Question: "What year did Jean-Francois Champollion publish the first correct translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs from the Rosetta Stone, the Roman Catholic Church take Galileo Galilei's ""Dialogue"" off their list of banned books, and Britain repeal the death penalty for over 100 crimes?"

one thousand, eight hundred and twenty-two

one thousand eight hundred and twenty two

Jean-François Champollion

of booklets about the Egyptian gods, including some decipherments of their names. Building on his progress, Champollion now began to study other texts in addition to the Rosetta stone, studying a series of much older inscriptions from Abu Simbel. During 1823, he succeeded in identifying the names of pharaohs Ramesses and Thutmose written in cartouches in these ancient texts. With the help of a new acquaintance, the Duke de Blacas in 1824, Champollion finally published the "Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens" dedicated to and funded by King Louis XVIII. Here he presented the first correct translation of the

Étienne Marc Quatremère

la littérature de l'Egypte" (1808), showing that the language of ancient Egypt must be sought in Coptic. His "Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte… sur quelques contrées voisines" was published in 1811. This publication forced Jean-François Champollion, the famous decoder of the Rosetta stone, to publish, prematurely, an "Introduction" to his "L'Égypte sous les pharaons". Since both works concern the Coptic names of Egyptian towns, and Champollion's was published later, Champollion was accused by some of plagiarism. In fact "neither he nor Quatremère had copied from one another, and very obvious differences of approach were apparent in their publications". Quatremère

Decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs

in 1799 of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion) provided the critical information which allowed Jean-François Champollion, taking into the account the work of other scholars, to discover the nature of the script by the 1820s. He had been introduced to hieroglyphics at the tender age of 10 and so began a lifelong fascination. A significant breakthrough was made by Champollion in 1822, as reflected in his well-known "Lettre à M. Dacier": "It is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say

Rosetta Stone

another. In 1824 Classical scholar Antoine-Jean Letronne promised to prepare a new literal translation of the Greek text for Champollion's use. Champollion in return promised an analysis of all the points at which the three texts seemed to differ. Following Champollion's sudden death in 1832, his draft of this analysis could not be found, and Letronne's work stalled. François Salvolini, Champollion's former student and assistant, died in 1838, and this analysis and other missing drafts were found among his papers. This discovery incidentally demonstrated that Salvolini's own publication on the stone, published in 1837, was plagiarism. Letronne was at last

Jean-François Champollion

hieroglyphs, basing his own work on the investigations of Swedish diplomat Johan David Åkerblad. Young and Champollion first became aware of each other's work in 1814 when Champollion wrote to the Royal Society of which Young was the secretary, requesting better transcriptions of the Rosetta stone, to Young's irritation, arrogantly implying that he would be able to quickly decipher the script if he only had better copies. Young had at that time spent several months working unsuccessfully on the Rosetta text using Åkerblad's decipherments. In 1815, Young replied in the negative, arguing that the French transcriptions were equally good as

Jean-François Champollion

script represented the Coptic language. Already in 1806, he wrote to his brother about his decision to become the one to decipher the Egyptian script: In 1808, Champollion received a scare when French Archeologist Alexandre Lenoir published the first of his four volumes on "Nouvelles Explications des Hieroglyphes". making the young scholar fear that his budding work had already been surpassed. But he was relieved to find that Lenoir still operated under the assumption that the hieroglyphs were mystic symbols and not a literary system expressing language. This experience made him even more determined to be the first to decipher

Jean-François Champollion

in Arab clothing and calling himself "Al Seghir", the Arab translation of "le jeune". He divided his time between the College of France, the Special School of Oriental Languages, the National Library where his brother was a librarian and the Commission of Egypt, the institution in charge of publishing the findings of the Egyptian expedition. In 1808, he first began studying the Rosetta stone, working from a copy made by the Abbé de Tersan. Working independently he was able to confirm some of the readings of the demotic previously made by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802, finally identifying the Coptic

Jean-François Champollion

Champollion's method, cementing his reputation as the true decipherer of the hieroglyphs. Champollion's most immediate legacy is in the field of Egyptology, of which he is now widely considered as the founder and father, with his decipherment the result of his genius combined with hard work. Figeac honors him with La place des Écritures, a monumental reproduction of the Rosetta Stone by American artist Joseph Kosuth (pictured to the right). And a museum devoted to Jean-François Champollion was created in his birthplace at Figeac in Lot. It was inaugurated on 19 December 1986 in the presence of President François Mitterrand

Ancient Egyptian literature

Kircher (1601–1680) was the first in Europe to realize that Coptic was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian. In his "Oedipus Aegyptiacus", he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs, albeit based on symbolic inferences. It was not until 1799, with the Napoleonic discovery of a trilingual (i.e. hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) stela inscription on the Rosetta Stone, that modern scholars were able to decipher ancient Egyptian literature. The first major effort to translate the hieroglyphs of the Rosetta Stone was made by Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) in 1822. The earliest translation efforts of Egyptian

Rosetta Stone

able to complete his commentary on the Greek text and his new French translation of it, which appeared in 1841. During the early 1850s, German Egyptologists Heinrich Brugsch and Max Uhlemann produced revised Latin translations based on the demotic and hieroglyphic texts. The first English translation followed in 1858, the work of three members of the Philomathean Society at the University of Pennsylvania. Whether one of the three texts was the standard version, from which the other two were originally translated, is a question that has remained controversial. Letronne attempted to show in 1841 that the Greek version, the product

Egypt (TV series)

makes him a celebrity in his adopted home of London where the British Museum would later honour him. Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone to unlock the mysteries of the lost civilisation of Ancient Egypt which had been closed off to Europeans for centuries prior to the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. The stone, discovered by the French in 1799, had been created as a work of propaganda by the Greek-speaking Pharaoh Ptolemy V to establish his place in Egyptian cosmology and flashbacks are included to explain this belief system. The young Champollion, encouraged to develop his gift for

Jean-François Champollion

the British ones, and added that "I do not doubt that the collective efforts of savants, such as M. Åkerblad and yourself, Monsieur, who have so much deepened the study of the Coptic language, might have already succeeded in giving a more perfect translation than my own, which is drawn almost entirely from a very laborious comparison of its different parts and with the Greek translation" This was the first Champollion had heard of Young's research, and realizing that he also had a competitor in London was not to Champollion's liking. In his work on the Rosetta stone, Young proceeded

Rosetta Stone

the hands of colleague Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon. Ameilhon produced the first published translations of the Greek text in 1803, in both Latin and French to ensure that they would circulate widely. At Cambridge, Richard Porson worked on the missing lower right corner of the Greek text. He produced a skilful suggested reconstruction, which was soon being circulated by the Society of Antiquaries alongside its prints of the inscription. At almost the same moment, Christian Gottlob Heyne in Göttingen was making a new Latin translation of the Greek text that was more reliable than Ameilhon's, which was first published in 1803. It

Thomas Young (scientist)

Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic. By 1814 Young had completely translated the "enchorial" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations. There was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated in

Jean-François Champollion

his approach to decipherment of the hieroglyphs. He had a chance to practice his Coptic when he met Dom Raphaël de Monachis, a former Coptic Christian monk and Arabic translator to Napoleon, who visited Grenoble in 1805. By 1806, Jean-Jacques was making preparations to bring his younger brother to Paris to study at the University. Jean-François had by then already developed a strong interest for Ancient Egypt, as he wrote in a letter to his parents dated to January 1806: "I want to make a profound and continuous study of this ancient nation. The enthusiasm brought me by the study

Jean-François Champollion

some periods he lived exiled from the scientific community. In 1820, Champollion embarked in earnest on the project of decipherment of hieroglyphic script, soon overshadowing the achievements of British polymath Thomas Young who had made the first advances in decipherment before 1819. In 1822, Champollion published his first breakthrough in the decipherment of the Rosetta hieroglyphs, showing that the Egyptian writing system was a combination of phonetic and ideographic signs – the first such script discovered. In 1824, he published a "Précis" in which he detailed a decipherment of the hieroglyphic script demonstrating the values of its phonetic and ideographic

Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon

de La Porte du Theil he produced the first published translation (into Latin and French) of the Greek inscription on the Rosetta Stone: this was published in 1803. He was responsible for saving up to 800,000 printed books threatened with destruction in the early years of the French Revolution. Many of these found a home at the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, of which he became director in 1800 (perpetual administrator in 1804). Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon (born in Paris, 7 April 1730; died 1811) was a French historian and librarian. He first worked at the Bibliothèque historique de la ville de

Egyptology

subsequent publication of Description de l'Égypte between 1809 and 1829 made numerous ancient Egyptian source materials available to Europeans for the first time. Jean-François Champollion, Thomas Young and Ippolito Rosellini were some of the first Egyptologists of wide acclaim. The German Karl Richard Lepsius was an early participant in the investigations of Egypt; mapping, excavating, and recording several sites. Champollion announced his general decipherment of the system of Egyptian hieroglyphics for the first time, employing the Rosetta Stone as his primary aid. The Stone's decipherment was a very important development of Egyptology. With subsequently ever-increasing knowledge of Egyptian writing and

Egypt (TV series)

is arrested for sedition and exiled to Figeac until 1821. Eccentric Egyptologist Giovanni Belzoni discovers an obelisk inscribed with the name of Cleopatra in Greek and hieroglyphs at Philae and sends it back to Young in England. Young makes a mistake in translating the obelisk setting back his work whilst Champollion using a copy of the obelisk creates a hieroglyphic alphabet that he uses along with Coptic to translate the name of Ramesses the Great from sketches of Abu Simbal. Champollion's discovery arouses the suspicions of the Catholic Church who fear hieroglyphs might disprove the historical accuracy of the Bible.

Jean-François Champollion

though he was suffering from failing health, and the chicanery of the Ultras kept him struggling to maintain his job, it motivated him to return in earnest to the study of the hieroglyphs. When he was eventually removed from his professorship by the Royalist faction, he finally had the time to work on it exclusively. While he awaited trial for treason, he produced a short manuscript, "De l'écriture hiératique des anciens Égyptiens", in which he argued that the hieratic script was simply a modified form of hieroglyphic writing. Young had already anonymously published an argument to the same effect several


Question: What is the ninth month of the Muslim year, a period of fasting during which there is strict abstinence during daylight from food, drink and perfume?

radaman
Ramadhaan
Ramadhan
ramazaan
ramadan in islam
ramadan ul mubarak
ramadan mubarak
Ramzaan
Ramadan
Ramadan Mubarak
Ramadan Kareem
Ramadan ul Mubarak
ramadhaan
رمضان
ramadan kareem
Radaman
ramadan calendar
Ramadaan
ramadan religious observances
ramadhan
ramadan
ramadân
Ramadan in islam
Ramadar
Ramazaan
Ramadan calendar
Rouzi Festival
Ramadân
Ramadam
ramadar
ramzaan
Ramazan Dynasty
Ramadan (religious observances)
ramadaan
rouzi festival
ramazan dynasty
Ramaḍan
ramadam
ramaḍan

Islamic holidays

the synodic period of the Moon's revolution around the Earth, approximately 29 days. The Islamic calendar alternates months of 29 and 30 days (which begin with the new moon). Twelve of these months make up an Islamic year, which is 11 days shorter than the Gregorian year. Muslims fast from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad. Fasting is a purifying experience so that Muslims can gain compassion and deepen their faith in Allah. Although the idea of fasting is done so people feel what

Abrahamic religions

and to 100% on wealth that is considered haram, as part of attempting to make atonement for the sin, such as that gained through financial interest (riba). Fasting (sawm) during the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Ramadan, is the fourth pillar of Islam, to which all Muslims after the age of puberty in good health (as judged by a Muslim doctor to be able fast without incurring grave danger to health: even in seemingly obvious situations, a "competent and upright Muslim physician" is required to agree), that are not menstruating are bound to observe—missed days of the fast

Five Pillars of Islam

sura Al-Baqara), and ascetic fasting (from Al-Ahzab). Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins. Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her from doing so). The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and to remind them of

Fasting during Ramadan

Fasting during Ramadan During the entire month of Ramadan, Muslims are obligated to fast (, "sawm"), every day from dawn to sunset (or from dawn to night according to some scholars). Fasting requires the abstinence from food, drink . Fasting the month of Ramadān was made obligatory (wājib) during the month of Sha‘bān, in the second year after the Muslims migrated from Makkah to Madīnah. Fasting the month of Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is specifically mentioned in three consecutive verses of the Qur'an: O ye who believe! Fasting is

Islam and Mormonism

requires one to refrain from smoking and sexual intercourse during the period of the fast, as well. The infirm and travelers may delay their fasting until a later date, but must make up every obligatory day missed. While Sawm is optional during most of the year (and forbidden altogether on Islam's two holiest days: "Eid ul Fitr" and "Eid ul Adha"), it is mandatory during daylight hours throughout the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. It was during this month that the first verses of the Quran were said to have been revealed to the Prophet

Lent

Medieval cuisine

Medieval cuisine

Medieval cuisine includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less than they did in the early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine.

Cereals remained the most important staple during the Early Middle Ages as rice was introduced late, and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread consumption. Barley, oats, and rye were eaten by the poor. Wheat was for the governing classes. These were consumed as bread, porridge, gruel, and pasta by all of society's members. Cheese, fruits, and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders.

Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious. Game, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken, and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. A wide variety of freshwater and saltwater fish was also eaten, with cod and herring being mainstays among the northern populations.

Slow transportation and food preservation techniques (based on drying, salting, smoking, and pickling) made long-distance trade of many foods very expensive. Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and sumptuary laws limited conspicuous consumption among the nouveaux riches. Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's labour and one's food; manual labour required coarser, cheaper food.

A type of refined cooking developed in the Late Middle Ages that set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common seasonings in the highly spiced sweet-sour repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included verjuice, wine, and vinegar in combination with spices such as black pepper, saffron, and ginger. These, along with the widespread use of honey or sugar, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. Almonds were very popular as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly as almond milk.

Jewish holidays

Jewish holidays

Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or Yamim Tovim (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed in Judaism and by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar. They include religious, cultural and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical "mitzvot" ("commandments"), rabbinic mandates, and the history of Judaism and the State of Israel.

Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in the Gregorian. This is because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar (based on the cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is a solar calendar.

Hajj

Egypt – Travel guide at Wikivoyage

Fasting during Ramadan

Ramadan. Fasting during Ramadan During the entire month of Ramadan, Muslims are obligated to fast (, "sawm"), every day from dawn to sunset (or from dawn to night according to some scholars). Fasting requires the abstinence from food, drink . Fasting the month of Ramadān was made obligatory (wājib) during the month of Sha‘bān, in the second year after the Muslims migrated from Makkah to Madīnah. Fasting the month of Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is specifically mentioned in three consecutive verses of the Qur'an: O ye who believe! Fasting

Twelver

month of Ramadan. The Fast also requires the abstaining one's mind and tongue away from evil thoughts and words. It is obligatory from the age of adolescence until the time one possesses the physical strength to undertake it. The fast is not obligatory for the sick, those travelling and breast-feeding mothers, but they must make up the lost days when possible. According to Tabataba'ei, (Fasting) means to abstain oneself from something, which later in the development of the religion was applied to abstaining from some particular things, from break of dawn up to sunset, with intention (niyyah,النّيّة). Fasting results in

Fasting in Islam

are prohibited from eating or drinking from [[dawn]] ([[fajr]]) to [[sunset]] ([[maghrib]]). It is considered time to begin fasting when a person standing outside can tell a white thread from a black thread. Fasting helps Muslims develop self-control, gain a better understanding of God’s gifts and greater compassion towards the deprived. Fasting in Islam involves abstaining from all bodily pleasures between dawn and sunset. All things which are regarded as prohibited is even more so in this month, due to its sacredness. Each and every moment during the fast, a person suppresses their passions and desires in loving obedience to

Abstinence

its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the normal life of desire, to a chosen ideal, by following a path of renunciation. For Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the whole month of Ramadan, from dawn to dusk. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet. In both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for an hour prior to taking Holy Communion, and abstain from meat on

Fasting

speech and action, abstaining from any ignorant and indecent speech, and from arguing, fighting, and having lustful thoughts. Therefore, fasting strengthens control of impulses and helps develop good behavior. During the sacred month of Ramadan, believers strive to purify body and soul and increase their "taqwa" (good deeds and God-consciousness). This purification of body and soul harmonizes the inner and outer spheres of an individual. Muslims aim to improve their body by reducing food intake and maintaining a healthier lifestyle. Overindulgence in food is discouraged and eating only enough to silence the pain of hunger is encouraged. Muslims believe they

Fasting in Islam

tenth and eleventh of Muharram, the first month of the year. The tenth day, called Ashurah, is also a fast day for the Jews (Yom Kippur), and Allah commanded the Muslims to fast two days to distinguish themselves from the People of the Book. such as: Although fasting is considered a pious act in Islam, there are times when fasting is considered prohibited or discouraged according to the majority of the [[Sunni Islam|sunni scholars]]: The Quran contains no prohibition regarding the days of fasting. Nothing was said directly about the polar region and fasting. But there is [[Hadith]] about [[Al-Masih

Ramadan (calendar month)

Ramadan (calendar month) Ramadan (Arabic: ) or Ramadhan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and the month in which the Quran was revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month is spent by Muslims fasting during the daylight hours from dawn to sunset. According to Islam, the Quran was sent down to the lowest heaven during this month, thus being prepared for gradual revelation by Jibreel (Gabriel) to Muhammad. Therefore, Muhammad told his followers that the gates of Heaven would be open for the

Ramadan

or dryness. Fasting is fard (obligatory) for adult Muslims, except those who are suffering from an illness, travelling, are elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, diabetic, chronically ill or menstruating. Fasting the month of Ramadan was made obligatory (wājib) during the month of Sha'ban, in the second year after the Muslims migrated from Mecca to Medina. Fatwas have been issued declaring that Muslims who live in regions with a natural phenomenon such as the midnight sun or polar night should follow the timetable of Mecca, but the more commonly accepted opinion is that Muslims in those areas should follow the timetable of the

Fasting

sunset during the Bahá'í month of 'Ala' (March 1 or 2 – March 19 or 20). Bahá'u'lláh established the guidelines in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. It is the complete abstaining from both food and drink during daylight hours (including abstaining from smoking). Consumption of prescribed medications is not restricted. Observing the fast is an individual obligation and is binding on Bahá'ís between 15 years (considered the age of maturity) and 70 years old. Exceptions to fasting include individuals younger than 15 or older than 70; those suffering illness; women who are pregnant, nursing, or menstruating; travellers who meet specific criteria; individuals whose

Ramadan

with discrimination claims in the United Kingdom and the United States. Ramadan Ramadan (; ', ; also known as Ramazan, romanized as Ramzan, Ramadhan, or Ramathan"') is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (Sawm) to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month lasts 29–30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths. The word Ramadan comes

Fazal Khan Changwi

one interesting ijtihad of the author, to which special attention must be drawn. It is about dispensation from fasting for people living on the north and south poles, where the days and nights extend up to six months. The author notes that the Muslims have been ordained to observe the fasting month, when they are witness to the month of Ramadan. On the poles the situation is abnormal, as the year is divided into a day and a night, both extending to six months each. In such a case a Muslim can neither observe the five daily prayers, as they

Topics in sharia law

reward, and the responsibilities of the parties in Islamic trade. During the Islamic month of Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food and drinks between dawn and sunset. Exceptions to this obligation are made for children who are pre-pubescent, the infirm, travelers, and pregnant or menstruating women. During Ramadan, the daylight hours will often begin and end with a large meal. After dinner, many Muslims participate in special communal prayers held during Ramadan. The end of Ramadan fasting is celebrated with special prayers, gatherings of family and friends, and specially prepared meals. Muslims may also fast on other special days of the

Fasting in Islam

health effects are observed exclusively during the month of Ramadan due to fasting, such as migraines, [[tachycardia]], severe headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, [[circulatory collapse]], and sleeping problems. Fasting in the month of [[Ramadan]] is considered [[Fard]]. If you swear or make an oath, for example: "If I graduate with a good mark, I will fast for three days for God" then common belief dictates that one should fulfil this. This type of fasting is considered obligatory. Breaking such an oath is considered sinful. Muslims are encouraged, although not obliged, to fast days throughout the year: the ninth and tenth, or

Isma'ilism

honest in daily life, not backbiting, etc., for 30 days during the holy month of Ramadan (9th month of the Islamic calendar). In contrast, the Nizari and Musta'ali sects believe in a metaphorical as well as a literal meaning of fasting. The literal meaning is that one must fast as an obligation, such as during Ramadan, and the metaphorical meaning is seeking to attain the Divine Truth and striving to avoid worldly activities which may detract from this goal. In particular, Ismāʿīlīs believe that the esoteric meaning of fasting involves a "fasting of the soul," whereby they attempt to purify

Ramadan

closest country to them in which night can be distinguished from day. While fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking, and engaging in sexual relations. Muslims are also instructed to refrain from sinful behavior that may negate the reward of fasting, such as false speech (insulting, backbiting, cursing, lying, etc.) and fighting except in self-defense. Pre-fast meals before dawn are referred to as "Suhoor", while the post-fast breaking feasts after sunset are called "Iftar". Spiritual rewards ("thawab") for fasting are also believed to be multiplied within the month of Ramadan. Fasting for Muslims during


Question: "Mukhtar Al-Bakri, Sahim Alwan, Faysal Galab, Shafal Mosed, Yaseinn Taher and Yahya Goba were collectively known as the ""Lackawanna Six"" and by what other name?"

buffalo cell
The Lackawanna Cell
mukhtar al bakri
lackawanna 6
Buffalo Cell
lakawanna six
The Buffalo Six
Lackawanna Six
buffalo 6
Buffalo six
Buffalo 6
Mukhtar Al-Bakri
Lackawanna Cell
Jaber Elbaneh
jaber elbaneh
Lackawanna six
Lackawanna 6
buffalo six
lackawanna cell
Lakawanna Six
lackawanna six
Buffalo Six

Faysal Galab

a car salesman. Taher, Moseb and Galeb all decided to leave together after Sahim Alwan made it clear he wanted to return home and was unhappy with the tone of the camp. They were driven to Quetta, and rather than wait a day for the next plane, took a bus to Karachi so they could leave Pakistan immediately. Faysal Galab Faysal Galab is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact

Mukhtar al-Bakri

Mukhtar al-Bakri Mukhtar al-Bakri (born 1981) is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. Like the others, although initially entering a plea of "not guilty", he eventually pleaded guilty to "providing material support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization". He was convicted and sentenced to 10 years in prison and a $2,000 fine. Mukhtar

Faysal Galab

Faysal Galab Faysal Galab is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. Along with the others he was convicted of "providing support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization", and received a seven-year sentence. Galab was born to James Galab, a steelworker at Bethlehem Steel in Lackawanna, NY. Galab graduated from high school, married and worked as

Buffalo Six

Buffalo Six The Lackawanna Six (known primarily as Lackawanna Six, but also the Lackawanna Cell, or Buffalo Cell) is a group of six Yemeni-American friends who were convicted of providing material support to al-Qaeda in December 2003, based on their having attended an al-Qaeda training camp in Afghanistan together in the Spring of 2001. Friends from childhood in Yemen, all six are naturalized American citizens. The six men traveled from the United States to Afghanistan in spring 2001, before the September 11 attacks, while the country was still ruled by the Taliban. Its leaders were giving sanctuary to Osama bin

Lackawanna, New York

section of the city. The court ruled such action would amount to racial discrimination. The Lackawanna Six (also known as the Buffalo Six) are a group of Yemeni Americans who were convicted of providing "material support" to Al-Qaeda. The group was accused of traveling to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the spring of 2001 to attend terrorist training camps. The men had claimed that their travel was to Pakistan only, and for the purpose of religious instruction. The group was arrested in Lackawanna on September 13, 2002, by the FBI. A member of the Lackawanna Cell, Jaber A. Elbaneh, never returned

Buffalo Six

proceeded without incident; they were tried in criminal court. Buffalo Six The Lackawanna Six (known primarily as Lackawanna Six, but also the Lackawanna Cell, or Buffalo Cell) is a group of six Yemeni-American friends who were convicted of providing material support to al-Qaeda in December 2003, based on their having attended an al-Qaeda training camp in Afghanistan together in the Spring of 2001. Friends from childhood in Yemen, all six are naturalized American citizens. The six men traveled from the United States to Afghanistan in spring 2001, before the September 11 attacks, while the country was still ruled by the

Buffalo Six

been accused of planning or engaging in terrorist acts. Yahya Goba and Mukhtar al-Bakri received 10-year prison sentences. Yaseinn Taher and Shafal Mosed received 8-year prison sentences. Sahim Alwan received a 9.5-year sentence. Faysal Galab received a 7-year sentence. All sentences were for single counts of "providing support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization". In discussing the plea bargain agreements, US prosecutors commented the defendants had cooperated with federal terrorism investigators, providing detailed information on al-Qaeda membership, training, and methods. In late October 2008, three of the six men testified at the Guantanamo military commission's review of Ali Hamza

Shafal Mosed

sickly mother and three younger siblings. The family lived in poverty, as Mosed worked as a telemarketer and took computer courses at the local community college. Taher, Moseb and Galeb all decided to leave together after Sahim Alwan made it clear he wanted to return home and was unhappy with the tone of the camp. They were driven to Quetta, and rather than wait a day for the next plane, took a bus to Karachi so they could leave Pakistan immediately. Shafal Mosed Shafal Mosed is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002,

Shafal Mosed

Shafal Mosed Shafal Mosed is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. Born in Detroit, Michigan, Mosed moved to Lackawanna as a child when his father's automotive job with Ford Motor Company was relocated to the Buffalo plant. When his father died of a heart attack, Mosed was left in charge of caring for his

Yaseinn Taher

Yaseinn Taher Yaseinn Taher is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. The Taher household was not considered devoutly Muslim, although they forbade their children to date, they also exchanged gifts for Christmas and weren't "regulars" at mosque worship services. Taher was captain of the Lackawanna Steelers soccer team, and dated the cheerleader Nicole Frick,

Buffalo Six

visited what later became known in the American media as the "al-Farooq terrorist training camp." That year, they returned to the United States. In the late summer of 2002, one of the members, Mukhtar al-Bakri, sent an e-mail message in which he described his upcoming wedding in Yemen, and another in which he mentioned a "big meal" after the wedding, which is traditional in Islam. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), who were monitoring him, sounded the alarm and al-Bakri was arrested by Bahraini police on the date of his wedding in September 2002. They found him in his hotel room

Sahim Alwan

Sahim Alwan Sahim Alwan is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. Like the others, although initially entering a plea of "not guilty", he eventually pleaded guilty to "providing material support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization". He was convicted and received a 9.5-year sentence. Described as the "clean-cut" son of a steelworker, Alwan

Buffalo Six

Laden, the Saudi Arabian Muslim who used it as a base for Al Qaeda terrorist training. In June 2001, an anonymous two-page handwritten letter was received from an individual ostensibly living in Lackawanna who knew the immigrant Yemeni population intimately. It warned, "I am very concern. I am an Arab-American... and I cannot give you my name because I fear for my life. Two terrorist came to Lackawanna... for recruiting the Yemenite youth... the terrorist group... left to Afghanistan to meet... bin Laden and stay in his camp for training", and gave the names of twelve local youths. The group

Yahya Goba

Yahya Goba Yahya Goba is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact that he and a group of friends had attended an Afghan training camp together years earlier. When Kamal Derwish moved back to Lackawanna in 2000, he lived with his uncle until Goba volunteered to split an apartment with him. Derwish then began holding regular get-togethers at the apartment, where a group of upwards to 25 young

Buffalo Six

al Bahlul actions. Yassein Taher, Sahim Alwan and a third member of the group (not identified to the press) testified they had been shown a two-hour jihadist video that celebrated the attack on the USS "Cole" during the period when they were in al Qaeda guest houses and when they attended the al Farouq training camp. Al Bahlul was charged with producing the jihadist video for recruiting members to al-Qaeda. The Buffalo men testified that they were terrified and appalled by the video. According to the journalist Carol Rosenberg of the "Miami Herald," Taher and Alwan expected their testimony would

Mukhtar al-Bakri

team was doing. He admitted in court that in April 2001, he and other members participated in a military-type training in Afghanistan. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison and $2,000 fine on a charge of providing material support to the Al Qaeda in December 2003. Mukhtar al-Bakri Mukhtar al-Bakri (born 1981) is a Yemeni-American who grew up in the suburbs of Buffalo, New York. In 2002, he was arrested and charged as part of the War on Terror together with the other members of the "Lackawanna Six", based on the fact the group of friends had attended an

Mukhtar al-Bakri

Bahrain they arranged for a commando team to storm his hotel room on 9 September 2002. They were surprised to find al-Bakri in bed with his new wife, preparing to consummate their marriage - and quickly handcuffed him and hustled him out of the room as she cried. He was held by Bahrain for five days, until State Trooper Mike Urbanski was able to fly out to the kingdom to pick up al-Bakri. After being interrogated and sharing his life story with Urbanski for five hours, al-Bakri had just one question he asked in return; how the Buffalo Bills football

Mukhtar al-Bakri

was born in 1981, along with a twin brother named Amin, to Ali al-Bakri, a Yemeni who had immigrated to the United States decades earlier, and had spent the past 25 years working in the Sorrento Cheese Factory in New York. Ali and his wife, their twin sons, and their eldest son, his wife and children all lived together in a 2-storey house on Ingham Avenue. American counter-terrorism officials grew increasingly worried that al-Bakri's conversations kept mentioning a date in the future as the date of his "wedding" and the planning of a "big meal", so when he flew to

Sahim Alwan

was noted for always wearing a shirt and tie, every day of his adult life, and studied criminal justice at the local community college. During the Gulf War, he and a group of friends were assaulted for their ethnicity outside a Lackawanna restaurant. In the late 1990s, while working for Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association, he cooperated with the FBI to help investigate a fraud case, and asked them about the possibility of working for them as a career. A "local success story", he maintained a stable marriage, had three children, and worked with the Iroquois Job Corps Center

Juma al-Dossary

the Lackawanna Six said that Al Dossary had delivered a "fiery speech" at the Guidance Mosque in Lackawanna. According to Ahearn the FBI is interested in learning whether Al Dossary may have helped fund the Lackawanna men's travel expenses. The "Buffalo News" article quotes from Al Dossary's Combatant Status Review Tribunal. They report that Al Dossary acknowledges traveling to Buffalo, and acknowledges giving a "fiery speech", but denied ever encouraging anyone to join al Qaeda. They report Al Dossary denied having any ties to al Qaeda or terrorism. On November 9, 2005, the U.S. Embassy in Bahrain issued a statement


Question: Quadrille, a popular card game in the 18th century, is for four players with a deck of how many?

Quadrille (card game)

Quadrille (card game) Quadrille is a card game that was popular in the 18th century. A variant of the Spanish card game Ombre, it is played by four players in pairs, with a deck of 40 cards (the 8's, 9's and 10's being removed). By the end of the 19th century, the card game had fallen out of fashion. The novel "Pride and Prejudice" includes four references to the quadrille card game being played by an upper class character, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, and her guests. In the "Diary of Thomas Vernon", which was written by a loyalist from Newport,

Quadrille (card game)

Rhode Island, during the American Revolution in 1776, the author mentions playing quadrille frequently while exiled in Glocester, Rhode Island, during the war. It is also frequently mentioned in "The Diary of a Country Parson 1758-1802" kept by James Woodforde, edited by John Beresford. Quadrille (card game) Quadrille is a card game that was popular in the 18th century. A variant of the Spanish card game Ombre, it is played by four players in pairs, with a deck of 40 cards (the 8's, 9's and 10's being removed). By the end of the 19th century, the card game had fallen

Quadrille (patience)

Quadrille (patience) Quadrille, also called Captive Queens, La Française or Partner is a card game of the Patience or Solitaire type using a pack of 52 playing cards. The name Quadrille is derived from the layout of the four Queens around which the cards are built; an alternative name, Captive Queens, describes the way the Queens become "enclosed" as the foundations are built upon. Alluding to the name, Quadrille, Parlett describes it as "a pleasant little pictorial which may be said to represent the dance of the cardboard court." There are two variants: Either way, the role of the Queens

Quadrille (patience)

permitted. The game is won when all the cards are in the foundations with the court cards (Kings and Jacks) at the top of each foundation, as shown on the right. Quadrille (patience) Quadrille, also called Captive Queens, La Française or Partner is a card game of the Patience or Solitaire type using a pack of 52 playing cards. The name Quadrille is derived from the layout of the four Queens around which the cards are built; an alternative name, Captive Queens, describes the way the Queens become "enclosed" as the foundations are built upon. Alluding to the name, Quadrille,

Ombre

the late 17th through the 18th centuries. As with most games, Ombre acquired many variations of increasing complexity over the years, until its popularity was eclipsed by the second quarter of the 18th century by a new four player French variant called Quadrille, later displaced by the English Whist. Other lines of descent and hybridization produced games like Preference, Mediator and Twenty-five. Under the name Tresillo, it survived in parts of Spain during the nineteenth century, as Voltarete in Portugal and Brazil, as Rocambor in countries such as Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia in the twentieth century, and it is still

Quadrille (card game)

Quadrille (card game)

Quadrille is a card game that was highly popular in the 17th and 18th centuries at the French court and among the British nobility, especially women. A variant of the three-player, Spanish card game Ombre, it is played by four players, both in varying alliances and solo games, using a pack of 40 cards (the 8's, 9's and 10's being removed). By the mid-19th century, Quadrille had fallen out of fashion, superseded by Whist and Boston.

Ombre

Ombre

Ombre (, pronounced "omber") or l'Hombre is a fast-moving seventeenth-century trick-taking card game for three players and "the most successful card game ever invented."

Its history began in Spain around the end of the 16th century as a four-person game. It is one of the earliest card games known in Europe and by far the most classic game of its type, directly ancestral to Euchre, Boston and Solo Whist. Despite its difficult rules, complicated point score and strange foreign terms, it swept Europe in the last quarter of the 17th century, becoming "Lomber" in Germany, "Lumbur" in Austria and "Ombre" (originally pronounced 'umber') in England, occupying a position of prestige similar to contract bridge today. Ombre eventually developed into a whole family of related games such as the four-hand Quadrille, three-hand Tritrille, five-hand Quintille and six-hand Sextille, as well as German Solo, Austrian Préférence and Swedish Vira, itself "one of the most complex card games ever devised." Other games borrowed features from Ombre such as bidding; for example, the gambling game of Bête, formerly known as Homme, and the tarot game of Taroc l'Hombre.

Boston (card game)

Boston (card game)

Boston or Boston Whist is an 18th-century, trick-taking, card game played throughout the Western world apart from Britain, forming an evolutionary link between Hombre and Solo Whist. Apparently named after a key location in the American War of Independence, it is probably a French game which was devised in France in the 1770s, combining the 52-card pack and logical ranking system of partnership Whist with a range of solo and alliance bids borrowed from Quadrille. Other lines of descent and hybridization produced the games of Twenty-five, Préférence and Skat. Its most common form is known as Boston de Fontainebleau or French Boston.

Quadrille (patience)

Quadrille (patience)

Quadrille is the name of two loosely related card games of the Patience or solitaire type which are often confused. Both use a pack of 52 playing cards. The earlier one was also known as La Française ("the Frenchwoman") or Royal Quadrille, the slightly later one as Captive Queens. The name is derived from the desired end result of the earlier game in which the four Kings and Queens are arranged in a square formation as in the European dance of quadrille that was fashionable in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Tarot

Tarot

The tarot (, first known as "trionfi" and later as tarocchi or tarocks) is a pack of playing cards, used from at least the mid-15th century in various parts of Europe to play card games such as Tarocchini. From their Italian roots, tarot playing cards spread to most of Europe evolving into a family of games that includes German Grosstarok and more recent games such as French Tarot and Austrian Königrufen which are still played today. In the late 18th century, French occultists began to make elaborate, but unsubstantiated, claims about their history and meaning, leading to the emergence of custom decks for use in divination via tarot card reading and cartomancy. Thus there are two distinct types of tarot pack: those used for playing games and those used for divination. However, some older patterns, such as the Tarot de Marseille, originally intended for playing card games, have also been used for cartomancy.

Like the common playing cards, tarot has four suits which vary by region: French suits are used in western, central and eastern Europe, Latin suits in southern Europe. Cartomantic packs have their own symbols derived from the Latin suits. Each suit has 14 cards: ten pip cards numbering from one (or Ace) to ten, and four face cards (King, Queen, Knight, and Jack/Knave/Page). In addition, the tarot has a separate 21-card trump suit and a single card known as the Fool. Depending on the game, the Fool may act as the top trump or may be played to avoid following suit. These tarot cards are still used throughout much of Europe to play conventional card games.

Among English-speaking countries where these games are not widely played, only specially designed cartomantic tarot cards are readily available and they are used primarily for novelty and divinatory purposes. In fact, historians have described western views of the Tarot pack as "the subject of the most successful propaganda campaign ever launched... An entire false history and false interpretation of the Tarot pack was concocted by the occultists; and it is all but universally believed".

In the occult tradition, tarot cards are referred to as 'arcana'; with the Fool and 21 trumps being termed the Major Arcana and the suit cards the Minor Arcana. However, these terms are not used by players of tarot card games.

Tarot cards, then known as "tarocchi", first appeared in Ferrara and Milan in northern Italy, with a Fool and 21 trumps (then called "trionfi") being added to the standard Italian pack of four suits: batons, coins, cups and swords. Scholarship has established that the early European cards were probably based on the Egyptian Mamluk deck which followed the invention of paper from Asia into Western Europe and was invented in or before the 14th century. By the late 1300's Europeans were producing their own cards, the earliest patterns being based on the Mamluk deck but with variations to the suit symbols and court cards.<ref name=wopc/>

All Fours

All Fours All Fours, also known as High-Low-Jack or Seven Up, is an English tavern trick-taking card game that was popular as a gambling game until the end of the 19th century. It is the eponymous and earliest recorded game in a family that flourished most in 19th century North America, notable other members being Auction Pitch, Pedro and Cinch, which competed against Poker and Euchre. Nowadays the original game is especially popular in Trinidad and Tobago, but a simpler variant has also survived in parts of England. Martinique is also accredited with the creation of all fours by coming

Ombre

it was invented prior to the publication of the Dictionary of Sebastián de Covarrubias in 1611, although it makes no mention of it. Cotton's "Compleat Gamester" says that “there were several sorts of this game, but that which the chief was called "Renegado", at which three only could play, and to whom were dealt nine cards apiece so that by discarding the eights, nines and tens, there would remain thirteen cards in the stock". In Seymour's Complete Gamester, in 1722, where there is a frontispiece to the book in which a party of rank are represented playing at it, it

Napoleon (card game)

If four play, 28 to 32 cards are used, if five, 36 to 40 cards. When six play the dealer deals himself no hand, but pays or receives the same as the other players. The cards in each suit rank from high to low (ace high). The dealer deals five cards to each player. Deal and play are clockwise, and the turn to deal passes to the left after each hand. The players cut to determine the dealer for the first deal. The player with the lowest card deals first. The ace ranks below the two. After the shuffle, the

Chinese playing cards

"Ghost" card. The Myriad Myriad card disappeared by the late 19th century. During the Qing dynasty, draw-and-discard games became more popular and the 30-card deck was often multiplied with each card having two to five copies. noted that the three-suited decks were ten times more popular than four-suited ones around 1783, a disparity which has since significantly increased. Mahjong, which also exists in card format, was derived from these types of games during the middle of the 19th century. Four-suited decks still exist and are used by the Hakka to play , a multi-trick game. Six Tigers decks lack illustrations

Pinochle

cards (a piquet deck does not have the 2-6, making it easier to modify, and a euchre deck is exactly half a pinochle deck), but with the game's popularity in the United States in the early 1900s, a single boxed deck with the necessary cards was marketed, and these specialized pinochle decks are now widely available in similar styles to common 52-card counterparts. Variants of pinochle can be played with five, six, eight or more players. These larger variations can combine two pinochle decks called a "double deck". The double deck can also be used when playing with four players;

Trionfi (cards)

which offers details about the deck and a cursory explanation of how it is played. It likely had a total of 60 cards (four kings, forty pip cards and sixteen trumps). The forty-four plain-suited cards used birds as suit signs and the trumps presented sixteen Roman gods. In two suits, the pip cards are in reverse order as in many of the oldest card games. Two decks from June 1457 seem to relate to a visit at Ferrara of the young Milanese heir of the dukedom Galeazzo Maria Sforza in July/August 1457. Each deck consisted of 70 cards — the

Triomphe

worth four, kings three, queens two, and jacks one; in total there should be 40 points. If a player achieves a slam (winning all the tricks), he will get 80 points. Though Triomphe can be traced back to the 1480s in France, the earliest surviving rules date to 1659. French Triomphe was played by four players divided into two partnerships with a 52-card deck. The order of the cards from highest to lowest is King, Queen, Jack, Ace, 10, 9 ... 2. Each player takes a card from the deck, the one with the highest card becomes the dealer and

Playing card

holding them with right hand. Such design may be uncomfortable for left-handed people who may prefer all four corners of the card to be used. French decks come in a variety of patterns and deck sizes. The 52-card deck is the most popular deck and includes 13 ranks of each suit with reversible "court" or face cards. Each suit includes an ace, depicting a single symbol of its suit, a king, queen, and jack, each depicted with a symbol of their suit; and ranks two through ten, with each card depicting that number of pips of its suit. As well

Mariage (card game)

also a close relative but features a number of peculiarities, has spawned numerous variants, and is played with 36 cards. The popular South Asian card games "Twenty-eight" and "Twenty-nine" are derivatives of this family and share many of its characteristics. The earliest known games of this family were two-handed, such as "klaberjass" (also known as "bela") which is still played worldwide. Royal Marriage, a solitaire game in which the goal is also the union of a King and Queen Mariage (card game) The King–Queen card games, also known as the marriage group, are a family of point-trick games of which

Hanafuda

of many differing designs. Through the rest of the Edo period through the Meiwa, An'ei, and Tenmei eras (roughly 1765–1788), a game called "Mekuri Karuta" took the place of "Unsun Karuta". Consisting of a 48-card deck divided into four sets of 12, it became wildly popular and was one of the most common forms of gambling during this time period. In fact, it became so commonly used for gambling that it was banned in 1791, during the Kansei era. Over the next few decades, several new card games were developed and subsequently banned because they were used almost exclusively for

Quadrille

Quadrille The quadrille is a dance that was fashionable in late 18th- and 19th-century Europe and its colonies. Performed by four couples in a rectangular formation, it is related to American square dancing. The Lancers, a variant of the quadrille, became popular in the late 19th century and was still danced in the 20th century in folk-dance clubs. A derivative found in the Francophone Lesser Antilles is known as "kwadril", and the dance is also still found in Madagascar and is within old Jamaican / Caribbean culture. The "quadrille" consists of a chain of four to six "contredanses", courtly versions

Triomphe

described the rules in the form of dialogues between the players. It is an ancestor of Ombre. The game is played by four players either individually or as partners. Maldonado uses a pack of 48 Spanish playing cards but Vives uses a French deck by discarding the 10s. In the suit of clubs and swords, the ranking from highest to lowest is King, Knight, Jack, 9 ... Ace while in the suit of cups and coins it is King, Knight, Jack, Ace ... 9. In the trump suit, the Ace is promoted above the King. Partners are chosen by drawing

Quadrat (patience)

If, in doing so, two of the cards turn out to have the same suit (Clubs , Spades , Hearts or Diamonds ), the pair of cards is laid off to one side and replaced by two more cards from the stock. Alternatively the pairs may be covered by new cards. If three or four cards of the same suit surface at the same time, only two are removed; the third card remains in the tableau. The variant, Zudecken, is generally played with a 52-card deck. Here the cards are placed next to one another and, as soon as cards

Quadrille (patience)

is purely decorative and plays no functional role in the game. The aim is to build the Sixes upwards in the same suit as far as the Jacks, and the Fives downwards as far as the Kings (via the Aces). The following chart clarifies which cards are placed on the foundations: To play, cards are turned from the stock and built if possible or discarded if not possible into a wastepile, face up. Once the stock runs out, the cards are gathered from the wastepile and become the new stock from which cards are to be dealt. Three redeals are

Card game

and the term with this definition is still recognized in the United Kingdom. Based on the association of card games and gambling, Pope Benedict XIV banned card games on October 17, 1750. Since the 19th century some decks have been specially printed for certain games. Old Maid, Phase 10, Rook, and Uno are examples of games that can be played with one or more 52-card decks but are usually played with custom decks. Cards play an important role in board games like Risk and Monopoly. Any specific card game imposes restrictions on the number of players. The most significant dividing


Question: Areas on the Canadian eastern coast share their name with two breeds of dog, Newfoundland and which other?

Labrador
labradour
Labradoreans
Labradour
Labradorean
labrador canada
labrador boundary dispute
labrador
Labrador, Canada
labradoreans
Labrador boundary dispute
labradorian
Labradorians
Coast of Labrador
labradorians
Labradorian
coast of labrador
labradorean

Newfoundland dog

as the lesser Newfoundland, or St. John's dog. DNA analysis confirms that Newfoundlands are closely related to other Canadian retrievers, including the Labrador, Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever, Golden Retrievers, and Flat Coated Retrievers. The Molosser-like appearance of the Newfoundland are a result of an introduction of Mastiff blood, possibly a from breeding with Portuguese Mastiffs brought to the island by Portuguese fishermen beginning in the 16th century. By the time colonization was permitted in Newfoundland in 1610, the distinct physical characteristics and mental attributes had been established in the Newfoundland breed. In the early 1880s, fishermen and explorers from

Newfoundland dog

Newfoundland dog The Newfoundland dog is a large working dog. They can be either black, brown, or white-and-black (called Landseer). However, in Canada, the country of their origin, the only correct colours are either black or Landseer. They were originally bred and used as a working dog for fishermen in the Dominion of Newfoundland (which is now part of Canada). They are known for their giant size, intelligence, tremendous strength, calm dispositions, and loyalty. Newfoundland dogs excel at water rescue/lifesaving because of their muscular build, thick double coat, webbed feet, and innate swimming abilities. The Newfoundlands ('Newfs' or 'Newfies') have

Newfoundland dog

Ireland and England traveled to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, where they described two main types of working dog. One was heavily built, large with a longish coat, and the other medium-sized in build – an active, smooth-coated water dog. The heavier breed was known as the Greater Newfoundland, or Newfoundland. The smaller breed was known as the Lesser Newfoundland, or St. John's dog. The St. John's dog became the founding breed of the modern retrievers. Both breeds were used as working dogs to pull fishnets, with the Greater Newfoundland also being used to haul carts and other equipment. Because

Newfoundland dog

only black, brown, and white/black; the Canadian Kennel Club (CKC) permits only black and white/black. The "Landseer" pattern is named after the artist, Sir Edwin Henry Landseer, who featured them in many of his paintings. Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) consider the ECT Landseer ("European Continental Type") to be a separate breed. It is a taller, more narrow white dog with black markings not bred with a Newfoundland. The Newfoundland's extremely large bones give it mass, while its large musculature gives it the power it needs to take on rough ocean waves and powerful tides. These dogs have huge lung capacity

Labrador Retriever

Sea) or simply Labrador to distinguish them from the larger Newfoundland breed, even though the breed was from the more southern Avalon Peninsula. The progenitors of the Labrador retriever were actually from Newfoundland and Labrador exceptionally, the breed known as the Newfoundland was created near the same time in Labrador. The two breeds' names and origins were mixed once moved into England and both North and South America. The dog from Labrador became the large, long-furred dog we see and know today, and the dog from Newfoundland became the Labrador. The first written reference to the breed was in 1814

Labrador

Labrador

Labrador ( ) is a geographic and cultural region within the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is the primarily continental portion of the province and constitutes 71% of the province's area but is home to only 6% of its population. It is separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in the four Atlantic provinces.

Labrador occupies most of the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and south by the province of Quebec. Labrador also shares a small land border with the territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island.

The indigenous peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of NunatuKavut, and the Innu of Nitassinan.

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador (; ; frequently abbreviated as NL) is the easternmost province of Canada, in the country's Atlantic region. The province comprises the island of Newfoundland and the continental region of Labrador, having a total size of 405,212 square kilometres (156,500 sq mi). In 2021, the population of Newfoundland and Labrador was estimated to be 521,758. The island of Newfoundland (and its smaller neighbouring islands) is home to around 94 per cent of the province's population, with more than half residing in the Avalon Peninsula. Labrador borders the province of Quebec, and the French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon lies about 20 km west of the Burin Peninsula.

According to the 2016 census, 97.0 per cent of residents reported English as their native language, making Newfoundland and Labrador Canada's most linguistically homogeneous province. A majority of the population is descended from English and Irish settlers, giving Newfoundland its reputation as "the most Irish place outside Ireland."

St. John's, the capital and largest city of Newfoundland and Labrador, is Canada's 22nd-largest census metropolitan area and it is home to about 40% of the province's population. St. John's is the seat of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador as well as the jurisdiction's highest court, the Newfoundland and Labrador Court of Appeal.

Once a self-governing dominion, in 1933 the House of Assembly voted to dissolve itself and hand over administration of the Dominion to the British-appointed Commission of Government in 1933 following the substantial economic suffering caused by the Great Depression and Newfoundland's participation in World War I. On March 31, 1949, it became the 10th and newest province to join the Canadian Confederation as "Newfoundland". On December 6, 2001, the Constitution of Canada was amended to change the province's name to "Newfoundland and Labrador".
Section::::Names.
The name "New founde lande" was uttered by King Henry VII about the land explored by Sebastian and John Cabot. In Portuguese it is (while the province's full name is ), which literally means "new land" which is also the French name for the province's island region (). The name "Terra Nova" is in wide use on the island (e.g. Terra Nova National Park). The influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador.

Labrador's name in the Inuttitut/Inuktitut language (spoken in Nunatsiavut) is (), meaning "the big land" (a common English nickname for Labrador). Newfoundland's Inuttitut/Inuktitut name is (), meaning "place of many shoals". Newfoundland and Labrador's Inuttitut/Inuktitut name is .

Newfoundland dog

Newfoundland dog

The Newfoundland is a large working dog. They can be black, brown, or black and white. However, in the Dominion of Newfoundland, before it became part of the confederation of Canada, only black and Landseer (white-and-black) coloured dogs were considered to be proper members of the breed. They were originally bred and used as working dogs for fishermen in Newfoundland.

Atlantic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the "Old World" of Africa, Europe and Asia from the "New World" of the Americas in the European perception of the World.

The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and North and South America to the west. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The Atlantic Ocean is divided in two parts, by the Equatorial Counter Current, with the North(ern) Atlantic Ocean and the South(ern) Atlantic Ocean split at about 8°N.<ref name="USN-2001" />

Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the "Challenger" expedition, the German "Meteor" expedition, Columbia University's Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.<ref name="USN-2001" />

Newfoundland (island)

Newfoundland (island)

Newfoundland (, ; , ; ) is a large island off the east coast of the North American mainland and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the province's land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and from Cape Breton Island by the Cabot Strait. It blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the world's largest estuary. Newfoundland's nearest neighbour is the French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon.

With an area of , Newfoundland is the world's 16th-largest island, Canada's fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. John's, is located on the southeastern coast of the island; Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo and Bell Island to be 'part of Newfoundland' (i.e., distinct from Labrador). By that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of .

According to 2006 official Census Canada statistics, 57% of responding Newfoundland and Labradorians claim British or Irish ancestry, with 43.2% claiming at least one English parent, 21.5% at least one Irish parent, and 7% at least one parent of Scottish origin. Additionally 6.1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry. The island's total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105.

Hunting dog

as they were bred for both saltwater and freshwater conditions: when it is summertime and out of season for hunting, they make excellent lifeguards of master's children when the young ones are learning to swim in the tide. Most famous of all is the Labrador, native to an island in Maritime Canada but popular around the world: the field type Labrador has longer legs and a slimmer frame than the bulkier show type that is better known in Britain, but both show signs of being attracted to water from puppyhood. Like the Chesapeake, in addition to their use as a

Newfoundland dog

physical traits with Mastiffs and Molosser type dogs, such as the St. Bernard and English Mastiff, including stout legs, massive heads with very broad snouts, a thick bull neck, and a very sturdy bone structure. In fact, many St. Bernard Dogs have Newfoundland Dog ancestry. Newfoundlands were brought and introduced to the St. Bernard breed in the 18th century when the population was threatened by an epidemic of distemper. They share many characteristics of many mountain dog breeds such as the Great Pyrenees. The Newfoundland breed originated on Newfoundland, and is descended from a breed indigenous to the island known

Newfoundland dog

in J.M. Barrie's "Peter Pan". The Newfoundland, in general, is good with other animals, but its size can cause problems if it is not trained. A Newfoundland's good, sweet nature is so important, it is listed in the Breed Standards of many countries; dogs exhibiting poor temperament or aggression are disqualified from showing and should never be used to breed. The breed standard in the United States reads that "Sweetness of temperament is the hallmark of the Newfoundland; this is the most important single characteristic of the breed." There are several health problems associated with Newfoundlands. Newfoundlands are prone to

Newfoundland dog

and docile nature and its strength. They are highly loyal and make ideal working dogs. It is for this reason that this breed is known as "the gentle giant". International kennel clubs generally describe the breed as having a sweet temper. It typically has a deep bark and is easy to train if started young. They are wonderfully good with children, but small children can get accidentally leaned on and knocked down. Newfoundlands are ideal companions in the world of therapy and are often referred to as the nanny dog. The breed was memorialized in "Nana", the beloved guardian dog

Newfoundland dog

porcelain. One famous Newfoundland was a dog named Seaman, who accompanied American explorers Lewis and Clark on their expedition. The breed's working role was varied. Another famous all-black Newfoundland performed as the star attraction in Van Hare's Magic Circus from 1862 and for many years thereafter in one of England's founding circus acts, traveling throughout Europe. The circus dog was known as the "Thousand Guinea Dog Napoleon" or "Napoleon the Wonder Dog." The circus owner, G. Van Hare, trained other Newfoundland dogs to perform a steeplechase routine with baboons dressed up as jockeys to ride them. Nonetheless, his "wizard dog"

Newfoundland dog

for swimming extremely long distances and a thick, oily, and waterproof double coat which protects them from the chill of icy waters. The double coat makes the dog hard to groom, and also causes a lot of shedding to occur. The droopy lips and jowls make the dog drool, especially in high heat. In the water, the dog's massive webbed paws give it maximum propulsion. The swimming stroke is not an ordinary dog paddle. Unlike other dogs, the Newfoundland moves its limbs in a down-and-out motion giving more power to every stroke. The Newfoundland dog is known for its calm

Labrador Retriever

emerged through ad-hoc breedings by early settlers of the island in the 16th century. The forebears of the St. John's Dog are not known, but were likely a random-bred mix of English, Irish, and Portuguese working breeds. The Newfoundland (known then as the Greater Newfoundland) is likely a result of the St. John's Dog breeding with mastiffs brought to the island by the generations of Portuguese fishermen who had been fishing offshore since the 16th century. The smaller short-coated St. John's Dog (also known then as the Lesser Newfoundland) was used for retrieval and pulling in nets from the water.

Music of the Maritimes

Wine have all experienced tremendous success as popular music acts with considerable national and international tours and record sales. While closely related to the three Maritime provinces, Newfoundland and Labrador is culturally and politically separate. However, the two areas share a regional awards show, the East Coast Music Awards, and a common musical heritage. The Maritime provinces are best known for the strong influence of Scottish and Irish settlers on the sound of the region's traditional music. This Celtic derived music is most strongly expressed on Cape Breton Island, which is especially well known for the Scottish influx in the

Landseer dog

colonial times, large white and black "Newfoundland dogs" were brought to England. Because of their good swimming skills, these dogs were utilized by fishermen to tow nets to the shore. They were also noted for their ability to help drowning people; therefore, these dogs were bought and sold mainly by European fishermen. It is believed that, by and large, the exportation of these dogs occurred during the late 18th century. However, paintings show us that these dogs must have already existed in England in the early 18th century. Because of their impressive appearance, they were the subject of numerous books

Newfoundland dog

webbed feet and a water-resistant coat. Males normally weigh , and females , placing them in the "Giant" weight range; but some Newfoundland dogs have been known to weigh over – and the largest on record weighed and measured over from nose to tail, ranking it among the largest of dog breeds. They may grow up to tall at the shoulder. The American Kennel Club (AKC) standard colors of the Newfoundland dogs are black, brown, grey, and white-and-black (sometimes referred to as Landseer). Other colors are possible but are not considered rare or more valuable. The Kennel Club (KC) permits

Newfoundland dog

the possession of Beriah Botfield esq.at Norton Hall' published in London in 1848. During the Discovery Channel's second day of coverage of the AKC Eukanuba National Championship on December 3, 2006, anchor Bob Goen reported that Newfoundlands exhibit a very strong propensity to rescue people from water. Goen stated that one Newfoundland alone once aided the rescue of 63 shipwrecked sailors. Today, kennel clubs across the United States host Newfoundland Rescue Demonstrations, as well as offering classes in the field. Many harbor boat tours in St. John's have a dog on board for local charm as well as for passenger

St. John's water dog

understand by the term Newfoundland dog in England. He had a thin, tapering snout, a long thin tail, and rather thin, but powerful legs, with a lank body, – the hair short and smooth." wrote Jukes. "These are the most abundant dogs in the country...They are no means handsome, but are generally more intelligent and useful than the others... I observed he once or twice put his foot in the water and paddled it about. This foot was white, and Harvey said he did it to 'toil' or entice the fish. The whole proceeding struck me as remarkable, more especially

Tweed Water Spaniel

Although the quote refers specifically to the Newfoundland breed, it is actually more likely to mean the now extinct breed of the St. John's water dog which was sometimes referred to by its homeland's location of Newfoundland and Labrador. Stanley O'Neil, an expert in Flat-coated Retrievers, wrote of the Tweed Water Spaniel in a letter during the late 19th century, "Further up the coast, probably Alnmouth, I saw men netting for salmon. With them was a dog with a wavy or curly coat. It was a tawny colour but, wet and spumy, it was difficult to see the exact colour,

Harris R. Oke

Cornwall and York (later George V and Queen Mary), during their visit to the colony in 1901. An example of an Oke 19th century child's dog-cart is in the collection of the Trust Carriage Museum, on display at Arlington Court (Devon). A Newfoundland dog, Sable Chief, in the same bloodline as Bouncer, was presented as mascot to the WW1 Newfoundland Regiment before leaving St. John's on the SS Florizel. Multi-generations of Oke families resided in St. John's connected to land on the south side of Quidi Vidi Lake where Oke grew up, at the juncture of Forest Road and Quidi

Newfoundland dog

of that, they were part of the foundation stock of the Leonberger (which excelled at water rescue and was imported by the Canadian government for that purpose); and the now extinct Moscow Water Dog, a failed attempt at creating a lifesaving dog by the Russian state kennel—the unfortunate outcross with the Caucasian Ovcharka begat a dog more adept at biting than rescuing. Many tales have been told of the courage displayed by Newfoundlands in adventuring and lifesaving exploits. Over the last two centuries, this has inspired a number of artists, who have portrayed the dogs in paint, stone, bronze, and


Question: General Franco, the Spanish military general, was head of state of Spain from October 1936 following the Spanish Civil War, until when?

one thousand, nine hundred and seventy-five

one thousand nine hundred and seventy five

Francisco Franco

Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (; ; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator from 1939, after the nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War, until his death in 1975. This period in Spanish history is commonly known as Francoist Spain. During the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera 1923-1930, Franco was promoted general at age 33, the youngest in Europe. As a conservative and a monarchist, Franco opposed the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a democratic secular republic in 1931. With the 1936 elections,

Francisco Franco

Nations) and did not leave it until the war's end in 1945. Franco was recognised as the Spanish head of state by Great Britain and France in February 1939. Already proclaimed "Generalísimo" of the Nationalists and "Jefe del Estado" (Head of State) in October 1936, he thereafter assumed the official title of ""Su Excelencia el Jefe de Estado"" ("His Excellency the Head of State"). He was also referred to in state and official documents as ""Caudillo de España"" ("the Leader of Spain"), and sometimes called ""el Caudillo de la Última Cruzada y de la Hispanidad"" ("the Leader of the Last

Spanish coup of July 1936

of socialist organisations, scaring the middle classes. Several generals decided that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented. They held professional politicians in contempt. The republican government had been attempting to remove suspect generals from their posts, and so Franco was relieved as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary islands. Goded was replaced as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands; Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to be military commander of Pamplona in Navarre. However, this allowed Mola to direct

Francisco Franco

Carmen Polo, which the later democratic governments kept paying. At the time of her death in 1988, Carmen Polo was receiving as a pension more than 12.5 million pesetas (four million more than the salary of Felipe González, then head of the government). Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (; ; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator from 1939, after the nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War, until his death in 1975. This period in Spanish history is commonly known as Francoist Spain. During the dictatorship of

Coat of arms of Spain

announced the end of hostilities. The Republican forces had been defeated and Franco became the undisputed caudillo of Spain. He ruled Spain until he died on November 20, 1975. The Nationalist senior generals had held an informal meeting in September 1936, where they elected Francisco Franco as leader of the Nationalists, with the rank of "Generalísimo". He was originally supposed to be only commander-in-chief, but after some discussion became head of state as well with nearly unlimited and absolute powers. Franco adopted in 1938 a variant of the Coat of Arms reinstating some elements originally used by the House of

Francisco Franco

Francoist Spain

Francoist Spain

Francoist Spain (), or the Francoist dictatorship (), was the period of Spanish history between 1939 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death in 1975, Spain transitioned into a democracy. During this time period, Spain was officially known as the Spanish State ().

The nature of the regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory controlled by the Nationalist faction. The 1937 Unification Decree, which merged all parties supporting the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming a single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS. The end of the war in 1939 brought the extension of the Franco rule to the whole country and the exile of Republican institutions. The Francoist dictatorship originally took a form described as "fascistized dictatorship", or "semi-fascist regime", As time went on, the regime opened up and became closer to developmental dictatorships, although it always preserved residual fascist trappings.<ref name=payne>«La tesis defendida por Payne en dicho dossier puede sintetizarse con estas palabras:
» Glicerio Sanchez Recio. "En torno a la Dictadura franquista" Hispania Nova</ref>

During the Second World War, war-ravaged and starving Spain did not join the Axis powers (its supporters from the civil war, Italy and Germany), but supported them in various ways throughout most of the war while maintaining its neutrality as an official policy of "non-belligerence". Because of this, Spain was isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade after World War II, while its autarkic economy, still trying to recover from the civil war, suffered from chronic depression. The 1947 Law of Succession made Spain a "de jure" kingdom again, but defined Franco as the head of state for life with the power to choose the person to become King of Spain and his successor.

Reforms were implemented in the 1950s and Spain abandoned autarky, reassigned authority from the Falangist movement, which had been prone to isolationism, to a new breed of economists, the technocrats of Opus Dei. This led to massive economic growth, second only to Japan, that lasted until the mid-1970s, known as the "Spanish miracle". During the 1950s the regime also changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism. As a result of these reforms, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955 and during the Cold War Franco was one of Europe's foremost anti-communist figures: his regime was assisted by the Western powers, particularly the United States. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82. He restored the monarchy before his death and made his successor King Juan Carlos I, who would lead the Spanish transition to democracy.

Spanish Civil War

Second Spanish Republic

List of heads of state of Spain

List of heads of state of Spain

This is a list of Spanish heads of state, that is, kings and presidents that governed the country of Spain in the modern sense of the word. The forerunners of the Spanish throne were the following:

These lineages were eventually united by the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon (king of the Crown of Aragon) and Isabella I of Castile (queen of the Crown of Castile). Although their kingdoms continued to be separate, with their personal union they ruled them together as one dominion. Spain was thereafter governed as a dynastic union by the House of Trastámara, the House of Habsburg, and the House of Bourbon until the Nueva Planta decrees merged Castile and Aragon into one kingdom.

During the First Spanish Republic (1873–74), Spain had heads of state known as the "President of the Executive Power". However, it is only during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) that the official title of "President of Spain" (or "President of the Republic") existed. Today, Spain is a constitutional monarchy, and there is thus no person holding the title of "President of Spain". However, the prime minister holds the official title of "President of the Government".

Francisco Franco

it initially included Mola, three other generals, and two colonels; Franco was later added in early August. On 21 September it was decided that Franco was to be commander-in-chief (this unified command was opposed only by Cabanellas), and, after some discussion, with no more than a lukewarm agreement from Queipo de Llano and from Mola, also head of government. He was, doubtlessly, helped to this primacy by the fact that, in late July, Hitler had decided that all of Germany's aid to the nationalists would go to Franco. Mola had been somewhat discredited as the main planner of the attempted

Francisco Franco

José Sanjurjo, died on 20 July 1936, in a plane crash. Therefore, in the nationalist zone, "political life ceased." Initially, only military command mattered; this was divided into regional commands (Emilio Mola in the North, Gonzalo Queipo de Llano in Seville commanding Andalusia, Franco with an independent command and Miguel Cabanellas in Zaragoza commanding Aragon). The Spanish Army of Morocco itself was split into two columns, one commanded by General Juan Yagüe and the other commanded by Colonel José Varela. From 24 July a coordinating "junta" was established, based at Burgos. Nominally led by Cabanellas, as the most senior general,

Francisco Franco

local nuances of Spanish history. Following 18 July 1936 "pronunciamiento", Franco assumed the leadership of the 30,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army of Africa. The first days of the insurgency were marked with a serious need to secure control over the Spanish Moroccan Protectorate. On one side, Franco had to win the support of the natives and their (nominal) authorities, and, on the other, had to ensure his control over the army. His method was the summary execution of some 200 senior officers loyal to the Republic (one of them his own cousin). His loyal bodyguard was shot by Manuel

Francisco Franco

no military leader was left from those who organised the conspiracy against the Republic between 1933 and 1935. Franco personally guided military operations from this time until the end of the war. After the failed assault on Madrid in November 1936, Franco settled on a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold maneuvering. As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate; some of his decisions, such as in June 1938 when he preferred to head for Valencia instead of Catalonia, remain particularly controversial from a military viewpoint. Valencia,

Spanish Civil War

21 September, now called by the title "Generalísimo". Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the siege of the Alcázar in Toledo, which had been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel José Moscardó Ituarte since the beginning of the rebellion, resisting thousands of Republican troops, who completely surrounded the isolated building. Moroccans and elements of the Spanish Legion came to the rescue. Two days after relieving the siege, Franco proclaimed himself "Caudillo" ("chieftain", the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer -meaning: 'director') while forcibly unifying the various and diverse falangist, Royalist

Francisco Franco

the desire to keep a place open for him prevented any other Falangist leader from emerging as a possible head of state. Franco's previous aloofness from politics meant that he had few active enemies in any of the factions that needed to be placated, and also he had cooperated in recent months with both Germany and Italy. On 1 October 1936, in Burgos, Franco was publicly proclaimed as "Generalísimo" of the National army and "Jefe del Estado" (Head of State). When Mola was killed in another air accident a year later (which some believe was an assassination) (2 June 1937),

Second Spanish Republic

to the very existence of Spain as a nation-state. On 17 July 1936, General Franco led the Spanish Army of Africa from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under General Emilio Mola moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Before long the professional Army of Africa had much of the south and west under the control of the rebels. Bloody purges followed in each piece of captured "Nationalist" territory in order to consolidate Franco's future regime. Although both sides received foreign military aid, the help that Fascist

History of Málaga

groups including CEDA, the religious monarchist Carlists, and the Fascist Falange. On 17 July 1936, General Francisco Franco led the colonial army from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under General Sanjurjo moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Franco's move was intended to seize power immediately, but successful resistance by Republicans around the country meant that Spain faced a prolonged civil war. Soon much of the south and west was under the control of the Nationalists, whose regular Army of Africa was the most seasoned of

President of the Republic (Spain)

14 April 1931, there was no official head of state, meaning that the Prime Minister was, in effect, the highest office in the land. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora assumed the new role of President, the effective head of state. Manuel Azaña remained as Prime Minister, head of the government, until 12 September 1933. With Franco's victory imminent, a National Council of Defense was established to negotiate a peace settlement with the Nationalists. By this point, Franco effectively had military control of the whole country. On 27 February 1939, after both France and the United Kingdom had recognised Franco's military victory, President Manuel

Luis Orgaz Yoldi

during the early months of 1937. When Franco assumed control he named Orgaz as "Alto Comisario" and commander in chief in Spanish Morocco. However the two drifted apart and by 1941 Orgaz was openly discussing the possibility of military action against Franco, having realised that he had no intention of restoring the monarchy. By March 1942 rumours were rife that he, Kindelan and General Eugenio Espinosa de los Monteros were on the verge of launching a monarchist coup. Events got so far that in August 1943 he initimated to Pedro Sainz Rodríguez that he was ready to lead 100,000 men

Emilio Esteban Infantes

a year after the civil war had ended, he was promoted to brigadier-general in command of the Army General Staff of Morocco and Military Region IV. After Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union in June 1941, Franco's government authorized the dispatch of a volunteer Spanish division under the overall command of the German Wehrmacht. This became the 250th Infantry Division (popularly known "Blue Division"), initially commanded by General Agustín Muñoz Grandes. The division was deployed within Army Group North under the overall command of Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, and engaged in several battles against the Red Army

Juan Carlos I of Spain

During periods of Franco's temporary incapacity in 1974 and 1975, Juan Carlos was acting head of state. On 30 October 1975, Franco gave full control to Juan Carlos; he died three weeks later, on 20 November. On 22 November, two days after Franco's death, the Cortes Generales proclaimed Juan Carlos King of Spain. In his address to the Cortes, Juan Carlos spoke of three factors: historical tradition, national laws, and the will of the people, and in so doing referred to a process dating back to the Civil War of 1936–39. On 27 November, a Mass of the Holy Spirit

José Riquelme y López Bago

Region from the early days of the General Franco uprising and, at the end of the war, occupied the post of Commander General of the interior zone of the eastern region (Catalonia). As General of the Infantry Brigade he remained faithful to the Republican government from the early days of the Spanish Civil War. He was appointed head of the Organic Division I, occupying the vacant position that existed after the failed coup of July 18. He commanded the forces that attacked Toledo and later fought in the Battle of Guadarrama. However, in early September his forces suffered heavy defeats

Spanish Civil War

suspect generals from influential posts. Franco was sacked as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary Islands. Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as inspector general and was made general of the Balearic Islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre. This, however, allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising. General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reach an agreement with the Carlists. Mola was chief planner and second in command. José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid-March in

Francoist Spain

left the throne vacant with himself as regent and set the basis for his succession. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within the Movement. At the same time, Franco wore the uniform of a captain general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Royal Palace of El Pardo, appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were "Jefe del Estado" (Head of State) and "Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles" (Generalissimo of the Spanish Armies), he was referred to as Caudillo