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Several important findings of our study merit discussion. First, more than one-half (68%) of participants in this sample reported experiencing corporal punishment as children. Second, in contrast to past research, no differences in corporal punishment were found when stratified by demographic characteristics. Third, consistent with extant literature, female subjects were more likely to perpetrate teen dating violence than their male counterparts. Notably, this latter finding refers only to acts of violence and not frequency or severity, which is important, given research showing that female subjects may suffer more long-term negative physical and psychosocial consequences of teen dating violence.3x3Exner-Cortens, D., Eckenrode, J., and Rothman, E. Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics. ; 13: 71–78

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (244) | Google ScholarSee all References Fourth, parent education (as a proxy for socioeconomic status) was linked to teen dating violence—specifically, that participants with lower socioeconomic status were more likely to perpetrate teen dating violence. Finally, corporal punishment was associated with future physical perpetration of dating violence, even after controlling for demographic variables (ie, sex, ethnicity, age, parental education), as well as a history of childhood physical abuse.

Prevalence estimates of corporal punishment indicate that, worldwide and cross-culturally, approximately 80% of children are physically punished.26x26United Nations Children's Fund. Hidden in plain sight: a statistical analysis of violence against children. UNICEF, New York; : 1–206

Google ScholarSee all References Differences in corporal punishment by demographics, particularly culture and race, have been somewhat mixed, with some studies finding that African American parents report a greater prevalence of corporal punishment. African American compared with white and Hispanic parents have been shown to endorse corporal punishment's appropriateness and effectiveness.27x27Flynn, C.P. To spank or not to spank: the effect of situation and age of child on support for corporal punishment. J Fam Violence. ; 13: 21–37

Crossref | Scopus (43) | Google ScholarSee all References However, more recent research has clarified that, although racial/ethnic differences in frequency and attitude may exist, the consequences of corporal punishment are uniformly harmful. That is, corporal punishment has been linked to an increase in externalizing problems and disruptive behaviors regardless of racial/ethnic background.28x28Gershoff, E.T. and Grogan-Kaylor, A. Race as a moderator of associations between spanking and child outcomes. Fam Relat. ; 65: 490–501

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The finding that childhood corporal punishment was linked to perpetration of dating violence even after controlling for covariates underscores the importance of corporal punishment when considering partner violence etiology. Indeed, the origins and outcomes of dating violence are complex, as demonstrated by the vast heterogeneity of factors explaining violence within the context of an intimate relationship. Although there is no unifying theory of intimate partner violence, notable variables have been continuously and robustly linked to dating violence, including exposure to violent role models,29x29Ehrensaft, M.K., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E., Chen, H., and Johnson, J.G. Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: a 20-year prospective study. J Consult Clin Psychol. ; 71: 741–753

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (546) | Google ScholarSee all References, 30x30Roberts, A.L., McLaughlin, K.A., Conron, K.J., and Koenen, K.C. Adulthood stressors, history of childhood adversity, and risk of perpetration of intimate partner violence. Am J Prev Med. ; 40: 128–138

Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (90) | Google ScholarSee all References attitudes toward violence,31x31Temple, J.R., Shorey, R.C., Tortolero, S., Wolfe, D.A., and Stuart, G.L. Importance of attitudes about violence and gender in the relationship between exposure to interparental violence and the perpetration of teen dating violence. Child Abuse Negl. ; 37: 343–352

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (50) | Google ScholarSee all References and poor problem-solving skills.32x32Luthra, R. and Gidycz, C.A. Dating violence among college men and women: evaluation of a theoretical model. J Interpers Violence. ; 21: 717–731

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (105) | Google ScholarSee all References Substantial evidence demonstrates that combined with genetic predisposition and environmental stress, individuals may learn to behave aggressively through observational learning. Social modeling may be particularly toxic when the child admires the perpetrator, and perceives the individual as competent and of high social status.33x33Akers, R.L. Criminal theories: introduction, evaluation, and application. 3rd ed. Roxbury Publishing Company, Los Angeles (CA);

Google ScholarSee all References Given that parents provide a salient model for how adolescents and young adults behave in intimate relationships,34x34Kinsfogel, K.M. and Grych, J.H. Interparental conflict and adolescent dating relationships: integrating cognitive, emotional, and peer influences. J Fam Psychol. ; 18: 505–515

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (150) | Google ScholarSee all References corporal punishment may set the groundwork that physical force is an acceptable means of resolving conflict. It also is known that the use of corporal punishment with children,15x15Taylor, C.A., Manganello, J.A., Lee, S.J., and Rice, J.C. Mothers' spanking of 3-year-old children and subsequent risk of children's aggressive behavior. Pediatrics. ; 125: e1057–e1065

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (122) | Google ScholarSee all References as well as more severe parent-to-child violence,35x35Slep, A.M. and O'Leary, S.G. Parent and partner violence in families with young children: rates, patterns, and connections. J Consult Clin Psychol. ; 73: 435–444

Crossref | PubMed | Scopus (161) | Google ScholarSee all References and adult intimate partner aggression frequently co-occur in families. Hence, the modeling may occur in childhood due to direct experience of parental violence, witnessing interparental violence, or both.

Our study has certain limitations. First, corporal punishment was assessed retrospectively, with a single item, and was self-reported by participants. Thus, it is possible that participants may have, on the one hand, opted for more socially desirable responses, or on the other, inflated or misremembered actual events. Future research would benefit by including corroborating reports (eg, by parents) and/or a more comprehensive measure of corporal punishment. Second, participants were all located in the southern US, which may limit generalizability to other regions of the country. This latter concern is tempered by the fact that prevalence of corporal punishment and dating violence in the current population was similar to nationally representative samples. Finally, even though we controlled important variables (eg, alcohol use, physical child abuse), other factors (eg, interparental violence) could influence findings.

The strengths of the present study include a large ethnically diverse sample, and the use of methodologically sound measures of dating violence. Furthermore, variables known to relate to dating violence were controlled for, which highlights the importance of the unique impact of corporal punishment on perpetration of dating violence and addresses longstanding criticisms regarding a potentially confounding link between corporal punishment and poor outcomes. Taken together, the present study contributes to the growing literature demonstrating deleterious outcomes associated with corporal punishment, providing further evidence to a long-established—yet stubbornly controversial—finding. The negative consequences of corporal punishment are unequivocal and outweigh any possible benefits. These findings are in concert with the policy of the American Academy of Pediatrics, which discourages the use of corporal punishment and instructs clinicians to advocate for more effective and child-friendly disciplinary strategies.36x36American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidance for effective discipline. Pediatrics. ; 101: 723–728

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