Question: Name the year; Dunblane massacre, IRA bomb in Manchester city centre, the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep, was born?

one thousand nine hundred and ninety six

one thousand, nine hundred and ninety-six

Keith Campbell (biologist)

Keith Campbell (biologist) Keith Henry Stockman Campbell (23 May 1954 – 5 October 2012), Professor of Animal Development at the University of Nottingham, was a British biologist who was a member of the team that in 1996 first cloned a mammal, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly, from fully differentiated adult mammary cells. Campbell was born in Birmingham, England, to an English mother and Scottish father. He started his education in Perth, Scotland, but, when he was eight years old, his family returned to Birmingham, where he attended King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys. He obtained his Bachelor

Hybrid institutions and governance

would be rejected by scholars such as Jordan & O’Riordan who argue for a “universal shift” in the institutional arrangements for tackling climate change, as they serve to promote western interests at the expense of the developing world at present. Dolly the sheep was born on 7 February 1997 as the first animal cloned from adult cells. The institutional arrangements behind this scientific feat demonstrate the increasing “embeddedness” of political, scientific, and economic processes at work in the production of knowledge. Dolly was a product of three intimately linked institutions: The Roslin Research Institute (government funded), PPL Therapeutics (private firm),

Dolly (sheep)

attention because she was the first cloned from an adult cell. Dolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998. The next year Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie, and she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in 2000. In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and began to walk stiffly. This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she

Dolly (sheep)

Dolly (sheep) Dolly (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female domestic sheep, and the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer. Dolly was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh. The funding for Dolly's cloning was provided by PPL Therapeutics and the Ministry of Agriculture. She was born on 5 July 1996 and died from a progressive lung disease five months before her seventh birthday (the disease was not

Cloning

ovum. It took 434 attempts before an embryo was successful. The embryo was then placed inside a female sheep that went through a normal pregnancy. She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six. She was born on 5 July 1996 but not announced to the world until 22 February 1997. Her stuffed remains were placed at Edinburgh's Royal Museum, part of the National Museums of Scotland. Dolly was publicly significant because the effort

1996

1996

1996 was designated as:

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a* December 14 – Li Zijun, Chinese figure skater

In Re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh)

In Re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh) In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), 750 F.3d 1333 (Fed. Cir. 2014), is a 2014 decision of the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit rejecting a patent for a cloned sheep known as "Dolly the Sheep"— the first mammal ever cloned from an adult somatic cell. Dolly was cloned in 1996 by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh Scotland. BBC News and Scientific American called Dolly "the world's most famous sheep," The cloning method Campbell and Wilmut used to create Dolly constituted a

History of animal testing

of visual areas in cats and monkeys, and provided physiological evidence for the critical period for the development of disparity sensitivity in vision (i.e.: the main cue for depth perception), and were awarded a Nobel Prize for their work. In 1996 Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. The process by which Dolly the sheep was cloned utilized a process known as nuclear transfer applied by lead scientist Ian Wilmut. Although other scientists were not immediately able to replicate the experiment, Wilmut argued that the experiment was indeed repeatable, given a timeframe

Anthony John Clark

team at Roslin to clone a sheep, Dolly (1996), the result of transplanted DNA of an adult sheep to an unfertilized egg cell. He was appointed an OBE in 1997 for his contribution to Science. Born in Blackpool, his family moved to Lincolnshire and he was educated at Barton Grammar School. He met Helen Banfield at Cambridge in 1973, where he graduated in natural sciences from Christ's College, Cambridge, a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. They married in 1975 in Canada and moved to Edinburgh in 1977 where he took his doctorate. They had two sons, Charlie (1989),

Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua

the first cloned mammal Dolly the sheep in 1996 using the somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technique, 23 mammalian species have been successfully cloned, including cattle, cats, dogs, horses and rats. Using this technique for primates had never been successful and no pregnancy had lasted more than 80 days. The main difficulty was likely the proper programming of the transferred nuclei to support the growth of the embryo. Tetra (born October 1999), a female rhesus macaque, was created by a team led by Gerald Schatten of the Oregon National Primate Research Center using a different technique, called "embryo splitting". She

Keith Campbell (biologist)

cells, which had differentiated in culture. Then, in 1996, a team led by Ian Wilmut with Keith Campbell as the main (66% of the credit) contributor used the same technique and shocked the world by successfully cloning a sheep from adult mammary cells. Dolly, a Finn Dorset sheep, named after the singer Dolly Parton, was born in 1996 and lived to be six years old (dying from a viral infection and not old age, as has been suggested). Campbell had a key role in the creation of Dolly, as he had the crucial idea of co-ordinating the stages of the

Dolly (sheep)

species using the same method for producing Dolly was reported in January 2018. Two identical clones of a macaque monkey, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, were created by researchers in China and were born in late 2017. Dolly (sheep) Dolly (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female domestic sheep, and the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer. Dolly was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh. The funding

University of Edinburgh

2011. The Roslin Institute is an animal sciences research institute which is sponsored by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. The Institute won international fame in 1996, when Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and their colleagues created Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell, there. A year later Polly and Molly were cloned; both sheep contained a human gene. Moray House School of Education, just off the Royal Mile, used to be the Moray House Institute for Education until this merged with the University in August 1998. The University has since extended Moray House's

Roslin Institute

campus of the University, but despite this, retained its now world famous name. The Institute won international fame in 1996, when Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and their colleagues created Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell, at the institute. A year later Polly and Molly were cloned, both sheep contained a human gene. Roslin has made many other contributions to animal sciences, especially in the area of livestock improvement and welfare through applications of Quantitative Genetics. In 2007 a Roslin team developed genetically modified chickens capable of laying eggs containing proteins needed to make

Dolly (sheep)

day. Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans. Cloning may have uses in preserving endangered species and may become a viable tool for reviving extinct species. In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, in northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000. Although the newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs, it is the first

Clones, County Monaghan

which was in a blue Morris 1100 car on Fermanagh Street in Clones exploded at 10:01 pm, which seriously injured two men. The bombings are believed to be the work of the terrorist organization the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). See Annals of Inisfallen (AI). Clones was linked by rail to Dundalk from 1855, Enniskillen from 1859, Cavan from 1862 and Armagh from 1863. Clones railway station was opened on 26 June 1858 by the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway. From 1876 all of these lines were part of the Great Northern Railway. The partition of Ireland in 1922 made Clones a

Keith Campbell (biologist)

Society posthumously in 2015 Keith Campbell took his own life, aged 58. He was buried at Bretby Crematorium, Burton Upon Trent, in Derbyshire, England. He is survived by his wife, Kathy, and two daughters, Claire and Lauren. Keith Campbell (biologist) Keith Henry Stockman Campbell (23 May 1954 – 5 October 2012), Professor of Animal Development at the University of Nottingham, was a British biologist who was a member of the team that in 1996 first cloned a mammal, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly, from fully differentiated adult mammary cells. Campbell was born in Birmingham, England, to an English mother

Steen Willadsen

Steen Willadsen Steen Malte Willadsen (born 1943 in Copenhagen, Denmark) is a scientist credited with being the first to clone a mammal using nuclear transfer. Willadsen graduated from the Royal Veterinary College of Copenhagen (1969), and received a PhD in reproductive physiology from there (1973). In 1984, at the British Agricultural Research Council's Institute of Animal Physiology, Cambridge, he successfully used cells from early embryos to clone sheep by nuclear transfer. The procedure he developed was essentially the one used a decade later by Wilmut et al. to produce Dolly, the sheep, although in the latter case, nuclei from a

Megan and Morag

Megan and Morag Megan and Morag, two domestic sheep, were the first mammals to have been successfully cloned from differentiated cells. They are not to be confused with Dolly the sheep which was the first animal to be successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell or Polly the sheep which was the first cloned and transgenic animal. Megan and Morag, like Dolly and Polly, were cloned at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1995. The team at the Roslin Institute were seeking a way to modify the genetic constitution of sheep and cattle more effectively than the hit and

Dolly (sheep)

time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue. In July 2016, four identical clones of Dolly (Daisy, Debbie, Dianna, and Denise) were alive and healthy at nine years old. "Scientific American" concluded in 2016 that the main legacy of Dolly the sheep has not been cloning of animals but in advances into stem cell research. After Dolly, researchers realised that ordinary cells could be reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells which can be grown into any tissue. The first successful cloning of a primate

Keith Campbell (biologist)

"cell cycle" of the donor somatic cells and the recipient eggs and using diploid quiscent or "G0" arrested somatic cells as nuclear donors. In fact, in 2006 Ian Wilmut admitted that Keith Campbell deserved "66 per cent" of the credit for the work on Dolly the sheep. In 1997, Ritchie and Campbell in collaboration with PPL (Pharmaceutical Proteins Limited) created another sheep named "Polly", created from genetically altered skin cells containing a human gene. In 2000, after joining PPL Ltd, Campbell and his PPL team (based in North America) were successful in producing the world's first piglets by Somatic-cell nuclear


Question: What was the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990?

un locode debon
bundesdorf
Bönnsch (beer)
Bonn (district)
schwarzrheindorf
Bonna
Bonn
castra bonnensis
Castra Bonnensis
bonna
bönnsch beer
Bonn am Rhein
Boennsch (beer)
Bonnsch (beer)
Schwarzrheindorf
UN/LOCODE:DEBON
Schwarzrheindorf/Vilich-Rheindorf
bonn am rhein
boennsch beer
bonnsch beer
bonn district
Capital of West Germany
schwarzrheindorf vilich rheindorf
capital of west germany
bonn germany
Bundesdorf
Bonn, Germany
bonn

Decision on the Capital of Germany

been the "provisional" capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990. There was some sentiment in favour of keeping the seat of government in Bonn, which would have created a situation analogus to that of the Netherlands, where Amsterdam is the capital but The Hague is the seat of government. Not only were there concerns about Berlin's past connection to Nazi Germany, but Bonn was closer to Brussels, headquarters of the European Communities. Bonn was also located in Germany's wealthiest and most densely-populated region, while the former East German states surrounding Berlin were economically depressed and relatively sparsely populated. After

Capital of Germany

Brandenburg, since 1518. Berlin remained the capital of the united Germany until 1945. However, for a period of a few months following the First World War, the national assembly met in Weimar because civil war was ravaging Berlin. In 1945, Germany was occupied by the Allies as the outcome of World War II, and Berlin ceased to be the capital of a sovereign German state. In 1949, with sovereignty regained the country split up into West Germany and East Germany. Berlin was also divided, into West Berlin and East Berlin. Originally, Frankfurt was to be the provisional capital of West

Capital of Germany

still legally occupied territory, and would remain so for 45 years. In 1990, with the reunification of Germany, Berlin was also reunified and became the capital of the enlarged Federal Republic of Germany. There was some debate, however, on whether the seat of government should move to Berlin. Many believed that Bonn should remain the seat of government – a situation analogus to that of the Netherlands, where Amsterdam is the capital but The Hague is the seat of government. In 1991, after an emotional debate, the Bundestag voted to move the seat of government to Berlin by 1999. Although

Bonn

in 1990. German reunification in 1990 made Berlin the nominal capital of Germany again. This decision did not mandate that the republic's political institutions would also move. While some argued for the seat of government to move to Berlin, others advocated leaving it in Bonn — a situation roughly analogous to that of the Netherlands, where Amsterdam is the capital but the Hague is the seat of government. Berlin's previous history as united Germany's capital was strongly connected with the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and more ominously with Nazi Germany. It was felt that a new peacefully united Germany

West Germany

51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990. The city of Bonn was its (provisional) capital. The fourth Allied occupation zone (the East Zone, or ) was held by the Soviet Union, bounded to the east by the Oder-Neisse line; and in 1949 this became the socialist German Democratic Republic (abbreviated GDR; in German or ) with its capital in East Berlin. The former parts of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse were separated from 'Germany as a whole' by the Potsdam Agreement of 1945, and then annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union. As a result, West

Bonn

Bonn

The federal city of Bonn ( ) is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of over 300,000. About south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region, Germany's largest metropolitan area, with over 11 million inhabitants. It is a university city and the birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven.

Founded in the 1st century BC as a Roman settlement in the province Germania Inferior, Bonn is one of Germany's oldest cities. It was the capital city of the Electorate of Cologne from 1597 to 1794, and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne. From 1949 to 1990, Bonn was the capital of West Germany, and Germany's present constitution, the Basic Law, was declared in the city in 1949. The era when Bonn served as the capital of West Germany is referred to by historians as the Bonn Republic. From 1990 to 1999, Bonn served as the seat of government – but no longer capital – of reunited Germany.

Due to a political compromise (Berlin-Bonn Act) following the reunification, the German federal government maintains a substantial presence in Bonn. Roughly a third of all ministerial jobs are located in Bonn , and the city is considered a second, unofficial, capital of the country. Bonn is the secondary seat of the President, the Chancellor, and the Bundesrat, and the primary seat of six federal government ministries and twenty federal authorities. The title of Federal City () reflects its important political status within Germany.

The headquarters of Deutsche Post DHL and Deutsche Telekom, both DAX-listed corporations, are in Bonn. The city is home to the University of Bonn and a total of 20 United Nations institutions, the highest number in all of Germany. These institutions include the headquarters for Secretariat of the UN Framework Convention Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Secretariat of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the UN Volunteers programme.

West Germany

East Germany

Germany

History of Germany (1945–1990)

History of Germany (1945–1990)

The history of Germany from 1945–1990 spans the period following World War II during the Division of Germany. The Potsdam Agreement was made between the three Allied countries in World War II (US, UK, and USSR) on 1 August 1945, in which Germany was separated into four parts.

Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, Saarland was under French control in the name of a protectorate from 1946 to 1956 although this was not recognized by the Allied Control Council (ACC) at the beginning. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany; mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system, survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million German-speaking refugees and expellees arrived in western and central Germany other countries (including its former eastern territories) in Eastern Europe between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there. Some 9 million Germans were POWs.

Germany was divided during the Cold War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the Soviet Union in the East, with the two countries (in East and West) not being united until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:

Under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, West Germany built strong relationships with France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Israel. West Germany also joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Economic Community (EC) (later to become the European Union/EU). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police (Stasi) tightly controlled daily life, and the Berlin Wall (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the West. The country was reunited on 3 October 1990 and Germany also has become a great power again in the world since that, following the decline and fall of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany as the ruling party of East Germany and the fall of communist East Germany (GDR).

Berlin

at the crossing of two important historic trade routes, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (14171701), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), and the Third Reich (1933–1945). Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world. After World War II and its subsequent occupation by the victorious countries, the city was divided; West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989) and East German territory. East Berlin was declared capital of East Germany, while Bonn became the West German capital. Following

Decision on the Capital of Germany

Decision on the Capital of Germany The capital decision (German: "Hauptstadtbeschluss") refers to the decision made by the German Bundestag on June 20, 1991, as a result of German reunification, to move its headquarters from Bonn to Berlin. The term is misleading, since Berlin had already become the federal capital of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 as one of the stipulations of the Unification Treaty. With the reunification of Germany, the newly reunified Berlin became Germany's capital once again, a status it had held from 1871 to 1945. However, the seat of government remained in Bonn, which had

Berlin

with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. On 18 June 1994, soldiers from the United States, France and Britain

History of Germany (1945–90)

that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the Holy Roman Empire, it would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for reunification and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin. After the Petersberg agreement West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The London and Paris agreements of 1954 restored most of the state's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In

Capital of Germany

Germany. However, West German authorities had every intention of making Berlin the capital if Germany were ever reunified. They feared that since Frankfurt was a major city in its own right, it would ultimately be accepted as a permanent capital and weaken West German support for reunification. For this reason, the capital was located in the smaller university city of Bonn as a more obviously provisional solution. Another factor was that Bonn is close to Cologne, the hometown of West Germany's first chancellor, Konrad Adenauer. East Germany claimed East Berlin as its capital, even though Berlin as a whole was

Governing Mayor of Berlin

1951, with Reuter then adopting the new title. From 1951 to 1990, during the Cold War, the Governing Mayor was the head of government in West Berlin with his seat at Rathaus Schöneberg, while East Berlin "de jure" remained under Soviet occupation and "de facto" became a part and capital of the East Germany — not recognized by the NATO members, but actually condoned by the 1971 Four Power Agreement on Berlin and the German Basic Treaty of 1972. The government of West Berlin claimed to be the legitimate government for all of Berlin within the borders established by the

Decision on the Capital of Germany

planned for 1995, however this deadline was not adhered to. Instead a Cabinet decision was made that the move should be completed by 2000, on a budget of no more than 20 billion DM (10.2 billion EUR). During this period other fundamental decisions were made, including: Berlin officially adopted its full role as the home of the parliament and government of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1999. Decision on the Capital of Germany The capital decision (German: "Hauptstadtbeschluss") refers to the decision made by the German Bundestag on June 20, 1991, as a result of German reunification, to move

East Berlin

East Berlin East Berlin existed from 1949 to 1990 and consisted of the Soviet sector of Berlin established in 1945. The American, British, and French sectors became West Berlin, strongly associated with West Germany, while East Berlin was the "de facto" capital of East Germany. From 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989, East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. In East German official usage, it became widespread in the 1970s to refer to the Western part of the city as "Westberlin", whilst calling the Eastern part simply "Berlin". Officially it was referred to as "Berlin,

Federal Convention (Germany)

Bonn, which served as the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany before reunification with East Germany. From 1954 to 1969 the "Bundesversammlung" was convened at the Ostpreußenhalle in Berlin, leading to protests from the German Democratic Republic on each occasion it met. As a consequence, on March 5, 1969, the Soviet Union sent MiG-21 warplanes to fly over the venue in West Berlin. From 1974 to 1989, the "Bundesversammlung" met in the Beethovenhalle in Bonn. Since 1994, the meeting place has been the Reichstag building in Berlin. After the renovation of the Reichstag building, the German "Bundestag" moved to

Potsdam

of Brandenburg, Potsdam became its capital. In 1952 the GDR disestablished its federal states and replaced them by smaller new East German administrative districts known as "Bezirke". Potsdam became the capital of the new "Bezirk Potsdam" until 1990. Potsdam, south-west of Berlin, lay just outside West Berlin after the construction of the Berlin Wall. The walling off of West Berlin not only isolated Potsdam from West Berlin, but also doubled commuting times to East Berlin. The Glienicke Bridge across the Havel connected the city to West Berlin and was the scene of some Cold War exchanges of spies. After German

History of Germany (1945–90)

occupation statute came into force, granting powers of self-government with certain exceptions. In 1949 the new "provisional" capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor Konrad Adenauer intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German constitutional assembly (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored Frankfurt am Main where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of a plenary assembly hall. The Parlamentarischer Rat (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region

History of Berlin

leadership policy, though now only involving France, Great Britain, and the United States. East Germany chose East Berlin as its capital when the country was formed out of the Soviet occupation zone in October 1949; however, this was rejected by Western allies, who continued to regard Berlin as an occupied city that was not legally part of any German state. In practice, the government of East Germany treated East Berlin as an integral part of the nation. Although half the size and population of West Berlin, it included most of the historic center. West Germany, formed on 23 May 1949

West Berlin

1949) and of the German Democratic Republic (7 October 1949). Under Article 127 of the Basic Law (or constitution) of the Federal Republic, provision was made for federal laws to be extended to Greater Berlin (as West Berlin was officially known) as well as Baden, Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg-Hohenzollern within one year of its promulgation. However, because the occupation of Berlin could only be ended by a quadripartite agreement, Berlin remained an occupied territory under the formal sovereignty of the allies. Hence, the Basic Law was not fully applicable to West Berlin. On 4 August 1950 the House of Representatives (the

Bonn

Konrad Adenauer, a former Cologne Mayor and a native of that area, Bonn became the "de facto" capital, officially designated the "temporary seat of the Federal institutions," of the newly formed Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. However, the Bundestag, seated in Bonn's Bundeshaus, affirmed Berlin's status as the German capital. Bonn was chosen as the provisional capital and seat of government despite the fact that Frankfurt already had most of the required facilities and using Bonn was estimated to be 95 million DM more expensive than using Frankfurt. However, Adenauer and other prominent politicians intended to make Berlin the

History of Berlin

from the American, British, and French zones, had its seat of government and "de facto" capital in Bonn, although Berlin was symbolically named the "de jure" West German capital in West German Basic Law (Grundgesetz). West Berlin "de jure" remained under the rule of the Western Allies, but for most practical purposes was treated as a part of West Germany; the residents held West German passports. In response to Allied efforts to fuse the American, French, and British sectors of western Germany into a federal state, and to a currency reform undertaken by Western powers without Soviet approval, the Soviets


Question: What is the maximum number of raised dots in a cell in Braille?

Refreshable braille display

cell directly. The mechanism which raises the dots uses the piezo effect of some crystals, whereby they expand when a voltage is applied to them. Such a crystal is connected to a lever, which in turn raises the dot. There has to be a crystal for each dot of the display, i.e. eight per character. Because of the complexity of producing a reliable display that will cope with daily wear and tear, these displays are expensive. Usually, only 40 or 80 braille cells are displayed. Models with between 18 and 40 cells exist in some notetaker devices. The software that

Braille Patterns

. In the 8-dot cell each dot individually can be raised or not. That creates 2=256 different patterns. By mapping each of the eight dots to a bit in a byte (in a low endian order), and by defining "0"/"1" for not raised/raised per bit, every specific pattern generates an identifying binary number. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield (00010011), equivalent to (13) or (19). The mapping can also be computed by adding together the hexadecimal values, seen at right, of the dots raised. So the pattern with dots 1-2-5 raised would yield 1+2+10 = 13. Whether

Braille

Braille has adopted eight-dot cells for general use; for example, it adds a dot below each letter to derive its capital variant. Braille was the first writing system with binary encoding. The system as devised by Braille consists of two parts: Within an individual cell, the dot positions are arranged in two columns of three positions. A raised dot can appear in any of the six positions, producing sixty-four (2) possible patterns, including one in which there are no raised dots. For reference purposes, a pattern is commonly described by listing the positions where dots are raised, the positions being

Alternative formats

by touch. The pattern of raised dots is arranged in cells of up to six dots, creating a total of 63 different combinations possible. Each cell represents an alphabet letter, numeral or punctuation mark. Some frequently used words and letter combinations also have their own single cell patterns. Braille can be the building block for language skills and a way to teach spelling, grammar, and punctuations to people with vision loss or who are deaf-blind. Not only do Braille codes represent alphabets, they also denote numbers, symbols, music and mathematical notations, enabling people to learn about different subjects in a

Braille Patterns

the right place. The coding is in accordance with ISO/TR 11548-1 "Communication aids for blind persons". Unicode uses the standard dot-numbering 1 to 8. Historically only the 6-dot cell was used in braille. The lower two dots were added later, which explains the irregular numbering 1-2-3-"7" in the left column and 4-5-6-8 in the right column. Where dots 7 and 8 are not raised, there is no distinction between 6-dot and 8-dot definitions. The Unicode name of a specific pattern mentions the raised dots: has dots 1, 2 and 5 raised. By exception, the zero dot raised pattern is named

Braille

Braille

Braille (Pronounced: ) is a tactile writing system used by people who are visually impaired, including people who are blind, deafblind or who have low vision. It can be read either on embossed paper or by using refreshable braille displays that connect to computers and smartphone devices. Braille can be written using a slate and stylus, a braille writer, an electronic braille notetaker or with the use of a computer connected to a braille embosser.

Braille is named after its creator, Louis Braille, a Frenchman who lost his sight as a result of a childhood accident. In 1824, at the age of fifteen, he developed the braille code based on the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing. He published his system, which subsequently included musical notation, in 1829. The second revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modern era.

Braille characters are formed using a combination of six raised dots arranged in a 3 × 2 matrix, called the braille cell. The number and arrangement of these dots distinguishes one character from another. Since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes for printed writing, the mappings (sets of character designations) vary from language to language, and even within one; in English Braille there are 3 levels of braille: uncontracted braille a letter-by-letter transcription used for basic literacy; contracted braille an addition of abbreviations and contractions used as a space-saving mechanism; and grade 3 various non-standardized personal stenography that is less commonly used.

In addition to braille text (letters, punctuation, contractions), it is also possible to create embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, and bullets that are larger than braille dots. A full braille cell includes six raised dots arranged in two columns, each column having three dots. The dot positions are identified by numbers from one to six. Dot configurations can be used to represent a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or even a word.<ref name="Raised Dots"/>

Early braille education is crucial to literacy, education and employment among the blind. Despite the evolution of new technologies, including screen reader software that reads information aloud, braille provides blind people with access to spelling, punctuation and other aspects of written language less accessible through audio alone. While some have suggested that audio-based technologies will decrease the need for braille, technological advancements such as braille displays have continued to make braille more accessible and available. Braille users highlight that braille remains as essential as print is to the sighted.

Template:Braille cell/doc

Assistive technology

Assistive technology

Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and the elderly. Disabled people often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing, grooming, and personal device care. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while assistive eating devices can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, disabled people have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation," "security and control," and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses." In schools, assistive technology can be critical in allowing students with disabilities access the general education curriculum. Students who experience challenges writing or keyboarding, for example, can use voice recognition software instead. Assistive technologies assist people who are recovering from strokes and people who have abstained injuries that effect their daily tasks.

Thai baht

Thai baht

The baht (; , ; sign: ฿; code: THB) is the official currency of Thailand. It is divided into 100 "satang" (, ). The issuance of currency is the responsibility of the Bank of Thailand. SWIFT ranked the Thai baht as the 10th-most-frequently used world payment currency as of January 2019.

Scrabble

Scrabble

Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by placing tiles, each bearing a single letter, onto a game board divided into a 15×15 grid of squares. The tiles must form words that, in crossword fashion, read left to right in rows or downward in columns and are included in a standard dictionary or lexicon.

The name "Scrabble" is a trademark of Mattel in most of the world, except in the United States and Canada, where it is a trademark of Hasbro, under the brands of both of its subsidiaries, Milton Bradley and Parker Brothers. The game is sold in 121 countries and is available in more than 30 languages; approximately 150 million sets have been sold worldwide, and roughly one-third of American and half of British homes have a "Scrabble" set.

Assistive technology

to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content, as well as web pages, E-mail messages, and word processing files. Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put,

Braille pattern dots-135

systems, such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 267, 1267, 2467, and 12467 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-135, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 0135, 1357, and 01357 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-135 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-135 The Braille pattern dots-135 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the top and bottom left, and middle right dots raised, or

Braille

universally numbered, from top to bottom, as 1 to 3 on the left and 4 to 6 on the right. For example, dot pattern 1-3-4 describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and at the top of the right column: that is, the letter "m". The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the braille text above and below. Different assignments of braille codes (or code pages) are used to map the

Braille pattern dots-145

such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 256, 1256, 2456, and 12456 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-145, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 0145, 1457, and 01457 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-145 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-145 The Braille pattern dots-145 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with both top and the middle right dots raised, or an 8-dot braille

Braille pattern dots-25

Braille pattern dots-25 The Braille pattern dots-25 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with both middle dots raised, or an 8-dot braille cell with both upper-middle dots raised. It is represented by the Unicode code point U+2812, and in Braille ASCII with the number 3. In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-25 is used to represent a colon or other punctuation or mathematical operators. Related to Braille pattern dots-25 are Braille patterns 257, 258, and 2578, which are used in 8-dot braille systems, such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille

Braille pattern dots-15

such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 26, 126, 246, and 1246 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-15, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 015, 157, and 0157 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-15 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-15 The Braille pattern dots-15 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the top left and middle right dots raised, or an 8-dot braille

Braille pattern dots-1345

Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 2567, 12567, 24567, and 124567 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-1345, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 01345, 13457, and 013457 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-1345 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-1345 The Braille pattern dots-1345 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with both top, the middle right, and bottom left dots raised, or an 8-dot braille cell with

Braille pattern dots-16

such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 28, 128, 248, and 1248 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-16, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 016, 167, and 0167 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-16 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-16 The Braille pattern dots-16 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the top left and bottom right dots raised, or an 8-dot braille

Braille pattern dots-1356

and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 2678, 12678, 24678, and 124678 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-1356, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 01356, 13567, and 013567 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-1356 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-1356 The Braille pattern dots-1356 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the top left, middle right, and both bottom dots raised, or an 8-dot braille cell

Braille pattern dots-24

braille systems, such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 35, 135, 345, and 1345 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-24, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 024, 247, and 0247 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-24 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-24 The Braille pattern dots-24 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the top right and middle left dots raised, or an

Braille pattern dots-12345

Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 23567, 123567, 234567, and 1234567 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-12345, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 012345, 123457, and 0123457 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-12345 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-12345 The Braille pattern dots-12345 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the all top and middle dots and the bottom left dot raised, or an

Braille pattern dots-1346

Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 2578, 12578, 24578, and 124578 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-1346, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 01346, 13467, and 013467 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-1346 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-1346 The Braille pattern dots-1346 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with both top and both bottom dots raised, or an 8-dot braille cell with both top and both lower-middle dots raised.

Braille pattern dots-146

Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 258, 1258, 2458, and 12458 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-146, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 0146, 1467, and 01467 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-146 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-146 The Braille pattern dots-146 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with both top, and the bottom right dots raised, or an 8-dot braille cell with both top,

Braille pattern dots-456

8-dot braille systems, such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot Braille patterns 568, 1568, 4568, and 14568 are the patterns related to Braille pattern dots-456, since the two additional dots of kantenji patterns 0456, 4567, and 04567 are placed above the base 6-dot cell, instead of below, as in standard 8-dot braille. This listing includes kantenji using Braille pattern dots-456 for all 6349 kanji found in JIS C 6226-1978. Braille pattern dots-456 The Braille pattern dots-456 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with all three right dots raised, or an 8-dot braille

Braille pattern dots-2

Braille pattern dots-2 The Braille pattern dots-2 ( ) is a 6-dot braille cell with the middle-left dot raised, or an 8-dot braille cell with its mid-high left dot raised. It is represented by the Unicode code point U+2802, and in Braille ASCII with the number "1". In unified international braille, the braille pattern dots-2 is used to represent a comma or other non-letter symbol or semi-letter. Related to Braille pattern dots-2 are Braille patterns 27, 28, and 278, which are used in 8-dot braille systems, such as Gardner-Salinas and Luxembourgish Braille. In the Japanese kantenji braille, the standard 8-dot


Question: Operation Barbarossa, Hitler invades Russia.

one thousand, nine hundred and forty-one

German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement

Germany was already planning its invasion of the Soviet Union. On December 18, 1940, Hitler had signed War Directive No. 21 to the German high command for an operation now codenamed Operation Barbarossa stating: "The German Wehrmacht must be prepared to crush Soviet Russia in a quick campaign." Hitler directed Raeder that Germany would have to take Polyanry and Murmansk at that time to cut off access to aid that would come to the Soviet Union. During both the first period of the 1940 German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (February 11, 1940 to February 11, 1941) and the second (February 11, 1941

Battle of Moscow

belts, deploying newly raised reserve armies, and bringing troops from the Siberian and Far Eastern Military Districts. As the German offensives were halted, a Soviet strategic counter-offensive and smaller-scale offensive operations forced the German armies back to the positions around the cities of Oryol, Vyazma and Vitebsk, and nearly surrounded three German armies. It was a major setback for the Germans, the end of the idea of a fast German victory in the USSR. Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch was excused as commander of OKH, with Hitler appointing himself as Germany's supreme military commander. Operation "Barbarossa", the German invasion plan,

Operation Barbarossa

the invasion commenced. On 21 June, at 13:00 Army Group North received the codeword Düsseldorf, indicating Barbarossa would commence the next morning, and passed down its own codeword, Dortmund. At around 03:15 on 22 June 1941, the Axis Powers commenced the invasion of the Soviet Union with the bombing of major cities in Soviet-occupied Poland and an artillery barrage on Red Army defences on the entire front. Air-raids were conducted as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad, Ismail in Bessarabia, and Sevastopol in the Crimea. Meanwhile, ground troops crossed the border, accompanied in some locales by Lithuanian and Ukrainian fifth columnists.

German–Soviet Axis talks

that "she must be brought to her knees as soon as possible." On December 5, Hitler received military plans for the possible invasion, and approved them all, with a schedule to begin in May 1941. On December 18, 1940, Hitler signed to the German high command for an operation now codenamed Operation Barbarossa stating: "The German Wehrmacht must be prepared to crush Soviet Russia in a quick campaign." The date for the invasion was set for May 15, 1941. On the other side of the border, Stalin had anticipated an eventual war with Germany. Speaking to his generals in December,

World War II

On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate "Lebensraum" ("living space") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to

Operation Barbarossa

Italian participation on the Eastern Front

The Italian participation on the Eastern Front represented the military intervention of the Kingdom of Italy in the Operation Barbarossa, launched by Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union in 1941. The commitment to actively take part in the German offensive was decided by Benito Mussolini a few months before the beginning of the operation, when he became aware of Adolf Hitler's intention to invade, but it was confirmed only in the morning of 22 June 1941, as soon as the Italian dictator was informed that same day the German armies had given way to the invasion.

An expeditionary force quickly became operational, with three divisions, previously put on alert: called the "Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia" ("Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia," CSIR), it arrived on the eastern front in mid-July 1941. Initially integrated into the 11th German Army and then in the 1st Panzer Army, the CSIR participated in the campaign until April 1942, when the needs of the front required the sending of two other Italian corps which together with the CSIR were reunited into the 8th Italian Army or "Italian Army in Russia" ("Armata Italiana in Russia," ARMIR). Deployed to the south, in the Don river sector, the 8th Italian Army together with the 2nd Hungarian Army and the 3rd Romanian Army had the role to cover the left flank of the German forces that were advancing towards Stalingrad at the time.

Rapid reversals at the front changed the course of the battle; after the encirclement of the German forces in Stalingrad, the subsequent Soviet offensive that began on 16 December 1942 overwhelmed the 2nd and 35th Italian Army Corps (former CSIR), which were part of the southern deployment of the 8th Army, and six Italian divisions together with German and Romanian forces were forced to a hasty retreat. On 13 January 1943, a second major Soviet offensive north of the Don overwhelmed the Alpini troops still in line, poorly equipped and short of supplies, which began a retreat in the steppe, pursued by Soviet divisions, and were forced to suffer enormous misery. The retreat cost the Italian forces tens of thousands of losses and ended on 31 January, when the 2nd Alpine Division Tridentina reached the first German outposts in Shebekino. The repatriating operations lasted from 6 to 15 March and ended on 24 March, putting an end to the Italian military operations in the Soviet Union.

Battle of Moscow

Battle of Moscow

</nowiki>| Pavel Rotmistrov<nowiki>}}</nowiki>
German estimated: 174,194 KIA, WIA, MIA
Russian estimated: 581,000 killed, missing, wounded and captured.
Moscow Offensive:<ref name="David M. Glantz 298, 299"/> (5 December 1941 to 7 January 1942)
Total: 1,029,234

The Battle of Moscow was a military campaign that consisted of two periods of strategically significant fighting on a sector of the Eastern Front during World War II, between September 1941 and January 1942. The Soviet defensive effort frustrated Hitler's attack on Moscow, the capital and largest city of the Soviet Union. Moscow was one of the primary military and political objectives for Axis forces in their invasion of the Soviet Union.

The German Strategic Offensive, named Operation Typhoon, called for two pincer offensives, one to the north of Moscow against the Kalinin Front by the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies, simultaneously severing the Moscow–Leningrad railway, and another to the south of Moscow Oblast against the Western Front south of Tula, by the 2nd Panzer Army, while the 4th Army advanced directly towards Moscow from the west.

Initially, the Soviet forces conducted a strategic defence of the Moscow Oblast by constructing three defensive belts, deploying newly raised reserve armies, and bringing troops from the Siberian and Far Eastern Military Districts. As the German offensives were halted, a Soviet strategic counter-offensive and smaller-scale offensive operations forced the German armies back to the positions around the cities of Oryol, Vyazma and Vitebsk, and nearly surrounded three German armies. It was a major setback for the Germans, and the end of their belief in a swift German victory over the USSR. As a result of the failed offensive, Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch was dismissed as supreme commander of the German Army, with Hitler replacing him in the position.

Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

Siege of Leningrad

Siege of Leningrad

The siege of Leningrad (; ; ) was a prolonged military blockade undertaken by the Axis powers against the Soviet city of Leningrad (present-day Saint Petersburg) on the Eastern Front of World War II. Germany's Army Group North advanced from the south, while the German-allied Finnish army invaded from the north and completed the ring around the city.

The siege began on 8 September 1941, when the Wehrmacht severed the last road to the city. Although Soviet forces managed to open a narrow land corridor to the city on 18 January 1943, the Red Army did not lift the siege until 27 January 1944, 872 days after it began. The blockade became one of the longest and most destructive sieges in history, and it was possibly the costliest siege in history due to the number of casualties which were suffered throughout its duration. While not classed as a war crime at the time,
in the 21st century, some historians have classified it as a genocide due to the systematic starvation and intentional destruction of the city's civilian population.

Adolf Hitler

bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, 4–5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops

Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa Operation Barbarossa (German: "Unternehmen Barbarossa") was the code name for the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, which started on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II. The operation stemmed from Nazi Germany's ideological aims to conquer the western Soviet Union so that it could be repopulated by Germans, to use Slavs, especially Poles, as a slave-labour force for the Axis war effort, and to seize the oil reserves of the Caucasus and the agricultural resources of Soviet territories. In the two years leading up to the invasion, Germany and the Soviet Union signed political and economic

Operation Barbarossa

Soviet regime's brutality when targeting the Slavs with propaganda. They also claimed that the Red Army was preparing to attack the Germans, and their own invasion was thus presented as a pre-emptive strike. In the middle of 1940, following the rising tension between the Soviet Union and Germany over territories in the Balkans, an eventual invasion of the Soviet Union seemed to Hitler to be the only solution. While no concrete plans were made yet, Hitler told one of his generals in June that the victories in Western Europe finally freed his hands for his important real task: the showdown

Axis and Soviet air operations during Operation Barbarossa

since Hitler's political testament in "Mein Kampf", published in 1924. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued Directive 21, which ordered preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. His recently acquired allies, Romania, Slovakia and Finland, assisted militarily and allowed their countries to be used as a base for the Wehrmacht to launch its campaign. By 1941, German was in dire need of the raw materials and oil resources the Soviet Union could offer. The war with the British Empire was far from concluded, and the United States of America was supporting her, and showing an increasingly hostile

World War II

defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, "Barbarossa" forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies,

Operation Barbarossa

pacts for strategic purposes. Nevertheless, the German High Command began planning an invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1940 (under the codename Operation Otto), which Adolf Hitler authorized on 18 December 1940. Over the course of the operation, about four million Axis powers personnel, the largest invasion force in the history of warfare, invaded the western Soviet Union along a front. In addition to troops, the Wehrmacht employed some 600,000 motor vehicles, and between 600,000 and 700,000 horses for non-combat operations. The offensive marked an escalation of the war, both geographically and in the formation of the Allied coalition.

Battle of Moscow (film)

the Soviet Union and selects Marshal von Bock in charge of leading Army Group Center of the Wehrmacht into Russia. Ilse Stöbe, Rudolf von Scheliha and Richard Sorge inform of the danger, but the Soviet intelligence dismisses their warnings. Zhukov is concerned that the army is ill-prepared; Pavlov decries him as a fear-monger. The Red Army officers are convinced that in the event of an invasion, they would immediately counter-attack. On 22 June 1941 Germany launches Operation Barbarossa, overwhelming the Soviets. The Red Army tries to counter the assault with a string of hasty operations, while the Brest Fortress is

Operation Barbarossa

Roughly three million soldiers of the Wehrmacht went into action and faced slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border. Accompanying the German forces during the initial invasion were Finnish and Romanian units as well. At around noon, the news of the invasion was broadcast to the population by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov: "... Without a declaration of war, German forces fell on our country, attacked our frontiers in many places ... The Red Army and the whole nation will wage a victorious Patriotic War for our beloved country, for honour, for liberty ... Our cause is just. The enemy

Operation Barbarossa – The Struggle for Russia Operation Barbarossa – The Struggle for Russia is a turn-based strategy computer game and the only release by Binary Evolution Studios, a small independent development team based in Nuremberg, Germany. The game depicts the Eastern Front theatre from 1941-1945. The gameplay is strongly influenced by Panzer General II and the graphics are displayed in a 3D environment using the OGRE Engine. It was developed from December 2006 to August 2009 (English version). In February 2010 a German version was released. In "Operation Barbarossa – The Struggle for Russia", the player leads divisions of

Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz

Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The German offensive against the Soviet Union began early on 22 June 1941 with an artillery barrage. The 16th Panzer Division was subordinated to "Heeresgruppe Süd" (Army Group South) under the command of "Generalfeldmarschall" Von Rundstedt. The goal, together with the 6. Armee and 17. Armee as well as "Panzergruppe" I, was to follow the pincers of both armies, heading for Kiev and rolling up the Soviet flanks in the process, and finally encircling them at the Dnieper River. The main objective was to conquer the economically important Donets Basin as well

Operation Barbarossa

most inhumane fashion possible with the complicity of "several military leaders", even though it was quite clear that this would be in violation of all accepted norms of warfare. In autumn 1940, high-ranking German officials drafted a memorandum on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union. They said Ukraine, Belorussia and the Baltic States would end up as only a further economic burden for Germany. It was argued that the Soviets in their current bureaucratic form were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany. Hitler disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right-hand man

Operation Barbarossa

repeated warnings of an impending German attack. Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date, but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion. Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations, but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler. Beginning in July 1940, the Red Army General Staff developed war plans that identified the Wehrmacht as the most dangerous threat to the Soviet Union, and that in the case of a war with Germany, the Wehrmacht's main attack

Andreas Hillgruber

German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, had been a "preventive war", forced on Hitler to prevent an imminent Soviet attack on Germany. So effectively did Weinberg and Rothfels demolish Hillgruber's arguments that he repudiated his previous views. Thereafter, he maintained that Operation Barbarossa had been prompted solely by Hitler's ideological belief in the need for "Lebensraum" (living space) in Russia, where a massive German colonization effort was planned and the entire Russian people were to be reduced to slave status. In the 1970s and 1980s Hillgruber often attacked historians such as David Irving and Viktor Suvorov for putting

Hans Graf von Sponeck

awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross by Adolf Hitler. Before dawn on 22 June 1941, Operation Barbarossa was launched beginning the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Sponeck commanded the 22nd Infantry Division as part of the 11th Army in the area of Army Group South attacking in the direction of the Crimean Peninsula. Two days before the invasion, on 20 June 1941, Sponeck's general staff gave orders to the division that any Jewish Red Army prisoners of war should be identified and separated from the rest of the Soviet prisoners. With the start of the invasion, Sponeck's

Operation Barbarossa

Operationally, German forces achieved major victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union, mainly in the Ukraine, and inflicted, as well as sustained, heavy casualties. Despite these Axis successes, the German offensive stalled in the Battle of Moscow and the subsequent Soviet winter counteroffensive pushed German troops back. The Red Army absorbed the Wehrmacht's strongest blows and forced the unprepared Germans into a war of attrition. The Wehrmacht never again mounted a simultaneous offensive along the entire Eastern front. The failure of the operation drove Hitler to demand further operations of increasingly limited scope


Question: Give a year in the reign of King Henry IV

Readeption of Henry VI

in 1470. Henry was then restored to the throne. The period we know as the Readeption was so named because of the formula at the start of Henry VI's issuants, viz. "the forty-ninth year of the reign of King Henry VI and the first year of the readeption of his Royal power". King Henry VI had been king of England nearly all his life: his father Henry V had died in 1422 on campaign in France when Henry VI was only a few months old. Henry VI was never a strong king like his father; he was unable to keep

History of the Reign of King Henry VII

History of the Reign of King Henry VII History of the Reign of King Henry VII is a 1622 work by the English writer Francis Bacon. It charts the reign of the first Tudor monarch Henry VII who took the throne from his rival Richard III in 1485. At the time of writing Bacon had recently fallen from political power, and completed the work in late 1621 and sent a copy to James I. It was published the following year. The book remains his only completed work of history. At the request of Charles, Prince of Wales he began work

Henry IV of England

Rebellions continued throughout the first 10 years of Henry's reign, including the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr, who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. The king's success in putting down these rebellions was due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, who later became king (though the son managed to seize much effective power from his father in 1410). In the last year of Henry's reign, the rebellions picked up speed. "The old fable of a living Richard was revived", notes one account, "and emissaries

Henry VI of England

Henry VI of England Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V, he succeeded to the English throne at the age of nine months upon his father's death, and succeeded to the French throne on the death of his maternal grandfather Charles VI shortly afterwards. Henry inherited the long-running Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), in which his uncle Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. He is the only

Henry VI of England

Henry's arms were those of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points. Henry VI of England Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V, he succeeded to the English throne at the age of nine months upon his father's death, and succeeded to the French throne on the death of his maternal grandfather Charles VI shortly afterwards. Henry inherited the long-running Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), in which

Henry VI of England

Henry V of England

Henry V of England

Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1413 until his death in 1422. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against France made England one of the strongest military powers in Europe. Immortalised in Shakespeare's "Henriad" plays, Henry is known and celebrated as one of the greatest warrior-kings of medieval England.

During the reign of his father Henry IV, Henry gained military experience fighting the Welsh during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr and against the powerful aristocratic Percy family of Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Henry acquired an increased role in England's government due to the king's declining health, but disagreements between father and son led to political conflict between the two. After his father's death in 1413, Henry assumed control of the country and asserted the pending English claim to the French throne.

In 1415, Henry embarked on war with France. His first military campaign included his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. By 1420 his armies had captured Paris and had come close to conquering the whole of medieval France. Taking advantage of political divisions within France, he conquered large portions of Northern France, resulting in Normandy's occupation by the English for the first time since the mid-14th century. After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France, the 1420 Treaty of Troyes recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne, and he was subsequently married to Charles's daughter, Catherine of Valois. Everything seemed to point to the formation of a union between the kingdoms, in the person of Henry. However, he died two years later and was succeeded by his only child, the infant Henry VI.

Analyses of Henry’s reign are varied. He was widely praised for his personal piety, bravery and military genius even by contemporary French chroniclers, but his occasionally cruel temperament and lack of focus on domestic affairs has made him the subject of some criticism. Nonetheless, his militaristic pursuits during the Hundred Years’ War created a strong sense of English nationalism and set the stage for the rise of England and then later Britain to prominence as a dominant global power.

Henry IV, Part 1

Henry IV, Part 1

Henry IV, Part 1 (often written as 1 Henry IV) is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written no later than 1597. The play dramatises part of the reign of King Henry IV of England, beginning with the battle at Homildon Hill late in 1402, and ending with King Henry's victory in the Battle of Shrewsbury in mid-1403. In parallel to the political conflict between King Henry and a rebellious faction of nobles, the play depicts the escapades of King Henry's son, Prince Hal (the future King Henry V), and his eventual return to court and favour.

"Henry IV, Part 1" is the first of Shakespeare's two plays which deal with the reign of Henry IV (the other being "Henry IV, Part 2"), and the second play in the Henriad, a modern designation for the tetralogy of plays that deal with the successive reigns of Richard II, Henry IV, and Henry V. From its first performance on, it has been an extremely popular work both with the public and critics.

Henry IV of France

Henry IV of France

Henry IV (; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithets Good King Henry or Henry the Great, was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarch of France from the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. He was assassinated in 1610 by François Ravaillac, a Catholic zealot, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII.

Henry was the son of Jeanne III of Navarre and Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme. He was baptised as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother. He inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on his mother's death. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. He later led Protestant forces against the French royal army.

Henry became king of France in 1589 upon the death of Henry III, his brother-in-law and distant cousin. He was the first French monarch from the House of Bourbon. Henry initially kept the Protestant faith (the only French king to do so) and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear France's crown as a Protestant. After four years of stalemate, he converted to Catholicism to obtain mastery over his kingdom (reportedly saying, "Paris is well worth a mass"). As a pragmatic politician (in the parlance of the time, a "politique"), he promulgated the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, thereby effectively ending the French Wars of Religion.

An active ruler, Henry worked to regularise state finance, promote agriculture, eliminate corruption and encourage education. During his reign, the French colonization of the Americas truly began with the foundation of the colonies of Acadia and Canada at Port-Royal and Quebec, respectively. He is celebrated in the popular song "Vive le roi Henri" (which later became an anthem for the French monarchy during the reigns of his successors) and in Voltaire's "Henriade".

Henry IV of England

Henry IV of England

Henry IV ( April 1367 – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke, was King of England from 1399 to 1413. He asserted the claim of his grandfather King Edward III, a maternal grandson of Philip IV of France, to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the first English ruler since the Norman Conquest, over three hundred years prior, whose mother tongue was English rather than French.

Henry was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, himself the son of Edward III.<ref name="weir" /> John of Gaunt was a power in England during the reign of Henry's cousin Richard II. Henry was involved in the revolt of the Lords Appellant against Richard in 1388, resulting in his exile. After John died in 1399, Richard blocked Henry's inheritance of his father's duchy. That year, Henry rallied a group of supporters, overthrew and imprisoned Richard II, and usurped the throne, actions that later would lead to what is termed the Wars of the Roses and a more stabilized monarchy.

As king, Henry faced a number of rebellions, most seriously those of Owain Glyndŵr, the self-proclaimed ruler of Wales, and the English knight Henry Percy (Hotspur), who was killed in the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403. The king suffered from poor health in the latter part of his reign, and his eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, assumed the reins of government in 1410. Henry IV died in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, who reigned as Henry V.

Henry IV of England

Henry IV of England Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke (), was King of England from 1399 to 1413, and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III (himself a maternal grandson of Philip IV of France), to the Kingdom of France. Henry was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire. His father, John of Gaunt (1340-1399) (created 1st Duke of Lancaster in right of his wife), was the fourth son (third to survive to adulthood) of King Edward III and enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of

The Shoemaker's Holiday

of London's livery companies, and it follows in Dekker's style of depicting everyday life in London. The events of the play occur during the reign of King Henry VI, though also hinting at the reign of Henry V. Henry V succeeded his father, Henry IV, as leader of England following Henry IV's death in 1413 at the age of 26. He is best known for securing the French crown and for his depiction in Shakespeare's plays "Henry IV, Part 1", "Henry IV, Part 2", and "Henry V". Dekker uses this correlation in "The Shoemaker's Holiday", as an English king appears

Henry de Bracton

the slayer. And if the marks could not be collected because of poverty, they would be collected in the hundred for deposit in the king's treasury. This represents a curious anachronism, since trial by ordeal ("water and iron") had been outlawed in England by the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. (See subpoena ad testificandum for details.) The reign of King John of England (1199–1216) was a time of great turmoil that produced, among other things, the Magna Carta and the Papal interdict of Pope Innocent III against John. Henry III of England (1216–1272) was a child of nine years when

History of England

England until 1461. Henry's cousin deposed Henry in 1461 to became Edward IV. He defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross. He was briefly expelled from the throne in 1470–1471 when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Edward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London and died there. Edward went a little way to restoring the power of the Crown. Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old. His eldest son and heir Edward V, aged 13, could not succeed

Henry VII of England

Henry VII of England Henry VII (; 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509) was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 to his death on 21 April 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henry attained the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York,

History of the Reign of King Henry VII

on a follow-up account of the reign of Henry VIII, but only completed a brief introduction. Bacon's portrayal of Henry was extremely influential for the following three centuries. History of the Reign of King Henry VII History of the Reign of King Henry VII is a 1622 work by the English writer Francis Bacon. It charts the reign of the first Tudor monarch Henry VII who took the throne from his rival Richard III in 1485. At the time of writing Bacon had recently fallen from political power, and completed the work in late 1621 and sent a copy to

History of England

With Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, and Tudors would continue to rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, the Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle. Parliament quickly recognized him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth

Henry V of England

Henry V of England Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England from 1413 until his early death in 1422. He was the second English monarch of the House of Lancaster. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against France, most notably in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, made England one of the strongest military powers in Europe. Immortalised in the plays of Shakespeare, Henry is known and celebrated as one of the great warrior kings of medieval

Henry IV of England

of Henry's reign were marked by serious health problems. He had a disfiguring skin disease and, more seriously, suffered acute attacks of some grave illness in June 1405; April 1406; June 1408; during the winter of 1408–09; December 1412; and finally a fatal bout in March 1413. Medical historians have long debated the nature of this affliction or afflictions. The skin disease might have been leprosy (which did not necessarily mean precisely the same thing in the 15th century as it does to modern medicine), perhaps psoriasis, or some other disease. The acute attacks have been given a wide range

Henry IV of England

and France". Upon his accession as king, Henry updated the arms of the kingdom to match an update in those of royal France – from a field of fleur-de-lys to just three. When Richard II was forced to abdicate the throne in 1399, Henry was next in line to the throne according to Edward III's entailment of 1376. That entailment clearly reflects the operation of agnatic primogeniture, also known as the Salic law. At this time, it was by no means a settled custom for the daughter of a king to supersede the brothers of that king in the line

Henry VII of England

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the "Kingmaker"), went over to the Lancastrians. Herbert was captured fighting for the Yorkists and executed by Warwick. When Warwick restored Henry VI in 1470, Jasper Tudor returned from exile and brought Henry to court. When the Yorkist Edward IV regained the throne in 1471, Henry fled with other Lancastrians to Brittany, where he spent most of the next 14 years under the protection of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. In November 1476, Henry's protector fell ill and his principal advisers were more amenable to negotiating with the English king. Henry was handed over and

Henry VI of England

on 16 December 1431. He was the only English king to be crowned king in England and France. It was shortly after his crowning ceremony at Merton Priory on All Saints Day, 1 November 1437, shortly before his 16th birthday, he obtained some measure of independent authority on 13 November 1437, but his growing willingness to involve himself in administration became apparent in 1434 when the place named on writs temporarily changed from Westminster (where the Privy Council was) to Cirencester (where the king was). He finally assumed full royal powers when he came of age. Henry was declared of

The Anarchy

crowned alongside Eleanor at Westminster. The royal court was gathered in April 1155, where the barons swore fealty to the king and his sons. Henry presented himself as the legitimate heir to Henry I and commenced rebuilding the kingdom in his image. Although in reality Stephen had tried to continue Henry I's method of government during the war, the new government characterised the 19 years of Stephen's reign as a chaotic and troubled period, with all these problems resulting from Stephen's usurpation of the throne. Henry was also careful to show that, unlike his mother the Empress, he would listen

Henry IV of England

her marriage to the King of England was childless. By an unknown mistress, Henry IV had one illegitimate child: Henry IV of England Henry IV (15 April 1367 – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke (), was King of England from 1399 to 1413, and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III (himself a maternal grandson of Philip IV of France), to the Kingdom of France. Henry was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire. His father, John of Gaunt (1340-1399) (created 1st Duke of Lancaster in right of his wife), was the fourth son (third to survive

Battle of Bosworth Field

Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England's aid in conflicts with France and kept the Tudors under his protection. Edward IV died 12 years after Tewkesbury on 9 April 1483. His 12-year-old elder son succeeded him as King Edward V; the younger son, nine-year-old Richard of Shrewsbury, was next in line to the throne. Edward V was too young to rule and a Royal Council was established to rule the country until the king's coming of age. Some among the council were worried when it became apparent that the Woodvilles, relatives of Edward IV's widow Elizabeth, were plotting