sodium pyroborate?

borax
Na2B4O7·10H2O
🝄
atcvet code qs01ax07
Tincal
Sodium borate
Sodium tetraborate decahydrate
ATCvet code QS01AX07
Sodium tetraborate
na2b4o7·10h2o
Sodium Tetraborate
sodium boric acid
E285
Borax
Sodium boric acid
Na2B4O7
e285
sodium tetraborate
atc code s01ax07
tincal
na2b4o7
Sodium pyroborate
sodium tetraborate decahydrate
ATC code S01AX07
sodium pyroborate
🝂
sodium borate
disodium tetraborate
Disodium tetraborate
Na2b4o7
🝃

Sodium hypobromite

the synthesis of 3-aminopyridine from nicotinamide. The chemical formula of sodium hypobromite can be rearranged to NaBrO, which could be read as "Na Bro". This has provoked several jokes and memes on the internet, pointing out this seemingly hilarious coincidence. Sodium hypobromite Sodium hypobromite in the inorganic compound with the formula NaOBr. It is usually obtained as the pentahydrate, so the material that is usually called sodium hypobromite has the formula NaOBr.5HO. It is a yellow-orange solid that is soluble in water. It is the Na salt of OBr. It is the bromine analogue of sodium hypochlorite, the active ingredient

Sodium fluoroacetate

brand name. The salt is synthesized by treating sodium chloroacetate with potassium fluoride. Potassium fluoroacetate (as opposed to the commercially manufactured sodium salt) occurs naturally in at least 40 plant species in Australia, Brazil, and Africa. It was first identified in "Dichapetalum cymosum", commonly known as gifblaar (Afrikaans) or poison leaf, by Marais in 1944. As early as 1904, colonists in Sierra Leone used extracts of "Chailletia toxicaria", which also contains fluoroacetic acid or its salts, to poison rats. Several native Australian plant genera contain the toxin, including "Gastrolobium", "Gompholobium", "Oxylobium", "Nemcia", and "Acacia". "Gastrolobium" is a genus of flowering

Sodium hypobromite

Sodium hypobromite Sodium hypobromite in the inorganic compound with the formula NaOBr. It is usually obtained as the pentahydrate, so the material that is usually called sodium hypobromite has the formula NaOBr.5HO. It is a yellow-orange solid that is soluble in water. It is the Na salt of OBr. It is the bromine analogue of sodium hypochlorite, the active ingredient in common bleach. In practice the salt is usually encountered as an aqueous solution. Sodium hypobromite arises by treatment of aqueous solution of bromine with base: It can be prepared "in situ" for use as a reagent, such as in

Sodium dihydrogen arsenate

pyroarsenate salt NaHAsO. Sodium dihydrogen arsenate Sodium dihydrogen arsenate is the inorganic compound with the formula NaHAsO. Related salts are also called sodium arsenate, including NaHAsO (disodium hydrogen arsenate) and NaHAsO (sodium dihydrogen arsenate). Sodium dihydrogen arsenate is a colorless solid that is highly toxic. The salt is the conjugate base of arsenic acid: In the laboratory, it is prepared in this way, crystallizing from a hot saturated aqueous solution, where it is highly soluble when hot (75.3 g in 100 mL at 100 °C). It is obtained as the monohydrate. Upon heating, solid NaHAsOHO, loses water of crystallization and

Sodium hypophosphite

Sodium hypophosphite Sodium hypophosphite (NaPOH, also known as sodium phosphinate) is the sodium salt of hypophosphorous acid and is often encountered as the monohydrate, NaPOH·HO. It is a solid at room temperature, appearing as odorless white crystals. It is soluble in water, and easily absorbs moisture from the air. Sodium hypophosphite should be kept in a cool, dry place, isolated from oxidizing materials. It decomposes into phosphine which is irritating to the respiratory tract and disodium phosphate. Sodium hypophosphite is mainly used for electroless nickel plating (Ni-P). With this method, a durable nickel-phosphorus film can coat objects with irregular surfaces,

Borax

Borax

Borax is a salt (ionic compound), a hydrated borate of sodium, with chemical formula often written .<ref name="NIMH.borax"/> It is a colorless crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It is commonly available in powder or granular form, and has many industrial and household uses, including as a pesticide, as a metal soldering flux, as a component of glass, enamel, and pottery glazes, for tanning of skins and hides, for artificial aging of wood, as a preservative against wood fungus, and as a pharmaceutic alkalizer. In chemical laboratories, it is used as a buffering agent.<ref name="NIMH.borax"/><ref name=CompTox/>

The compound is often called sodium tetraborate decahydrate, but that name is not consistent with its structure. The anion is not tetraborate but tetrahydroxy tetraborate ,<ref name=mari1962/> so the more correct formula should be . Informally, the product is often called sodium borate decahydrate or just sodium borate.

The terms tincal "tinkle" and tincar "tinker" refer to native borax, historically mined from dry lake beds in various parts of Asia.<ref name=amoz2004/>

Sodium perborate

Sodium perborate

Sodium perborate is chemical compound whose chemical formula may be written , , or, more properly, ·. Its name is sometimes abbreviated as PBS (not to be confused with phosphate-buffered saline).

The compound is commonly encountered in anhydrous form or as a hexahydrate (commonly called "monohydrate" or PBS-1 and "tetrahydrate" or PBS-4, after the early assumption that would be the anhydrous form). They are both white, odorless, water-soluble solids.

This salt is widely used in laundry detergents, as one of the peroxide-based bleaches.

Metaborate

Metaborate

A metaborate is an anion (negative ion) consisting of boron and oxygen, with empirical formula ; or any salt with such anions, such as sodium metaborate, or calcium metaborate . It is one of the boron oxoanions or borates

In aqueous solutions this anion hydrolyzes to tetrahydroxyborate . For this reason, solutions or hydrated salts of the latter are often improperly named "metaborate".

Mirabilite

it is called máng xiāo. Its name is based on the phrase "Sal mirabilis" (Latin for "wonderful salt") used by Johann Rudolph Glauber when he inadvertently synthesized mirabilite. Mirabilite Mirabilite, also known as Glauber's salt, is a hydrous sodium sulfate mineral with the chemical formula NaSO·10HO. It is a vitreous, colorless to white monoclinic mineral that forms as an evaporite from sodium sulfate-bearing brines. It is found around saline springs and along saline playa lakes. Associated minerals include gypsum, halite, thenardite, trona, glauberite, and epsomite. Mirabilite is unstable and quickly dehydrates in dry air, the prismatic crystals turning into a

Sodium pyrosilicate

Sodium pyrosilicate Sodium pyrosilicate is the chemical compound . It is one of the sodium silicates, specifically a pyrosilicate, formally a salt of the unstable pyrosilicic acid . The anhydrous solid has the triclinic crystal structure, with space group (a = 5.8007(8) Å, b = 11.5811(15) Å, c = 23.157(3) Å, α = 89.709(10)°, β = 88.915(11)°, γ = 89.004(11)°, V = 1555.1(4) Å, Z = 8, Dx = 2.615 g·cm, μ(Mo‐Kα) = 7.94 cm). The anions are arranged in layers parallel to the (100) plane, with the sodium cations distributed in 24 distinct crystallographic positons, coordinated by 4 to

Sodium sesquicarbonate

Sodium sesquicarbonate Sodium sesquicarbonate (Systematic name trisodium hydrogendicarbonate) NaH(CO) is a double salt of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate, and has a needle-like crystal structure. However, the term is also applied to an equimolar mixture of those two salts, with whatever water of hydration the sodium carbonate includes, supplied as a powder. The dihydrate, NaH(CO)·2HO, occurs in nature as the evaporite mineral trona. Due to concerns about the toxicity of borax which was withdrawn as a cleaning and laundry product, sodium sesquicarbonate is sold in the European Union (EU) as "Borax Substitute". It is also known as one of the

Mirabilite

Mirabilite Mirabilite, also known as Glauber's salt, is a hydrous sodium sulfate mineral with the chemical formula NaSO·10HO. It is a vitreous, colorless to white monoclinic mineral that forms as an evaporite from sodium sulfate-bearing brines. It is found around saline springs and along saline playa lakes. Associated minerals include gypsum, halite, thenardite, trona, glauberite, and epsomite. Mirabilite is unstable and quickly dehydrates in dry air, the prismatic crystals turning into a white powder, thenardite (NaSO). In turn, thenardite can also absorb water and converts to mirabilite. Mirabilite is used as a purgative in the Traditional Chinese medicine; in Mandarin,

Sodium silicate

Sodium silicate Sodium silicate is a generic name for chemical compounds with the formula or ·, such as sodium metasilicate , sodium orthosilicate , and sodium pyrosilicate . The anions are often polymeric. These compounds are generally colorless transparent solids or white powders, and soluble in water in various amounts. Sodium silicate is also the technical and common name for a mixture of such compounds, chiefly the metasilicate, also called waterglass, water glass, or liquid glass. The product has a wide variety of uses, including the formulation of cements, passive fire protection, textile and lumber processing, manufacture of refractory ceramics,

Sodium thiosulfate

produce a white precipitate: Alkylation of sodium thiosulfate gives "S"-alkylthiosulfates, which are called Bunte salts. The alkylthiosulfates are susceptible to hydrolysis, affording the thiol. This reaction is illustrated by one synthesis of thioglycolic acid: Sodium thiosulfate Sodium thiosulfate (sodium thiosulphate) is a chemical and medication. As a medication it is used to treat cyanide poisoning and pityriasis versicolor. It is an inorganic compound with the formula NaSOHO. Typically it is available as the white or colorless pentahydrate, NaSO·5HO. The solid is an efflorescent (loses water readily) crystalline substance that dissolves well in water. It is also called sodium hyposulfite or

Sodium borohydride

The solid is known to exist as three polymorphs: "α", "β" and "γ". The stable phase at room temperature and pressure is "α"-NaBH, which is cubic and adopts an NaCl-type structure, in the "Fm3m" space group. At a pressure of 6.3 GPa, the structure changes to the tetragonal "β"-NaBH (space group "P42c") and at 8.9 GPa, the orthorhombic "γ"-NaBH (space group "Pnma") becomes the most stable. For commercial NaBH4 production, the Brown-Schlesinger process and the Bayer process are the most popular methods. In the Brown-Schlesinger process Sodium borohydride is industrially prepared following the original method of Schlesinger: sodium hydride (produced

Sodium polytungstate

Sodium polytungstate Sodium polytungstate (SPT) is a compound which has been successfully used in the manufacture of heavy liquids for a relatively short period. Solid SPT exists as white crystals and aqueous SPT is a light yellow-green transparent solution. In powder form, SPT is a 12-fold aggregated isopolytungstate with a molar mass of 2986.12 g/Mol. The structure of polytungstate is modelled using octahedra in which the oxygen atoms are located at the corners and the tungsten atoms at the center of the octahedra. When represented as a spherical model, the oxygen atoms form a dense spherical shell while the tungsten

Sodium perborate

of a cyclic –B–O–O–B–O–O– core with two hydroxy groups attached to each boron atom. The ring adopts a chair conformation. The compound also crystallizes from water as the hexahydrate, ·6, that is, or . The anhydrous compound is commonly but incorrectly called a "monohydrate" after the original formulation · instead of the correct . Likewise, the hexahydrate is usually called "tetrahydrate" and formulated as ·4. Both forms are white, odorless, water-soluble solids. The "monohydrate" and the "tetrahydrate" are the commercially important forms. Sodium perborate undergoes hydrolysis in contact with water, producing hydrogen peroxide and borate. More precisely, in solution the

Sodium

sphere and may explode. The reaction produces caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and flammable hydrogen gas. When burned in air, it forms primarily sodium peroxide with some sodium oxide. Sodium tends to form water-soluble compounds, such as halides, sulfates, nitrates, carboxylates and carbonates. The main aqueous species are the aquo complexes [Na(HO)], where "n" = 4–8; with "n" = 6 indicated from X-ray diffraction data and computer simulations. Direct precipitation of sodium salts from aqueous solutions is rare because sodium salts typically have a high affinity for water; an exception is sodium bismuthate (NaBiO). Because of this, sodium salts are usually

Nitratine

Nitratine Nitratine or nitratite, also known as "cubic niter" (UK: "nitre"), "soda niter" or "Chile saltpeter" (UK: "Chile saltpetre"), is a mineral, the naturally occurring form of sodium nitrate, NaNO. Chemically it is the sodium analogue of saltpeter. Nitratine crystallizes in the trigonal system, but rarely occurs as well formed crystals. It is isostructural with calcite. It is quite soft and light with a Mohs hardness of 1.5 to 2 and a specific gravity of 2.24 to 2.29. Its refractive indices are nω=1.587 and nε=1.336. The typical form is as coatings of white, grey to yellowish brown masses. The rare

Water of crystallization

salt, NaSO(HO), is a white crystalline solid with greater than 50% water by weight. Consider the case of nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate. This species has the formula NiCl(HO). Crystallographic analysis reveals that the solid consists of ["trans"-NiCl(HO)] subunits that are hydrogen bonded to each other as well as two additional molecules of HO. Thus 1/3 of the water molecules in the crystal are not directly bonded to Ni, and these might be termed "water of crystallization". The water content of most compounds can be determined with a knowledge of its formula. An unknown sample can be determined through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

Sodium monothiophosphate

Sodium monothiophosphate Sodium monothiophosphate, or sodium phosphorothioate, is a inorganic compound with the molecular formula NaPOS(HO). All are white solids. The anhydrous material (x = 0) decomposes without melting at 120-125 °C. More common is the dodecahydrate. A nonahydrate is also known. Related salts are the "di"thiophosphate NaPSO11HO, "tri"thiophosphate NaPSO11HO, and "tetra"thiophosphate NaPS8HO. Sodium monothiophosphate is prepared by the base hydrolysis of thiophosphoryl chloride using aqueous sodium hydroxide: This reaction affords the dodecahydrate, which is easily dehydrated. Partial dehydration over 6.5 M HSO gives the nonahydrate. Under flowing N2, the anhydrous salt is formed. Sodium phosphorothiolate decomposes at neutral pH.

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound with the formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting of sodium cations and hydroxide anions . Sodium hydroxide is a highly caustic base and alkali that decomposes proteins at ordinary ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns. It is highly soluble in water, and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air. It forms a series of hydrates NaOH·"n". The monohydrate NaOH· crystallizes from water solutions between 12.3 and 61.8 °C. The commercially available "sodium hydroxide" is often this monohydrate,

Sodium carbonate

Sodium carbonate Sodium carbonate, , (also known as washing soda, soda ash and soda crystals, and in the monohydrate form as crystal carbonate) is the water-soluble sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline decahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate. Pure sodium carbonate is a white, odorless powder that is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the air). It has a strongly alkaline taste, and forms a moderately basic solution in water. Sodium carbonate is well known domestically for its everyday use as a water softener. Historically it was extracted from the ashes


Question: "Which country launched the space station ""Skylab"" in 1973?"

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Unites States
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Untied States
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1970s

The year 1979 witnessed the spectacular reentry of Skylab over Australia. NASA had planned for a shuttle mission to the space station, but the shuttles were not ready to fly until 1981, too late to save it. Meanwhile, the Soviets, having failed completely in their attempt at manned lunar landings, canceled the program in 1972. By then, however, they had already begun Salyut, the world's first space station program, which began in 1971. This would have problems of its own, especially the tragic loss of the Soyuz 11 crew in July 1971 and the near-loss of the Soyuz 18a crew

Skylab

Skylab Skylab was a United States space station launched and operated by NASA, and occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974 – the only space station the U.S. has operated exclusively. In 1979 it fell back to Earth amid huge worldwide media attention. Skylab included a workshop, a solar observatory, and other systems necessary for crew survival and scientific experiments. It was launched unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a weight of . Lifting Skylab into low earth orbit was the final mission and launch of a Saturn V rocket (famous for carrying the

Voyage (novel)

bombing missions in Cambodia during the Vietnam War whose dream is to be the first black man in space, and Phil Stone, a veteran Air Force test pilot-turned-astronaut who has flown in a long-term stay on a lunar orbital station before the Mars mission. In the 1970s, the Skylab Space Station is launched, but apparently as a wet workshop design that is based on the Saturn IB S-IVB upper stage called "Skylab A". The Saturn V that might have launched Skylab in our timeline instead launches "Skylab B", a lunar orbit space station unofficially named "Moonlab", also a wet workshop

Skylab

be deployed with the Space Shuttle and returned to Earth. The next American major space station project was Space Station Freedom, which was merged into the International Space Station in 1993 and launched starting in 1998. Shuttle-Mir was another project and led to the US funding Spektr, Priroda, and the Mir Docking Module in the 1990s. There was a Skylab Rescue mission assembled for the second manned mission to Skylab, but it was not needed. Another rescue mission was assembled for the last Skylab and was also on standby for ASTP. That launch stack might have been used for Skylab

U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps

also the only space station NASA launched alone. The 100-ton space station was in Earth's orbit from 1973 to 1979 and it was visited by crews three times in 1973 and 1974. Circling 50 degrees north and south of the equator at an altitude of , Skylab had an orbital period of 93 minutes. There were a plethora of UV astronomy experiments done during the Skylab lifetime, as well as detailed X-ray studies of the Sun. The station was active until July 11, 1979, when it fell out of orbit. The 10-cent Skylab commemorative stamp first day of release took

Space station

Space station

A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time, and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite (i.e. a type of orbital spaceflight). Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dock to transfer crew and supplies. The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred.

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station Salyut 1 (1971) and its tragic Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, with its first occupation in 2000.
The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.

, there are two fully operational space stations in low Earth orbit (LEO) – the International Space Station (ISS) and China's "Tiangong" Space Station (TSS). The ISS has been permanently inhabited since October 2000 with the Expedition 1 crews and the TSS began continuous inhabitation with the Shenzhou 14 crews in June 2022. These stations are used to study the effects of spaceflight on the human body, as well as to provide a location to conduct a greater number and longer length of scientific studies than is possible on other space vehicles. In 2022, the TSS finished its phase 1 construction with the addition of two lab modules, Wentian ("Quest for the Heavens") launched on 24 July 2022 and Mengtian ("Dreaming of the Heavens") launched on 31 October 2022, joining the ISS as the most recent space station operating in orbit. In July 2022, Russia announced intentions to withdraw from the ISS after 2024 in order to build its own space station. There have been numerous decommissioned space stations, including USSR's "Salyuts", Russia's "Mir", NASA's "Skylab", and China's "Tiangong 1" and "Tiangong 2".

Apollo program

only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself reentered the atmosphere in 1979. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation space flight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs. In September

Skylab

that would have aimed Skylab for a controlled deorbit. The mission would have launched in April 1974 and supported later use by the Space Shuttle, at the time in development, by boosting the station to higher orbit. In addition to the flown Skylab space station, a second flight-quality backup Skylab space station had been built during the program. NASA considered using it for a second station in May 1973 or later, to be called Skylab B (S-IVB 515), but decided against it. Launching another Skylab with another Saturn V rocket would have been very costly, and it was decided to

Skylab B

Skylab B Skylab B was a proposed second US space station similar to Skylab that was planned to be launched by NASA for different purposes, mostly involving the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, but was canceled due to lack of funding. Two Skylab modules were built in 1970 by McDonnell Douglas for the Skylab program, originally the Apollo Applications Program. The first was launched in 1973 and the other put in storage, while NASA considered how to use the remaining assets from Apollo. One considered option was to use Saturn V SA-515 to launch the backup Skylab station into orbit sometime between

Skylab B

launching the back-up Skylab station during the ASTP mission in 1975, which would involve the Apollo spacecraft docking with the Soyuz spacecraft first, performing intended operations, then heading for the Skylab B, which during the ASTP discussion was originally called the International Skylab, for a 56–90 days extended mission. Actually the earlier suggestion by McDonnell Douglas was to achieve a massive station by combining Salyut 1 with Skylab B. This would be achieved by launching an Apollo with a multiple docking adapter with 4 docking ports to be able to dock both stations and a both servicing vehicles (Soyuz and

Space Race

that it would not hold pressure. All of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, but some of them were covers for the military Almaz reconnaissance stations. The United States launched the orbital workstation Skylab 1 on May 14, 1973. It weighed , was long by in diameter, with a habitable volume of . Skylab was damaged during the ascent to orbit, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent crewed missions repaired the station, and the final mission's crew, Skylab 4, set the Space Race endurance record with 84 days in

Space research

days in the space station, but this achievement was quickly overshadowed since the crew died on reentry to Earth. Salyut 1 was intentionally deorbited six months into orbit since it prematurely ran out of fuel. Skylab was the first American space station. It was 4 times larger than Salut 1. Skylab was launched in May 19, 1973. It rotated through three crews of three during its operational time. Skylab’s experiments confirmed coronal holes and were able to photograph eight solar flares. From 1986 to 2001, Russian space station Mir served as a permanent microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted

Skylab B

Apollo). For future missions, the station, which would have then been called the Advanced Skylab, could have been expanded by the Space Shuttle, which was due to enter service in 1979. At the time (1973) the idea was discussed, NASA still had two Saturn V launchers (SA-514 and SA-515), three Saturn IB boosters (SA-209, SA-210, SA-211), the back-up Skylab space station (Skylab B), three Apollo CSMs (CSM-117, CSM-118 and CSM-119) and two Lunar Modules in storage (LM-13, LM-14). However, after the first Skylab was launched in May 1973, the plan for the Skylab B was canceled and the Apollo/Soyuz spacecraft

Skylab 3

Skylab 3 is currently on display at the visitor's center of the NASA Glenn Research Center at the Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland, Ohio. The module used to be at Glenn visitor center, and was moved to the Great Lakes Science Center in June 2010. It took a year to plan and 120,000 USD to move the capsule. Skylab 3 Skylab 3 (also SL-3 and SLM-2) was the second manned mission to the first American space station, Skylab. The mission began July 28, 1973, with the launch of three astronauts on the Saturn IB rocket, and lasted 59 days,

Skylab 2

Skylab 2 Skylab 2 (also SL-2 and SLM-1) was the first manned mission to Skylab, the first U.S. orbital space station. The mission was launched on a Saturn IB rocket on May 25, 1973, and carried a three-person crew to the station. The name Skylab 2 also refers to the vehicle used for that mission. The Skylab 2 mission established a twenty-eight-day record for human spaceflight duration. Furthermore, its crew were the first space station occupants ever to return safely to Earth – the only previous space station occupants, the crew of the 1971 Soyuz 11 mission that had manned

Skylab 4

Skylab 4 Skylab 4 (also SL-4 and SLM-3) was the third manned Skylab mission and placed the third and final crew aboard the first American space station. The mission started on November 16, 1973 with the launch of three astronauts on a Saturn IB rocket from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida and lasted 84 days, one hour and 16 minutes. A total of 6,051 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by Skylab 4 astronauts performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities, solar observations, Earth resources, observation of the Comet Kohoutek and other experiments. The manned Skylab missions were officially designated

Skylab B

January 1975 and April 1976. That way, it could expand the Apollo-Soyuz mission by 56–90 days. Further proposals were made for an International Skylab, launched using Saturn V SA-514. This station would have been serviced by Apollo, Soyuz and later by the Space Shuttle. Some uses considered for the second Skylab module included putting it into a rotation mode where it could generate artificial gravity and a plan to celebrate the 1976 United States Bicentennial with the launch of two Soviet Soyuz missions to the back-up Skylab. When the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project was created in 1972, NASA had also considered

Skylab controversy

though none of the astronauts returned to space, there was only one more NASA spaceflight in the decade and Skylab was the first and last all-American space station. NASA was planning larger space stations but its budget shrank considerably after the Moon landings, and the Skylab orbital workshop was the only major execution of Apollo application projects. Though the final Skylab mission became known for the incident, it was also known for the large amount of work that was accomplished in the long mission. Skylab orbited for six more years before decaying in 1979 due to higher-than-anticipated solar activity. The

Skylab 3

Skylab 3 Skylab 3 (also SL-3 and SLM-2) was the second manned mission to the first American space station, Skylab. The mission began July 28, 1973, with the launch of three astronauts on the Saturn IB rocket, and lasted 59 days, 11 hours and 9 minutes. A total of 1,084.7 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by the Skylab 3 crew performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities, solar observations, Earth resources, and other experiments. The manned Skylab missions were officially designated "Skylab 2", "3", and "4". Mis-communication about the numbering resulted in the mission emblems reading "Skylab I", "Skylab

Atmospheric entry

On February 7, 1991, the Soviet Salyut 7 space station (), with the Kosmos 1686 module () attached, reentered and scattered debris over the town of Capitan Bermudez, Argentina. The station had been boosted to a higher orbit in August 1986 in an attempt to keep it up until 1994, but in a scenario similar to Skylab, the planned Buran shuttle was cancelled and high solar activity caused it to come down sooner than expected. On September 7, 2011, NASA announced the impending uncontrolled reentry of the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite () and noted that there was a small risk

Jack Kinzler

at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, which included approximately 180 technicians skilled in the various tasks required by the space program, including machining and sheet metal work, welding, electronics, modeling, plastics, and electroplating, along with a field test branch. Kinzler led the Division from 1961 until his retirement in 1977. On May 14, 1973, NASA launched Skylab, the United States' first space station. During the launch, a meteorite shield prematurely deployed, which ripped off the shield and one of the station's solar panels, and the debris prevented another solar panel from fully deploying. Without protection from the solar heat