Question: What is a more formal name for ear wax?

impacted wax
Impacted wax
Ear wax
earwax removal
cerumen
earwax
Cerumen
earwaxes
Earwaxes
cerumen aurium
Earwax impaction
ear wax
Earwax
Cerumen aurium
earwax impaction
Earwax removal

Ear pick

to remove wax is discouraged by some health professionals for fear of damaging the ear and causing infections. Other than the wide variety of materials used to make them, ear picks vary widely in their tips and embellishments. Disposable plastic ear picks with a cotton swab at one end are increasingly popular. Ear picks are a commonly used item and preferred for ear wax removal in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia, whose dry type of ear wax can be easily removed using the tool. It can be used individually or by another person. The person having his/her ears

Earwax

Earwax Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a gray, orange, or yellowish waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals. It protects the skin of the human ear canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication, and also provides some protection against bacteria, fungi, insects, and water. Earwax consists of shed skin cells, hair, and the secretions of the ceruminous and sebaceous glands of the outside ear canal. Major components of earwax are long chain fatty acids, both saturated and unsaturated, alcohols, squalene, and cholesterol. Excess or compacted cerumen can press against the eardrum or

Earwax

ear. This demonstrates that the waxy residue is derived from the candle itself and not the ear. The color of the candle wax matches the light brown-colored wax of the human ear, making the distinction between the two waxes more difficult for a layperson. Because the candle itself is a hollow tube, some of the hot burnt wax could drop down inside the candle, into the ear canal, potentially injuring the eardrum. The American Academy of Otolaryngology states that ear candles are not a safe option for removing ear wax, and that no controlled studies or scientific evidence support their

Ear pick

ear wax may be pushed deeper into the ear canal rather than removed. The lining of the ear is delicate and can be easily damaged. The ear is also self-cleaning and earwax is needed to protect the ear from dirt, dust, and bacterial infections. Ear pick Ear picks, also called ear scoops, or ear spoons, or earpicks, are a type of curette used to clean the ear canal of earwax (cerumen). They are preferred and are commonly used in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia because Asians tend to develop dry ear wax. In Asia, these are traditionally made

Earwax

ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is an alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the unlit end in the ear canal. It, however, is not recommended as it is both dangerous and ineffective. Advocates say that the dark residue that shows after the procedure consists of extracted earwax, proving the efficacy of the procedure. Studies have shown that the same dark residue is left, whether or not the candle (which is made of cotton fabric and beeswax and leaves a residue after burning) is inserted into an

Earwax

Earwax

Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a brown, orange, red, yellowish or gray waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals. It protects the skin of the human ear canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication, and provides protection against bacteria, fungi, and water.

Earwax consists of dead skin cells, hair, and the secretions of cerumen by the ceruminous and sebaceous glands of the outer Major components of earwax are long chain fatty acids, both saturated and unsaturated, alcohols, squalene, and cholesterol.<ref name="jo"/> Excess or compacted cerumen is the buildup of ear wax causing a blockage in the ear canal<ref name = "Khan_2007" /> and it can press against the eardrum or block the outside ear canal or hearing aids, potentially causing hearing loss.

Ear pick

Ear pick

Ear picks, also called ear scoops, or ear spoons, or earpicks, are a type of curette used to clean the ear canal of earwax (cerumen). They are preferred and are commonly used in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia because Asians tend to develop dry ear wax.

In Asia, these are traditionally made from bamboo or precious metals such as silver or gold, but more commonly now, from stainless steel or plastic. European ear scoops produced up to the early 19th century were made from either bronze or precious metals such as silver.

Use of ear picks to remove wax is discouraged by some health professionals for fear of damaging the ear and causing infections. It has also been attributed to impacting ear wax into the ear canal, making it more difficult to remove.

Ear

Ear

An ear is the organ that enables hearing and, in mammals, body balance using the vestibular system. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation.

The ear develops from the first pharyngeal pouch and six small swellings that develop in the early embryo called otic placodes, which are derived from ectoderm.

The ear may be affected by disease, including infection and traumatic damage. Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss, tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo, although many of these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural pathways leading from the ear.

The ear has been adorned by earrings and other jewelry in numerous cultures for thousands of years, and has been subjected to surgical and cosmetic alterations.

Ear candling

Ear candling

Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claiming to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.

Ear drop

Ear drop

Ear drops are a form of topical medication for the ears used to treat infection, inflammation, impacted ear wax and local anesthesia. They are commonly used for short-term treatment and can be purchased with or without a prescription. Before using ear drops, refer to the package insert or consult a health professional for the amount of drops to use and the duration of treatment.

Ear pick

Earwax

use for ear wax removal. The Food and Drug Administration has successfully taken several regulatory actions against the sale and distribution of ear candles since 1996, including seizing ear candle products and ordering injunctions. Home "ear vacs" were ineffective at removing ear-wax, especially when compared to a Jobson-Horne probe. A postal survey of British general practitioners found that only 19% always performed cerumen removal themselves. It is problematic as the removal of cerumen is not without risk, and physicians and nurses often have inadequate training for removal. Irrigation can be performed at home with proper equipment as long as the

Cerumenolytic

Cerumenolytic A cerumenolytic is an ear wax (cerumen) softening agent. Common cerumenolytics such as hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen peroxide - urea are topical preparations used to facilitate the removal of ear wax. Their side effects tend to be mild, including ear discomfort, transient loss of hearing, dizziness, and local irritation. Cerumenolytics are used to soften and break up ear wax. Using a cerumenolytic can reduce the need for flushing the ear with irrigants for wax removal. Additionally, cerumenolytics can also facilitate the manual removal of ear wax. Overall, all cerumenolytics are considered to be equivalent in efficacy. Cerumenolytics are administered

Surfer's ear

ear. Surfer's ear Surfer's ear is the common name for an exostosis or abnormal bone growth within the ear canal. Surfer's ear is not the same as swimmer's ear, although infection can result as a side effect. Irritation from cold wind and water exposure causes the bone surrounding the ear canal to develop lumps of new bony growth which constrict the ear canal. Where the ear canal is actually blocked by this condition, water and wax can become trapped and give rise to infection. The condition is so named due to its prevalence among cold water surfers. Warm water surfers

Earwax

block the outside ear canal or hearing aids, potentially causing hearing loss. Cerumen is produced in the outer third of the cartilaginous portion of the ear canal. It is a mixture of viscous secretions from sebaceous glands and less-viscous ones from modified apocrine sweat glands. The primary components of earwax are shed layers of skin, with, on average, 60% of the earwax consisting of keratin, 12–20% saturated and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, alcohols, squalene and 6–9% cholesterol. There are two distinct genetically determined types of earwax: the wet type, which is dominant, and the dry type, which is recessive. While

Surfer's ear

Surfer's ear Surfer's ear is the common name for an exostosis or abnormal bone growth within the ear canal. Surfer's ear is not the same as swimmer's ear, although infection can result as a side effect. Irritation from cold wind and water exposure causes the bone surrounding the ear canal to develop lumps of new bony growth which constrict the ear canal. Where the ear canal is actually blocked by this condition, water and wax can become trapped and give rise to infection. The condition is so named due to its prevalence among cold water surfers. Warm water surfers are

Earwax

by light scraping with an ear pick, as it simply falls out in large pieces or dry flakes. It is generally advised not to use cotton swabs (Q-Tips or cotton buds), as doing so will likely push the wax farther down the ear canal, and if used carelessly, perforate the eardrum. Abrasion of the ear canal, particularly after water has entered from swimming or bathing, can lead to ear infection. Also, the cotton head may fall off and become lodged in the ear canal. Therefore, cotton swabs should be used only to clean the external ear. Ear candling, also called

Cerumenolytic

directly into the ear, which is a form of topical administration that can be specified as "ototopical." Generally, the use of a cerumenolytic involves instilling several drops of the product into the affected ear once or twice daily for a treatment duration of 3 to 5 days. Each instillation is relatively quick (less than 5 minutes) and can be done either at home or in a clinical setting. However, like all ear wax treatments, the ear wax can reaccumulate in the ear after treatment, necessitating further treatment. Cerumenolytics are not recommended in children less than 3 years-old. Cerumenolytics are available

Ear canal

bony part is much shorter in children and is only a ring ("annulus tympanicus") in the newborn. Size and shape of the canal vary among individuals. The canal is approximately long and in diameter. It has a sigmoid form and runs from behind and above downward and forward. On the cross-section, it is of oval shape. These are important factors to consider when fitting earplugs. Due to its relative exposure to the outside world, the ear canal is susceptible to diseases and other disorders. Some disorders include: Earwax, also known as cerumen, is a yellowish, waxy substance secreted in the

Earwax

method of cerumen removal is syringing with warm water. A curette method is more likely to be used by otolaryngologists when the ear canal is partially occluded and the material is not adhering to the skin of the ear canal. Cotton swabs, on the other hand, push most of the earwax farther into the ear canal and remove only a small portion of the top layer of wax that happens to adhere to the fibers of the swab. This process is referred to as "cerumenolysis". Topical preparations for the removal of earwax may be better than no treatment, and there

ABCC11

of Asia via migration of the ancient tribe. The gene spread as a result of it being a beneficial adaption or through an evolutionary neutral mutation mechanism that went through genetic drift events. The frequency of alleles for dry ear wax and odorless sweat is most concentrated in East- and Northeast Asia, most notably Korea, China, Mongolia, and western Japan. Conversely the frequency of the allele for wet ear wax and odored sweat are highest in African-American and sub-saharan populations. A downward gradient of dry ear wax allele phenotypes can be drawn from northern China to southern Asia and a

Ear hair

Ear hair Ear hair generally refers to the terminal hair arising from folliculary cartilage inside the external auditory meatus in humans. In its broader sense, "ear hair" may also include the fine vellus hair covering much of the ear, particularly at the prominent parts of the anterior ear, or even the abnormal hair growth as seen in hypertrichosis and hirsutism. Medical research on the function of ear hair is currently very scarce. Hair growth within the ear canal is often observed to increase in older men, together with increased growth of nose hair. Visible hair that protrudes from the ear

Ear candling

Ear candling Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is an alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not help remove earwax or toxicants. Edzard Ernst has published critically on the subject of ear candles, noting, "There is no data to suggest that it is effective for any condition. Furthermore, ear candles have been associated with ear injuries. The inescapable conclusion is that ear

Ear candling

frequency or duration, prescribed, recommended, or suggested in the labeling thereof" ... "since the use of a lit candle in the proximity of a person's face would carry a high risk of causing potentially severe skin/hair burns and middle ear damage." A 2007 paper in the journal "Canadian Family Physician" concludes: A 2007 paper in "American Family Physician" said: The Spokane Ear, Nose, and Throat Clinic conducted a research study in 1996 which concluded that ear candling does not produce negative pressure and was ineffective in removing wax from the ear canal. Several studies have shown that ear candles produce

Earwax

person is careful not to irrigate too hard. All other methods should be carried out only by individuals who have been sufficiently trained in the procedure. The author Bull advised physicians: ""After removal of wax, inspect thoroughly to make sure none remains. This advice might seem superfluous, but is frequently ignored."" This was confirmed by Sharp et al., who, in a survey of 320 general practitioners, found that only 68% of doctors inspected the ear canal after syringing to check that the wax was removed. As a result, failure to remove the wax from the canal made up approximately 30%


Question: Where are St. Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel?

apostolic palace st peter s basilica vatican city

Apostolic Palace & St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City

Apostolic Palace

di Sisto V). It is located northeast of St Peter's Basilica and adjacent to the Bastion of Nicholas V and Palace of Gregory XIII. The Apostolic Palace houses both residential and support offices of various functions as well as administrative offices not focused on the life and functions of the Pope himself. Perhaps the best known of the Palace chapels is the Sistine Chapel named in honor of Sixtus IV (Francesco della Rovere). It is famous for its decoration that was frescoed throughout by Renaissance artists including Michelangelo, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and others. One of the

St. Peter's Basilica

Julii". (See below for some descriptions of tombs). Recently installed commemorative plaques read as follows: List of archpriests of the Vatican Basilica: St. Peter's Basilica The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican (), or simply St. Peter's Basilica (), is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and the largest church in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral

Sistine Chapel

light-and-sound demonstration explains the content of each of the frescoes. Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna", the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in

Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna", the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who restored it between 1477 and 1480. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescos that decorate the interior, and most particularly the

St. Peter's Basilica

St. Peter's Basilica The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican (), or simply St. Peter's Basilica (), is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome. Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and the largest church in the world. While it is neither the mother church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome, St. Peter's is regarded as one of the holiest Catholic shrines. It has been described as "holding

St. Peter's Basilica

St. Peter's Basilica

The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican (), or simply Saint Peter's Basilica (), is a church built in the Renaissance style located in Vatican City, the papal enclave that is within the city of Rome, Italy. It was initially planned by Pope Nicholas V and then Pope Julius II to replace the aging Old St. Peter's Basilica, which was built in the fourth century by Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Construction of the present basilica began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626.

Designed principally by Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, St. Peter's is the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom."

Catholic tradition holds that the basilica is the burial site of Saint Peter, chief among Jesus's apostles and also the first Bishop of Rome (Pope). Saint Peter's tomb is supposedly directly below the high altar of the basilica, also known as the "Altar of the Confession". For this reason, many popes have been interred at St. Peter's since the Early Christian period.

St. Peter's is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year both within the basilica or the adjoining St. Peter's Square; these liturgies draw audiences numbering from 15,000 to over 80,000 people. St. Peter's has many historical associations, with the Early Christian Church, the Papacy, the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-reformation and numerous artists, especially Michelangelo. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age.

Sistine Chapel ceiling

Sistine Chapel ceiling

The Sistine Chapel ceiling (), painted in fresco by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art. The Sistine Chapel is the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. The ceiling was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II.

The ceiling's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel. Prior to Michelangelo's contribution, the walls were painted by several leading artists of the late 15th century including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Pietro Perugino. After the ceiling was painted, Raphael created a set of large tapestries (1515–1516) to cover the lower portion of the wall. Michelangelo returned to the chapel to create "The Last Judgment", a large wall fresco situated behind the altar. The chapel's decoration illustrates much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church, serving as the location for papal conclaves and many other important services.

Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, including the famous "Creation of Adam". The complex design includes several sets of figures, some clothed and some nude, allowing Michelangelo to fully demonstrate his skill in depicting the human figure in a wide variety of poses. The ceiling was immediately well-received and imitated by other artists, continuing to the present. It has been restored multiple times, most recently in the late 20th century.

Sistine Chapel Choir

Sistine Chapel Choir

The Sistine Chapel Choir, as it is generally called in English, or officially the Coro della Cappella Musicale Pontificia Sistina in Italian, is the Pope's personal choir. It performs at papal functions in the Sistine Chapel and in any other church in Rome where the Pope is officiating, including St. Peter's Basilica. One of the oldest choirs in the world, it was constituted as the Pope's personal choir by Pope Sixtus IV (from whom both the choir and the chapel in which it performs take their names). Although it was established in the late 15th century, its roots go back to the 4th century and the reign of Pope Sylvester I.

The choir's composition and numbers have fluctuated over the centuries. However, the modern choir comprises twenty men (tenors and basses) and thirty boys (sopranos and altos). The men's choir ("Cantori") is composed of professional singers. The members of the boys choir ("Pueri Cantores") are not paid when performing at papal functions, but receive a free education at their own school in Rome, known as the "Schola Puerorum". Since the late 20th century, in addition to its papal duties, the choir has undertaken international tours, participated in radio and television broadcasts, and recorded for Deutsche Grammophon.

Art patronage of Julius II

Art patronage of Julius II

Pope Julius II (reigned 1503–1513), commissioned a series of highly influential art and architecture projects in the Vatican. The painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo and of various rooms by Raphael in the Apostolic Palace are considered among the masterworks that mark the High Renaissance in Rome. His decision to rebuild St Peter's led to the construction of the present basilica.

Julius died in 1513, and except for the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which he lived to see finished, his very largest commissions were finished after his death.

Sistine Chapel

Sistine Chapel

The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the pope in Vatican City. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna" ('Great Chapel'), the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built between 1473 and 1481. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescoes that decorate the interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and "The Last Judgment", both by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the "Life of Moses" and the "Life of Christ", offset by papal portraits above and "trompe-l'œil" drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization. In a different political climate, after the Sack of Rome, he returned and, between 1535 and 1541, painted "The Last Judgment" for Popes Clement VII and Paul III. The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.

St. Peter's Basilica

the high altar, is the "Confessio" or "Chapel of the Confession", in reference to the confession of faith by St. Peter, which led to his martyrdom. Two curving marble staircases lead to this underground chapel at the level of the Constantinian church and immediately above the purported burial place of Saint Peter. The entire interior of St. Peter's is lavishly decorated with marble, reliefs, architectural sculpture and gilding. The basilica contains a large number of tombs of popes and other notable people, many of which are considered outstanding artworks. There are also a number of sculptures in niches and chapels,

St. Peter's Basilica

is the most prominent building in the Vatican City. Its dome is a dominant feature of the skyline of Rome. Probably the largest church in Christendom, it covers an area of . One of the holiest sites of Christianity and Catholic Tradition, it is traditionally the burial site of its titular, St. Peter, who was the head of the twelve Apostles of Jesus and, according to tradition, the first Bishop of Antioch and later the first Bishop of Rome, rendering him the first Pope. Although the New Testament does not mention St. Peter's martyrdom in Rome, tradition, based on the

Old St. Peter's Basilica

Florence. Since the crucifixion and burial of Saint Peter in 64 A.D., the spot was thought to be the location of the tomb of Saint Peter, where there stood a small shrine. With its increasing prestige the church became richly decorated with statues, furnishings and elaborate chandeliers, and side tombs and altars were continuously added. The structure was absolutely filled with tombs and bodies of saints and popes. Bones continued to be found in construction as late as February 1544. The majority of these tombs were destroyed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries demolition of Old St. Peter's Basilica (save

Clementine Chapel

by the Archpriest of the Basilica, Cardinal Angelo Comastri, the chapel is the holiest site in the archaeological basilica. The chapel itself is directly behind the present niche which is above the relics of St. Peter, thereby the site correlates to the present high altar of St. Peter's Basilica today. The place where the recently discovered Bones of St. Peter are presently housed is not in the "niche of the pallia", nor the clementine chapel but in their original resting place in the graffiti wall"." The skull of St. Peter which was first venerated in the clementine chapel, (after being

St. Peter's Basilica

children cannot reach the basins unless they scramble up the marble draperies. The aisles each have two smaller chapels and a larger rectangular chapel, the Chapel of the Sacrament and the Choir Chapel. These are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco, gilt, sculpture and mosaic. Remarkably, there are very few paintings, although some, such as Raphael's "Sistine Madonna" have been reproduced in mosaic. The most precious painting is a small icon of the Madonna, removed from the old basilica. Maderno's last work at St. Peter's was to design a crypt-like space or "Confessio" under the dome, where the cardinals and other

St. Peter's Square

1950. St. Peter's Square St. Peter's Square ( , ) is a large plaza located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, the papal enclave inside Rome, directly west of the neighbourhood or rione of Borgo. Both the square and the basilica are named after Saint Peter, an apostle of Jesus and the first Catholic Pope. At the centre of the square is an ancient Egyptian obelisk, erected at the current site in 1586. Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed the square almost 100 years later, including the massive Doric colonnades, four columns deep, which embrace visitors in

St. Peter's Basilica

Peter's is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major Basilica, all four of which are in Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop; the "Cathedra" of the Pope as Bishop of Rome is in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. St. Peter's is a church built in the Renaissance style located in the Vatican City west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrian's Mausoleum. Its central dome dominates the skyline of Rome. The basilica is approached via

St. Peter's Basilica

a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". Catholic tradition holds that the Basilica is the burial site of Saint Peter, chief among Jesus's Apostles and also the first Bishop of Rome. Saint Peter's tomb is supposedly directly below the high altar of the Basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peter's since the Early Christian period, and there has been a church on this site since the time of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Construction of the present basilica, which would replace Old St. Peter's Basilica

St. Peter's Basilica

the sublime of the beautiful." St. Peter's Basilica is one of the Papal Basilicas (previously styled "patriarchal basilicas") and one of the four Major Basilicas of Rome, the other Major Basilicas (all of which are also Papal Basilicas) being the Basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul outside the Walls. The rank of major basilica confers on St. Peter's Basilica precedence before all minor basilicas worldwide. However, unlike all the other Papal Major Basilicas, it is wholly within the territory, and thus the sovereign jurisdiction, of the Vatican City State, and not that of Italy. It

Borgo (rione of Rome)

the Vatican hill in 67, during the first persecution of the Christians. The saint was buried nearby, and this turned the Vatican into a place of pilgrimage. Above the tomb of the saint, Pope Anacletus built an oratory, which in 324 Emperor Constantine turned into a huge basilica devoted to the prince of the Apostles. This church, known today as Old Saint Peter's, soon became (until its destruction in the 16th century, when the new Saint Peter's was erected in its place) one of the centers of Christianity. During the early Middle Ages the bridge of Nero fell into ruins,

St. Peter's Square

St. Peter's Square St. Peter's Square ( , ) is a large plaza located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, the papal enclave inside Rome, directly west of the neighbourhood or rione of Borgo. Both the square and the basilica are named after Saint Peter, an apostle of Jesus and the first Catholic Pope. At the centre of the square is an ancient Egyptian obelisk, erected at the current site in 1586. Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed the square almost 100 years later, including the massive Doric colonnades, four columns deep, which embrace visitors in "the

Janiculum

Peter's crucifixion; a small shrine known as the Tempietto, designed by Donato Bramante, marks the supposed site of Peter's death. The Janiculum also houses a Baroque fountain built by Pope Paul V in the late 17th century, the Fontana dell'Acqua Paola, and several foreign research institutions, including the American Academy in Rome and the Spanish Academy in Rome. The Hill is also the location of The American University of Rome, Pontifical Urban University, and Pontifical North American College, as well as the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Roma "La Sapienza" and the Palazzo Montorio, residence of the Ambassadors of Spain. The

St. Peter's Basilica

the continuing line of apostolic succession from St. Peter to the reigning Pope. It occupies an elevated position in the apse of the Basilica, supported symbolically by the Doctors of the Church and enlightened symbolically by the Holy Spirit. As one of the constituent structures of the historically and architecturally significant Vatican City, St. Peter's Basilica was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 under criteria (i), (ii), (iv), and (vi). With an exterior area of , an interior area of , St. Peter's Basilica is the largest Christian church building in the world by the two latter

Sistine Chapel

as the chapel of the Papal Chapel ("Cappella Pontificia"), one of the two bodies of the Papal household, called until 1968 the "Papal Court" ("Pontificalis Aula"). At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, the Papal Chapel comprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet. Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, in general St. Peter's, and were attended by large

Old St. Peter's Basilica

located in the nave, just to the left of the huge arched opening into the transept. It is now at the Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome Old St. Peter's Basilica Old St. Peter's Basilica was the building that stood, from the 4th to 16th centuries, where the new St. Peter's Basilica stands today in Vatican City. Construction of the basilica, built over the historical site of the Circus of Nero, began during the reign of Emperor Constantine I. The name "old St. Peter's Basilica" has been used since the construction of the current basilica to distinguish the two buildings. Construction began by


Question: Which red dwarf star, approximately 4.2 light-years distant in the constellation of Centaurus is the nearest star to the Sun?

V645 Centauri
nearest star to our planet
Proxima Centuri
lhs 49
Gl 551
Proxima centauri
Alpha proxima
proxima centauri
Proxima Centauri C
v645 centauri
Nearest star to our planet
LHS 49
proxima centuri
Closest star
Rigil Kent C
alpha centauri c
proxima centari
proxima centaurus
Gliese 551
Alpha Proxima
proxima centauri c
Proxima Centari
gl 551
rigil kent c
GCTP 3278.00
Proxima Centaurus
gliese 551
Proxima Centauri
Alpha Centauri C
gctp 3278 00
closest star
alpha proxima

Barnard's Star

parsecs' (5.41 light-years) distance. The Sun and Alpha Centauri are, respectively, the next closest systems. From Barnard's Star, the Sun would appear on the diametrically opposite side of the sky at coordinates RA=, Dec=, in the eastern part of the constellation Monoceros. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83, and at a distance of 1.834 parsecs, it would be a first-magnitude star, as Pollux is from the Earth. Barnard's Star Barnard's Star is a very-low-mass red dwarf about 6 light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus. It is the fourth nearest known individual star to the Sun

Solar System

about 4.4 light-years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the small red dwarf, Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was confirmed to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star (at 5.9 ly), Wolf 359 (7.8 ly), and Lalande 21185 (8.3 ly). The largest nearby star is Sirius, a bright main-sequence star roughly 8.6 light-years away and roughly twice the

Alpha Centauri

that between Saturn and the Sun (11.2 AU). Alpha Centauri C, or Proxima Centauri, is a small and faint red dwarf (Class M). Though not visible to the naked eye, Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a distance of , being slightly closer than Alpha Centauri AB at a distance of . Currently, the distance between Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB is about , equivalent to about 430 times the radius of Neptune's orbit. Proxima Centauri b is an Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri; it was discovered in 2016. "α Centauri"

Sun

travels relative to other nearby stars. This motion is towards a point in the constellation Hercules, near the star Vega. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass. The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way, and it is presently moving in the direction of the constellation of Cygnus. A simple model of the motion of a star in the galaxy gives the galactic coordinates , , and as: where , , and are the respective velocities with

HD 121504

light years away. In 2000 the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Team announced the discovery of an extrasolar planet orbiting the star. HD 121504 HD 121504 is an 8th magnitude star in the constellation of Centaurus. It is a yellow dwarf (spectral type G2V) and remarkably similar to our Sun, only slightly brighter like α Centauri A. However, it is located at a distance for about 135 light years and thus is not visible to the unaided eye; binoculars or small telescope is required to see this star. Another component, designated as SAO 241323 has been proposed as a component of

Proxima Centauri

Proxima Centauri

Proxima Centauri is a small, low-mass star located away from the Sun in the southern constellation of Centaurus. Its Latin name means the 'nearest [star] of Centaurus'. It was discovered in 1915 by Robert Innes and is the nearest-known star to the Sun. With a quiescent apparent magnitude of 11.13, it is too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. Proxima Centauri is a member of the Alpha Centauri star system, being identified as component Alpha Centauri C, and is 2.18° to the southwest of the Alpha Centauri AB pair. It is currently from AB, which it orbits with a period of about 550,000 years.

Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf star with a mass about 12.5% of the Sun's mass (), and average density about 33 times that of the Sun. Because of Proxima Centauri's proximity to Earth, its angular diameter can be measured directly. Its actual diameter is about one-seventh (14%) the diameter of the Sun. Although it has a very low average luminosity, Proxima Centauri is a flare star that randomly undergoes dramatic increases in brightness because of magnetic activity. The star's magnetic field is created by convection throughout the stellar body, and the resulting flare activity generates a total X-ray emission similar to that produced by the Sun. The internal mixing of its fuel by convection through its core, and Proxima's relatively low energy-production rate, mean that it will be a main-sequence star for another four trillion years.

Proxima Centauri has two known exoplanets and one candidate exoplanet: Proxima Centauri b, Proxima Centauri d and the disputed Proxima Centauri c. Proxima Centauri b orbits the star at a distance of roughly with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days. Its estimated mass is at least 1.07 times that of Earth.<ref name="FariaSuárezMascareñoSilva2022"/> Proxima b orbits within Proxima Centauri's habitable zone—the range where temperatures are right for liquid water to exist on its surface—but, because Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf and a flare star, the planet's habitability is highly uncertain. A candidate super-Earth, Proxima Centauri c, orbits roughly away every .<ref name="Damasso2020"/><ref name="BenedictMcArthur2020"/> A sub-Earth, Proxima Centauri d, orbits roughly away every 5.1 days.<ref name="FariaSuárezMascareñoSilva2022"/>

Wikipedia:Today's featured article/October 5, 2010

Circumstellar habitable zone

Proxima Centauri b

Proxima Centauri b

Proxima Centauri b (or Proxima b), sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri Cb, is an exoplanet orbiting within the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, which is the closest star to the Sun and part of the triple star system Alpha Centauri. It is about from Earth in the constellation Centaurus, making it, along with the currently-disputed Proxima c, and Proxima d the closest known exoplanets to the Solar System.

Proxima Centauri b orbits its parent star at a distance of roughly with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days. Its other properties are only poorly understood, but it is believed to be a potentially Earth-like planet with a minimum mass of at least . The planet orbits within the habitable zone of its star; but it is not known whether it has an atmosphere. Proxima Centauri is a flare star with intense emission of electromagnetic radiation that could strip an atmosphere off the planet. The planet's proximity to Earth offers an opportunity for robotic space exploration, for example, with the Breakthrough Starshot project.

Announced on 24 August 2016 by the European Southern Observatory (ESO), Proxima Centauri b was confirmed via several years of using the method of studying the radial velocity of its parent star. Furthermore, the discovery of Proxima Centauri b, a planet at habitable distances from the closest star to the Solar System, was a major discovery in planetology and has drawn interest to the Alpha Centauri star system that Proxima is a member of.

Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri (α Centauri, Alpha Cen, or α Cen) is a triple star system in the constellation of Centaurus. It consists of 3 stars: Rigil Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri A), Toliman (B) and Proxima Centauri (C).<ref name="WGSN" /> Proxima Centauri is also the closest star to the Sun at 4.2465 light-years (1.3020 pc).

Alpha Centauri A and B are Sun-like stars (Class G and K, respectively), and together they form the binary star system Alpha Centauri AB. To the naked eye, the two main components appear to be a single star with an apparent magnitude of −0.27. It is the brightest star in the constellation and the third-brightest in the night sky, outshone only by Sirius and Canopus.

Alpha Centauri A has 1.1 times the mass and 1.5 times the luminosity of the Sun, while Alpha Centauri B is smaller and cooler, at 0.9 times the Sun's mass and less than 0.5 times its luminosity. The pair orbit around a common centre with an orbital period of 79 years.<ref name="SixthCatOrbVisBin"/> Their elliptical orbit is eccentric, so that the distance between A and B varies from 35.6 astronomical units (AU), or about the distance between Pluto and the Sun, to 11.2 AU, or about the distance between Saturn and the Sun.

Alpha Centauri C, or Proxima Centauri, is a small faint red dwarf (Class M). Though not visible to the naked eye, Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a distance of , slightly closer than Alpha Centauri AB. Currently, the distance between Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB is about , equivalent to about 430 times the radius of Neptune's orbit.

Proxima Centauri has three known planets: Proxima b, an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone discovered in 2016; Proxima c, a super-Earth 1.5 AU away, which is possibly surrounded by a huge ring system, discovered in 2019; and Proxima d, a candidate sub-Earth which orbits very closely to the star, announced in 2022. Alpha Centauri A may have a Neptune-sized habitable-zone planet, though it is not yet known to be planetary in nature and could be an artifact of the discovery mechanism. Alpha Centauri B has no known planets: planet Bb, purportedly discovered in 2012, was subsequently found to likely not exist, and a separate transiting planet has yet to be confirmed.

Proxima Centauri

Proxima Centauri Proxima Centauri (), or Alpha Centauri C, is a red dwarf, a small low-mass star, about from the Sun in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1915 by Robert Innes and is the nearest-known star to the Sun. With a quiescent apparent magnitude of 11.13, it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Proxima Centauri forms a third component of the Alpha Centauri system, currently with a separation of about and an orbital period of 550,000 years. At present Proxima is 2.18° to the southwest of Alpha Centauri. Because of Proxima Centauri's proximity

WISE 1541−2250

et al. in 2012, WISE 1541−2250 was considered to be the nearest known brown dwarf at approximately 9 light-years from the Sun, and the seventh-nearest of all star systems, at slightly more than twice the distance of the nearest known star system Alpha Centauri. This view existed because of a very rough preliminary parallax with a baseline of 1.2 years, published in the discovery paper: 0.351 ± 0.108 arcsec, corresponding to a distance 2.8 pc, or 9.3 ly. Also, there were other estimates: spectrophotometric distance estimate 8.2 pc (26.7 ly), and photometric distance estimate 1.8 pc (5.9 ly). WISE 1541−2250

Red dwarf

to the naked eye. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf (Type M5, apparent magnitude 11.05), as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars. According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way. Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than are fully convective. Hence the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star, avoiding helium buildup at the core, thereby prolonging the period of fusion. Red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly, maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of

GJ 3379

had a close encounter with the Solar System. Some ago, it achieved a minimum distance of . GJ 3379 GJ 3379 (Giclas 99-49) is the nearest star in the Orion constellation, being around 17.5 lightyears away from the Sun. The main sequence star is a red dwarf with the spectral class M3.5V. It has an apparent magnitude of 11.33 and an absolute magnitude of 12.68, therefore, the star is not visible with the naked eye. It is located in the left upper part of the Orion constellation, below Betelgeuse. Its radial velocity is +30.0 kilometers per second. According to the

HD 142250

two objects in the sky and that the probable brown dwarf shows signs of youth. HD 142250 HD 142250 (HR 5910, HIP 77900) is a star in the constellation Scorpius. It has a visual apparent magnitude of 6.10, being visible to the naked eye only in excellent seeing conditions. From parallax measurements, it is located about 500 light-years (155 parsecs) away from Earth. This distance, together with the star's proper motion, indicate that HIP 77900 is a member of the Upper Scorpius subgroup of the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, the nearest OB association to the Sun. This subgroup is the youngest of

Proxima Centauri

constellation Cassiopeia, similar to that of Achernar from Earth. Proxima Centauri Proxima Centauri (), or Alpha Centauri C, is a red dwarf, a small low-mass star, about from the Sun in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1915 by Robert Innes and is the nearest-known star to the Sun. With a quiescent apparent magnitude of 11.13, it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Proxima Centauri forms a third component of the Alpha Centauri system, currently with a separation of about and an orbital period of 550,000 years. At present Proxima is 2.18° to the

J Centauri

formation. J Centauri J Centauri (J Cen) is a star in the constellation Centaurus. It is approximately 350 light years from Earth. J Centauri is a spectral class B3V main sequence star with a mean apparent magnitude of 4.5 and a luminosity 500 times that of the Sun. The temperature of the star's photosphere is nearly 24,000 K. The rotation velocity at the equator is at least 223 km/s. It is believed to be a binary star system. This star may be a member of the Scorpio-Centaurus OB association (Sco OB2). This is one of the nearest regions of recent

Proxima Centauri b

Proxima Centauri b Proxima Centauri b (also called Proxima b or Alpha Centauri Cb) is an exoplanet orbiting in the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, which is the closest star to the Sun and part of a triple star system. It is located about 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs, 40 trillion km, or 25 trillion miles) from Earth in the constellation of Centaurus, making it the closest known exoplanet to the Solar System. Proxima Centauri b orbits the star at a distance of roughly with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days, and has an estimated

Barnard's Star

Barnard's Star Barnard's Star is a very-low-mass red dwarf about 6 light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus. It is the fourth nearest known individual star to the Sun (after the three components of the Alpha Centauri system) and the closest star in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere. Despite its proximity, the star has a dim apparent magnitude of +9.5 and is invisible to the unaided eye; it is much brighter in the infrared than in visible light. The star is named after the American astronomer E. E. Barnard. He was not the first to observe the star (it

HD 121504

HD 121504 HD 121504 is an 8th magnitude star in the constellation of Centaurus. It is a yellow dwarf (spectral type G2V) and remarkably similar to our Sun, only slightly brighter like α Centauri A. However, it is located at a distance for about 135 light years and thus is not visible to the unaided eye; binoculars or small telescope is required to see this star. Another component, designated as SAO 241323 has been proposed as a component of the system. However, the star is an optical binary component and in reality is a white giant star located thousands of

Barnard's Star

distant from it. However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 AD, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun. At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have increased by one magnitude to about 8.5 by then, still being 2.5 magnitudes short of visibility to the naked eye. Barnard's Star has a mass of about

J Centauri

J Centauri J Centauri (J Cen) is a star in the constellation Centaurus. It is approximately 350 light years from Earth. J Centauri is a spectral class B3V main sequence star with a mean apparent magnitude of 4.5 and a luminosity 500 times that of the Sun. The temperature of the star's photosphere is nearly 24,000 K. The rotation velocity at the equator is at least 223 km/s. It is believed to be a binary star system. This star may be a member of the Scorpio-Centaurus OB association (Sco OB2). This is one of the nearest regions of recent star

Kapteyn's Star

Kapteyn's Star Kapteyn's Star is a class M1 red subdwarf about 12.76 light years from Earth in the southern constellation Pictor; it is the closest halo star to the Solar System. With a magnitude of nearly 9 it is visible through binoculars or a telescope. Its diameter is 30% of the Sun's, but its luminosity just 1.2% that of the Sun's. It may have once been part of the globular cluster Omega Centauri, itself a likely dwarf galaxy swallowed up by the Milky Way in the distant past. The discovery of two planets — Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c —

Ross 248

Ross 248 would be the closest star to the Sun, approaching within a minimum distance of in 36,000 years. However, it will recede thereafter and will again be further from the Sun than Proxima Centauri 42,000 years from now. A spacecraft that escaped the Solar System with a velocity of 25.4 km/s would reach this star 37,000 years from now, when the star is just past its nearest approach. By comparison, the "Voyager 1" has an escape velocity of 16.6 km/s. The star PLX 5735 is located nearly along the line of sight to Ross 248, but it is not

Star count

but can only be seen with large telescopes, and then only when they are within a few tens of light-years from Earth. For example, the blue giant ζ Puppis is 400 million times more luminous than the nearest star, a red dwarf named Proxima, or "α Centauri C". Even though Proxima is only 4.2 light-years away from us, it is so dim that it cannot be seen with the naked eye (one of its companions, "α Centauri A", is visible). The star "ζ Puppis" is one of the brightest of the visible extreme blue supergiants. It is so bright that


Question: When did the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the bill of rights entrenched in Canadian law as part of the Constitution Act, come into force?

one thousand, nine hundred and eighty-two

one thousand nine hundred and eighty two

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

rights. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the "Constitution Act, 1982". The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the "Constitution Act, 1982". The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April 17,

Human rights in Canada

Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. In 1960, the Parliament of Canada enacted the Canadian Bill of Rights. The trend towards legal protections for human rights culminated in the enactment of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" in 1982, an entrenched constitutional charter of human rights. Human rights in Canada are now given legal protections by the dual mechanisms of the Charter and the statutory human rights codes, both federal and provincial. The Charter provides individuals with constitutional rights which governments must respect. The statutory human rights codes provide individuals with rights binding on governments, and also in

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

1982, along with the rest of the Act. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960. However, the Bill of Rights is only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. As a federal statute, it can be amended through the ordinary legislative process and has no application to provincial laws. The Supreme Court of Canada also narrowly interpreted the Bill of Rights and the Court was reluctant to declare laws inoperative. The relative ineffectiveness of the Canadian Bill of Rights motivated many to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human

History of freedom of religion in Canada

enacted the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1963, which protected freedom of religion in matters coming within federal jurisdiction. The federal Parliament followed up by enacting the "Canadian Human Rights Act" in 1977, to prohibit discrimination on a wide range of personal characteristics, including protecting religion. Finally, in 1982, the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" was enacted as part of the Constitution of Canada. Section 2 of the Charter protects fundamental freedoms, including "freedom of conscience and religion." The Lord's Day Act, which since 1906 had prohibited business transactions from taking place on Sundays, was struck down as unconstitutional

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Canadian Bill of Rights

Canadian Bill of Rights

The Canadian Bill of Rights () is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by the Parliament of Canada on August 10, 1960. It provides Canadians with certain rights at Canadian federal law in relation to other federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human rights law at the federal level in Canada, though an implied Bill of Rights had already been recognized in the Canadian common law.

The "Canadian Bill of Rights" remains in effect but is widely acknowledged to be limited in its effectiveness because it is a federal statute only, and so not directly applicable to provincial laws. These legal and constitutional limitations were a significant reason that the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" was established as an unambiguously-constitutional-level Bill of Rights for all Canadians, governing the application of both federal and provincial law in Canada, with the patriation of the Constitution of Canada in 1982. Since patriation, its usefulness at federal law in Canada is mostly limited to issues pertaining to the enjoyment of property, as set forth in its section 1(a)]—a slightly-broader "life, liberty, and security of the person" right than is recognized in section seven of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms".

Constitution Act, 1982

Constitution Act, 1982

The Constitution Act, 1982 () is a part of the Constitution of Canada. The Act was introduced as part of Canada's process of patriating the constitution, introducing several amendments to the "British North America Act, 1867", including re-naming it the "Constitution Act, 1867". In addition to patriating the Constitution, the "Constitution Act, 1982" enacted the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms"; guaranteed rights of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada; provided for future constitutional conferences; and set out the procedures for amending the Constitution in the future.

This process was necessary because, after the Statute of Westminster, 1931, Canada allowed the British Parliament to retain the power to amend Canada's constitution, until Canadian governments could agree on an all-in-Canada amending formula. In 1981, following substantial agreement on a new amending formula, the Parliament of Canada requested that the Parliament of the United Kingdom give up its power to amend the Constitution of Canada. The enactment of the "Canada Act 1982" by the British Parliament in March 1982 confirmed the Patriation of the Constitution and transferred to Canada the power of amending its own Constitution.

On April 17, 1982, Queen Elizabeth II and Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, as well as the Minister of Justice, Jean Chrétien, and André Ouellet, the Registrar General, signed the Proclamation which brought the "Constitution Act, 1982" into force. The proclamation confirmed that Canada had formally assumed authority over its constitution, the final step to full sovereignty.

As of 2022, the Government of Quebec has never formally approved of the enactment of the act, though the Supreme Court concluded that Quebec's formal consent was never necessary<ref>"Reference re Amendment to the Canadian Constitution", [1982] 2 SCR 793. (aka Quebec Veto Reference).

See also "Reference re Resolution to Amend the Constitution", [1981] 1 SCR 753 (aka Patriation Reference).</ref> and 15 years after ratification the government of Quebec "passed a resolution authorizing an amendment." Nonetheless, the lack of formal approval has remained a persistent political issue in Quebec. The Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords were designed to secure approval from Quebec, but both efforts failed to do so.

Constitution of Canada

Constitution of Canada

The Constitution of Canada () is the supreme law in Canada. It outlines Canada's system of government and the civil and human rights of those who are citizens of Canada and non-citizens in Canada. Its contents are an amalgamation of various codified acts, treaties between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples (both historical and modern), uncodified traditions and conventions. Canada is one of the oldest constitutional monarchies in the world.

According to subsection 52(2) of the "Constitution Act, 1982", the Canadian Constitution consists of the "Canada Act 1982" (which includes the "Constitution Act, 1982"), acts and orders referred to in its schedule (including in particular the "Constitution Act, 1867", formerly the "British North America Act, 1867"), and any amendments to these documents. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that the list is not exhaustive and also includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details.

Portal:Law/Selected statutes/15

Constitution of Canada

the Canadian parliament, passed the Canada Act 1982, which included in its schedules the Constitution Act, 1982, the United Kingdom thus formally absolving itself of any remaining responsibility for, or jurisdiction over, Canada. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982. Constitution Act, 1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, but nothing was enshrined in the constitution until 1982. The charter has thus placed a strong focus upon

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The British Parliament formally enacted the Charter as a part of the" Canada Act 1982" at the request of the Parliament of Canada in 1982, the result of the efforts of the government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to greatly expand the scope of judicial review, because the Charter is more explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

of the Act, may be collectively referred to as the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". Many of the rights and freedoms that are protected under the Charter, including the rights to freedom of speech, habeas corpus and the presumption of innocence, have their roots in a set of Canadian laws and legal precedents sometimes known as the Implied Bill of Rights. Many of these rights were also included in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which the Canadian Parliament enacted in 1960. However, the Canadian Bill of Rights had a number of shortcomings. Unlike the Charter, it was an ordinary

History of Canada

though under the terms of the Statute of Westminster, it could not be altered without Canadian consent. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms. In addition to the enactment of a Canadian amending formulas, the Constitution Act, 1982 enacted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter is a constitutionally entrenched bill of rights which applies to both the federal government and the provincial governments, unlike the earlier Canadian Bill of

Constitution Act, 1982

Act, 1982". The Charter is a bill of rights to protect certain political rights, legal rights and human rights of people in Canada from the policies and actions of all levels of government. An additional goal of the Charter is to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was introduced by the government of John Diefenbaker in 1960. However, the Bill of Rights was only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. Therefore, it was limited in scope and was easily amendable. This motivated

Section 2 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

of the "Charter" permits Parliament or the provincial legislatures to enact laws that place certain kinds of limited restrictions on the freedoms listed under section 2. Additionally, these freedoms can be temporarily invalidated by section 33, the "notwithstanding clause", of the "Charter". As a part of the "Charter" and of the larger "Constitution Act, 1982", section 2 took legal effect on April 17, 1982. However, many of its rights have roots in Canada in the 1960 "Canadian Bill of Rights" (although this law was of limited effectiveness), and in traditions under a theorized Implied Bill of Rights. Many of these

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Act of Parliament, which could be amended by a simple majority of Parliament, and it was applicable only to the federal government. The courts also chose to interpret the Bill of Rights conservatively, only on rare occasions applying it to find a contrary law inoperative. The Bill of Rights did not contain all of the rights that are now included in the Charter, omitting, for instance, the right to vote and freedom of movement within Canada. The centennial of Canadian Confederation in 1967 aroused greater interest within the government in constitutional reform. Said reforms would include improving safeguards of rights,

Morris C. Shumiatcher

the Canadian Bill of Rights (1960). The bill – the first of its kind in the British Commonwealth – codified the rights of due process, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of association, and freedom of the press, and included protections against discrimination. Shumiatcher included a protection against gender discrimination, but it did not appear in the final draft. In preparation for writing the bill, Shumiatcher referred to "social science and legal research by Canadian and American Jews of various ideological leanings". However, the bill lacked an enforcement mechanism, making it "more a symbol than an instrument for defending

Human rights in Canada

a century later, the Province of Canada passed similar legislation, ending the establishment of the Church of England in the province, and recognizing instead the principle of "legal equality among all religious denominations". The Act provided that the "free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship" was protected by the Constitution and laws of the Province. In 1867, Canada was created by the "British North America Act, 1867" (now named the "Constitution Act, 1867"). In keeping with British constitutional traditions, the Act did not include an entrenched list of rights, other than specific rights relating to language use in

Canadian Bill of Rights

decisions today. Canadian Bill of Rights The Canadian Bill of Rights () is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by Parliament of Canada on August 10, 1960. It provides Canadians with certain quasi-constitutional rights at Canadian federal law in relation to other federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human rights law at the federal level in Canada, though an Implied Bill of Rights had already been recognized in the Canadian Common Law. The Canadian Bill of Rights remains in effect but is widely acknowledged to be limited in its effectiveness because it is federal statute only,

Canadian Bill of Rights

in its section 1(a)]—a slightly-broader "life, liberty, and security of the person" right than is recognized in Section Seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1947, Saskatchewan passed into law a bill of rights which covered both fundamental freedoms and equality rights. Saskatchewan's Bill of Rights is considered to have had formative influence on John Diefenbaker, who was from Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. Thirteen years later, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights, in 1960. In 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil rights activists in Canada had

Canadian Bill of Rights

Canadian Bill of Rights The Canadian Bill of Rights () is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by Parliament of Canada on August 10, 1960. It provides Canadians with certain quasi-constitutional rights at Canadian federal law in relation to other federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human rights law at the federal level in Canada, though an Implied Bill of Rights had already been recognized in the Canadian Common Law. The Canadian Bill of Rights remains in effect but is widely acknowledged to be limited in its effectiveness because it is federal statute only, and so

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

during the 1980 Quebec referendum. He would succeed in 1982 with the passage of the "Canada Act 1982". This enacted the "Constitution Act, 1982". The inclusion of a charter of rights in the "Constitution Act" was a much-debated issue. Trudeau spoke on television in October 1980, and announced his intention to constitutionalize a bill of rights that would include fundamental freedoms, democratic guarantees, freedom of movement, legal rights, equality and language rights. He did not want a notwithstanding clause. While his proposal gained popular support, provincial leaders opposed the potential limits on their powers. The federal Progressive Conservative opposition feared

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

package has led to two failed attempts to amend the Constitution (the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord) which were designed primarily to obtain Quebec's political approval of the Canadian constitutional order. While the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was adopted in 1982, it was not until 1985 that the main provisions regarding equality rights (section 15) came into effect. The delay was meant to give the federal and provincial governments an opportunity to review pre-existing statutes and strike potentially unconstitutional inequalities. The typography of the physical document pictured here, and still distributed today, was typeset by Ottawa's David

of law" also appear in the party's official policies regarding what they feel all laws should be based upon, and the party states, "'Human rights' as expressed in the ;"Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" can only, therefore, be legitimately interpreted in light of, or in conjunction with, the higher Moral Law of God." Preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the introductory sentence to the Constitution of Canada's Charter of Rights and "Constitution Act, 1982". In full, it reads, Writing in 1982, when the "Charter" came


Question: When were the first Winter Paralympics held?

one thousand, nine hundred and seventy-six

one thousand nine hundred and seventy six

Winter Paralympic Games

work helped pioneer technological advances for people with disabilities who wished to participate in winter sports. Advances were slow and it was not until 1974 that the first official world ski competition for physically impaired athletes, featuring downhill and a cross-country skiing, was held. The first Winter Paralympics were held in 1976 at Örnsköldsvik, Sweden from February 21–28. Alpine and Nordic skiing for amputees and visually impaired athletes where the main events but ice sledge racing was included as a demonstration event. There were 198 participating athletes from 16 countries, and it was the first time athletes with impairments other

Paralympic Games

Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2001, and was extended through 2020. On March 10, 2018, the two committees further extended their contract to 2032. The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics. The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete. The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart, just as the Olympics were. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France;

1976 Winter Paralympics

is highlighted. The following nations took part. In brackets is the number of athletes per nation. 1976 Winter Paralympics The 1976 Winter Paralympic Games () were the first Winter Paralympics. They were held in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, from 21 to 28 February 1976. The disabilities included in this Paralympics were blindness and amputees. Sixteen countries took part with 196 athletes. There were competitions in Alpine and Nordic skiing for amputee and visually impaired athletes, and a demonstration event in ice sledge racing. They were originally known as the 1st Winter Olympic Games for the Disabled. The games consisted of 2 sports.

1976 Winter Paralympics

1976 Winter Paralympics The 1976 Winter Paralympic Games () were the first Winter Paralympics. They were held in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, from 21 to 28 February 1976. The disabilities included in this Paralympics were blindness and amputees. Sixteen countries took part with 196 athletes. There were competitions in Alpine and Nordic skiing for amputee and visually impaired athletes, and a demonstration event in ice sledge racing. They were originally known as the 1st Winter Olympic Games for the Disabled. The games consisted of 2 sports. The top 10 NPCs by number of gold medals are listed below. The host nation (Sweden)

1984 Winter Paralympics

1984 Winter Paralympics The 1984 Winter Paralympic Games (German: "Paralympische Winterspiele 1984") were the third Winter Paralympics. They were held from 14 to 20 January 1984 in Innsbruck, Austria. They were the first Winter Games organized by the International Co-ordinating Committee (ICC), which was formed on March 15, 1982, in Leysin, Switzerland. These Games were accessible for all athletes with cerebral palsy. For the first time, an exhibition event was held at the Olympic Winter Games in Sarajevo and 30 male three-track skiers took part in the Giant Slalom event. Three sports were contested: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, and ice

Winter Paralympic Games

Winter Paralympic Games

The Winter Paralympic Games is an international multi-sport event where athletes with physical disabilities compete in snow and ice sports. The event includes athletes with mobility impairments, amputations, blindness, and cerebral palsy. The Winter Paralympic Games are held every four years directly following the Winter Olympic Games and (since 1992) hosted in the same city. The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) oversees the Games. Medals are awarded in each event: with gold for first place, silver for second, and bronze for third, following the tradition that the Olympic Games began in 1904.

The Winter Paralympics began in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. Those Games were the first Paralympics that featured athletes other than those in wheelchairs. The Games have expanded and grown, including the Summer Paralympic Games, to become part of the largest international sporting event after the Olympics. Given their expansion, the need for a very specific classification system has arisen. This system has also given rise to controversy and opened the door for various forms of cheating, which has tainted the integrity of the Games.

Norway has been the top-ranking (medals) nation for fourth Paralympic Winter Games: 1980,1988, 1994 and 1998. Germany has been the top-ranking (medals) for third Paralympic Winter Games: 1976, 2002, and 2010. Russia (2006 and 2014) and United States (1992 and 2018) have been the top-ranking nation two time each. Austria (1984) and China (2022) have been the top-ranking nation one time each.

1976 Winter Paralympics

Paralympic Games

Paralympic Games

The Paralympic Games or Paralympics, also known as the "Games of the Paralympiad", is a periodic series of international multisport events involving athletes with a range of physical disabilities, including impaired muscle power and impaired passive range of movement, limb deficiency, leg length difference, short stature, hypertonia, ataxia, athetosis, vision impairment and intellectual impairment. There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games, which since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, are held almost immediately following the respective Olympic Games. All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).

The Paralympics has grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sporting events by the early 21st century. The Paralympics has grown from 400 athletes with a disability from 23 countries in Rome 1960, where they were proposed by doctor Antonio Maglio, to 4,520 athletes from 163 National Paralympic Committees at the 2020 Summer Paralympics. Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non-disabled Olympic athletes, but there is a large funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes.

The Paralympic Games are organized in parallel and in a similar way with the Olympic Games, while the IOC-recognized Special Olympics World Games include athletes with intellectual disabilities (although since 1992, intellectually disabled people also participate in the Paralympic Games), and the Deaflympics held since 1924 and are exclusive for deaf athletes.

Given the wide variety of disabilities that Para athletes have, there are several categories in which the athletes compete. The allowable disabilities are broken down into ten eligible impairment types. The categories are impaired muscle power, impaired passive range of movement, limb deficiency, leg length difference, short stature, hypertonia, ataxia, athetosis, vision impairment and intellectual impairment. These categories are further broken down into various classifications.

2022 Winter Paralympics

2022 Winter Paralympics

The 2022 Winter Paralympics (), commonly known as Beijing 2022 (), was an international winter multi-sport parasports event held in Beijing, China from 4 to 13 March 2022. This was the 13th Winter Paralympic Games, as administered by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).

Beijing was selected as the host city for the 2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics in 2015 at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; taking into account its hosting of the 2008 Summer Paralympics, Beijing is the first city to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics as well as the Summer and Winter Paralympics. This was the overall second Paralympics in China. It was the last of three consecutive Paralympics hosted in East Asia.

These Games featured 564 athletes representing 46 National Paralympic Committees (NPCs), competing in 78 medal events across six sports. Participation in the Games was impacted by the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine; the International Olympic Committee (IOC) condemned Russia for violating the Olympic Truce, and called for both Russia and its supporter Belarus to be excluded from international sporting events. While the IPC initially announced that the countries' athletes would be allowed to compete independently under the Paralympic flag, it backtracked on 3 March 2022 – the eve of the opening ceremonies – following threats of a boycott by multiple NPCs, and announced that Belarusian and Russian athletes would be prohibited from competing. The Belarusian and Russian delegations competed at a replacement event from 17 to 21 March in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia. Armenia, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan also competed at the replacement event.

Host nation China finished at the top of the medal table, winning a total of 61 medals, of which 18 were gold, setting a new record as the most successful Asian country at a single Winter Paralympics with the most total medals, gold, silver, and bronze. Ukraine also made their best historical performance and finished in second place with 29 medals, of which 11 were gold, and Canada retained the third place achieved in 2010, 2014 and 2018 with a total of 25 medals, of which eight were gold again.

2006 Winter Paralympics

2006 Winter Paralympics

The 2006 Winter Paralympic Games (), the ninth Paralympic Winter Games, took place in Turin, Italy from 10 to 19 March 2006. These were the first Winter Paralympic Games to be held in Italy. They were also the first Paralympics to use the new Paralympics logo.

Italy will host the Winter Paralympics again in 2026, scheduled to be held in Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo.

Winter Paralympic Games

of the Games. The origins of the Winter Paralympics are much similar to the Summer Paralympics. Injured soldiers returning from World War II sought sports as an avenue to healing. Organized by Dr. Ludwig Guttmann, sports competitions between British convalescent hospitals began in 1948 and continued until 1960 when a parallel Olympics was held in Rome after the 1960 Summer Olympics. Over 400 wheelchair athletes competed at the 1960 Paralympic Games, which became known as the first Paralympics. Sepp Zwicknagl, a pioneer of snow sports for disabled athletes, was a double-leg amputee Austrian skier who experimented skiing using prosthetics. His

Winter Paralympic Games

1904. The Winter Paralympics began in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. Those Games were the first Paralympics (Summer or Winter) that featured athletes other than wheelchair athletes. The Games have expanded and grown to be (along with the Summer Games) part of the largest international sporting event after the Olympic Games. Given their expansion, the need for a very specific classification system has arisen. This system has also given rise to controversy and opened the door for cheating. Winter Paralympians have also been convicted of steroid use and other forms of cheating unique to Paralympic athletes, which has tainted the integrity

1992 Winter Paralympics

1992 Winter Paralympics The 1992 Winter Paralympics (French: Les "Ve Jeux paralympiques d'hiver") were the fifth Winter Paralympics. They were the first winter Paralympics to be celebrated concurrently with the Olympic Games. They were also the first ever Paralympics at any event in France. They were held in Tignes and Albertville, France, from March 25 to April 1, 1992. For the first time, demonstration events in Alpine and Nordic Skiing for athletes with an intellectual disability and Biathlon for athletes with a visual impairment were held. The bird logo was designed by Jean-Michel Folon. The official mascot was "Alpy", designed

WheelPower

Stoke Mandeville Games, the Paralympics were born. The first Winter Paralympics were held in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden in 1976. In 1984 the centre played host to the Paralympic Games with some 1200 athletes taking part in a festival of sport. Since 1988, the Summer Paralympics have been held in the conjunction with the Olympic Games in the same host city and this practice was adopted in 1992 for the Winter Paralympics. The name Paralympics derives from the Greek "para" ("beside" or "alongside") and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games. No relation with paralysis or paraplegia

standards. The opening ceremony was held on Saturday 21 February in Kempehallen, Sweden in front of an estimated 1500 spectators. Regional Governor of the County of West Norrland, , had the honour of declaring the world's first Winter Olympic Games for the Disabled open. It is reported that 16 nations were represented in the ceremony and Australia's sole athlete, Ron Finneran had to privilege of wearing his nations flag. In 1976, Australian disabled skier Ron Finneran became aware of the Winter Paralympics being held in Ornskoldsvik , Sweden. At the time, there was no governing body in Australia to organise

Winter Paralympic Games

than wheelchair athletes were permitted to compete. Starting in 1988 the Summer Paralympics were held in the same host city as the Summer Olympic Games. This was due to an agreement reached between the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics. Athletes have cheated by over-representing impairment to have a competitive advantage, and the use of performance-enhancing drugs. German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids in 2002. He had won two gold

1988 Winter Paralympics

1988 Winter Paralympics The 1988 Winter Paralympic Games (German: "Paralympische Winterspiele 1988") were the fourth Winter Paralympics, held again in Innsbruck, Austria. These were the last Winter Paralympics to be held in a separate location from the Winter Olympics. Beginning in 1992, the Olympics and the Paralympics were held in the same city or in an adjacent city. These Paralympics were not held at the same Olympic venue in Calgary, Canada, because of financial and recruiting difficulties. A total of 377 athletes from 22 countries took part. The USSR competed for the first and only time. Sit-skiing was introduced as

effort moving forward. Additionally, it was decided that the official name for the organisation would be the International Coordinating Committee (ICC) of World Sports Organisation for the Disabled. Australia at the 1984 Winter Paralympics The 1984 Winter Paralympics, then known as The Third World Winter Games for the Disabled, were held in Innsbruck, Austria. The games took place from the 15 until 21 January. Present at these games were 419 athletes from 21 countries, Spain and the Netherlands competing for the first time in the Winter Paralympics, competing in 107 events across 3 sports. The inclusion of Les Austres and

1994 Winter Paralympics

1994 Winter Paralympics The 1994 Winter Paralympics (Norwegian: "Paralympiske vinterleker 1994"), the sixth Winter Paralympics, were held in Lillehammer, Norway, from 10–19 March 1994. These Games marked the first time the Paralympic Winter Games were held in the same location as the Winter Olympics, a tradition that has continued through an agreement of cooperation between the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). Ice sledge hockey, which became an immediate crowd favorite, was added to the program. These Paralympic Games are the only to be held two years after the previous Games due to the shift in

Australia at the 1988 Winter Paralympics The 1988 Winter Paralympic Games (German: "Paralympische Winterspiele 1988") were the fourth Winter Paralympics, held again in Innsbruck, Austria. The Winter Paralympics first began on 18 January at 6pm and ended a week later on 25 January at 4pm. These were the last Winter Paralympics to be held in a separate location from the Summer Paralympic Games. Beginning in 1992, the Olympics and the Paralympics were held in the same city or in an adjacent city. These Winter Paralympics were not held at the same Olympic venue in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, due to the

unofficial idea for the Winter Paralympics arose in 1974 during a pause of the annual general meeting of the International Sports Organisation for the Disabled (ISOD). ISOD Vice President of the time, Bengt Nirije, suggested that the Swedish delegation put forward a bid for the games. The Swedish obliged and the bid was gratefully accepted by the other members of the assembly. This resulted in the Swedish Sports Organisation for the Disabled (SHIF) taking responsibility for the inaugural games and thus the Winter Paralympics was born. Despite there being no official record as to why Sweden was encouraged to host

Australia at the 1992 Winter Paralympics

the first time, demonstration events in Alpine and Nordic Skiing for athletes with an intellectual disability and Biathlon for the visually impaired were added to the programme. In addition, this was the first time at a Winter Paralympics that the athletes were all accommodated in an Athlete's Village as opposed to hotels, which had been the case at previous winter Games. The Games were officially opened by French President Francois Mitterrand with the Opening Ceremony and all other ceremonial events being held in front of the finish area for the Alpine Skiing events. This area was named the Lognan Stadium.

Australia at the 1994 Winter Paralympics

4 year cycles, occurring on even years. Thus, the 1994 games were held a mere 2 years after the previous Winter Olympics of Albertville (France) in 1992. The Games were held from Thursday March 10, to Saturday March 19, and consisted of 133 events across 5 sports. 31 Nations participated, with a total of 471 participating athletes. The 1994 Winter Paralympics were also the first Games organized by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The logo for the 1994 Winter Paralympics featured a white sun figure on a blue background, depicting the sun people. It aimed to evoke feelings of power,

1994 Winter Paralympics

for the mascot was chosen in a separate competition and derives from the great skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim. Sports The 1994 Paralympics consisted of five disciplines in four sports. Ice sledge hockey made its Paralympic debut at these games. The top 10 NPCs by number of gold medals are listed below. The host nation (Norway) is highlighted. 1994 Winter Paralympics The 1994 Winter Paralympics (Norwegian: "Paralympiske vinterleker 1994"), the sixth Winter Paralympics, were held in Lillehammer, Norway, from 10–19 March 1994. These Games marked the first time the Paralympic Winter Games were held in the same location as the Winter

Australia at the 1976 Winter Paralympics Australia was represented by one non-competing athlete at the inaugural 1976 Winter Paralympics. The games were held in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden over seven days from 21 to 28 February 1976. Due to narrow disability requirements, Australia was unofficially represented by Ron Finneran, who was unable to compete as his disability did not meet the event classifications. However, Mr. Finneran's unwavering commitment led to the eventual formation of Disabled Winter Sport Australia (DWSA) and paved the way for Australia's successes at future Winter Paralympic Games. The IPC Winter Paralympic Games history book states that the first,