This is an alphabetic list of achievements in science and technology made by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas during the 15,000 years that they have inhabited the Americas.

A [ edit ]

An illustration of the Pre-Columbian abacus: the Nepohualtzintzin

Adobe – adobe was used by the peoples from South America, Mesoamerica, and up to Southwestern tribes of the U.S. It is estimated that it was developed around the year 3000 BCE.

Agave wine – is made from the same plant, blue agave, as tequila but with a lower alcohol content.

Almanacs – almanacs were invented independently by the Maya peoples. Their culture arose and they began using them around 3,500 years ago, while Europeans are known to have created written almanacs only after 1150 CE. Almanacs are books containing meteorological and astronomical information, which the Maya used in various aspects of their life.

Alpacas – the Andean civilizations were amongst the first to domesticate alpacas.

American football – the Iroquois claim to have played football. While no specification is made as to whether this is meant to be American football or soccer. Soccer is said to have been invented in Asia. [2]

Anesthetics – indigenous peoples used coca, peyote, datura and other plants for partial or total loss of sensation or conscious during surgery. Western doctors had effective anesthetics only after the mid-19th century. Before this, they either had to perform surgery while the patient felt pain or knock the patient out.

Apartment blocks – the Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) and other tribes which once thrived in the present day Southwest of the US, developed complex multistory apartment complexes, some of which are still in use today. Pueblo communities in present-day New Mexico continue to reside in some of these ancient multistory apartment complexes which were constructed by their ancestors many centuries ago, even before the first apartments were built in the United States during the 18th century. Pueblo Bonito, one of the seminal archaeological sites today is a example of this indigenous multistory apartment complex construction technology from the Anasazi and Hohokam time periods about a thousand years ago.

B [ edit ]

Solid rubber ball

C [ edit ]

Calendars – calendars were developed by indigenous Americans throughout North America, Mesoamerica, and South America. They are known to have been in used since 600 BCE. Some calendars were so precise, that by the 5th century BCE, they were only 19 minutes off.

Canals – the Aztecs built great canals used for transporting food, cargo, and relaying people to the chinampas (floating gardens used for growing food) in their great metropolis of Tenochtitlan.

Canoe – many indigenous nations–including the Caribs, Cree, Iroquois, and others–had developed many distinct forms, styles, and types of canoes over the millennia. [7]

Cassava – the first cultivation of cassava.

Causeway – the Aztecs built many giant causeways that connected the mainland to their capital city of Tenochtitlan located in the heart of the Aztec Empire. The causeways served as arteries used for transporting food, goods, people, prisoners, and wastes during the heyday of the Aztec Empire in the 14th century to the 16th century.

Chaps – these appear to have been first used as a sort of leather armor to protect the legs from injury during guerrilla attacks by east coast native peoples. Some of these peoples ended up migrating to Texas shortly before the Texas Revolution, where it appears that others discovered that wearing chaps over pants reduced chaffing on long horseback rides and it came to be adopted by US, Mexican and indigenous horse-riding cultures.

Chewing gum – Native Americans in New England introduced the settlers to chewing gum made from the spruce tree. The Mayans, on the other hand, were the first people to use latex gum; better known to them as chicle.

One of the few remaining chinampas at Xochimilco

Chinampa – floating gardens which were highly productive areas used for farming and growing food, were constructed by the Aztecs to provide food and sustenance to their 250,000 inhabits in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs used the chinampas in and around Tenochtitlan to grow corn, squash, beans, tomato, avocado, chilli peppers, and a plethora of other food products to feed the burgeoning population of their great metropolis.

Chocolate – the Maya civilization were the first to drink cocoa. This tradition was later passed on to the Aztecs who called the beverage xocalatl . Indigenous people in Mesoamerica introduced it to the Spanish and Portuguese, but they kept the beloved xocalatl from the rest of Europe for nearly a century.

. Indigenous people in Mesoamerica introduced it to the Spanish and Portuguese, but they kept the beloved from the rest of Europe for nearly a century. Chunkey – a Native American game where a person rolls a hoop covered in a leather strap framework and tries to hit it with spears or arrows. This may have inspired the sport of skeet shooting. [8]

Corn (maize) – the domestication of maize, now cultivated throughout the world, is one of the most influential technological contributions of Mesoamericans.

Compulsory education – the Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of universal compulsory education. [9] [10]

Corn beer – made in the Andes it is of pre-Incan origin from the Wari culture.

Cornmeal –

Cranberries – Native Americans were the first to domesticate and grow cranberries.[5]

D [ edit ]

Detail of Nezahualcóyotl's dam to control water levels around Tenochtitlan

Dams – the Aztec in Tenochtitlan constructed great dams during the heyday of the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire, was first built on a small island that was located in the western section of Lake Texcoco in 1325 CE. The Aztec created various large artificial island around the small island using a system that was similar to building the chinampas (floating gardens in the lake that was used to grow food for the cities' population). To provide drinking water to the cities' population of over a quarter of a million inhabitants, the Aztec built a system of dams that separated the salty waters of the lake from the rainwater that was accumulated during periods of heavy rains. The Aztec also used the dam to control the level of water in the lake and prevent their city from being flooded during times of heavy rains. To prevent flooding, the Aztec constructed an inner system of channels that helped to control the water level and held the level steady during flooding and periods of intense rains. Hernán Cortés, and the other Spanish conquistadors, destroyed these engineering marvels that the Aztec had developed during the previous 200 years.

Dog breeds – Native American dogs believed to have been bred by indigenous Americans are the xochiocoyotl (coyote), xoloitzcuintli (known as xolo or Mexican hairless), chihuahua, Peruvian Hairless Dog, the Carolina Dog, Canadian Eskimo Dog, and the Alaskan Malamute.

E [ edit ]

Electroplating – the Moche independently developed electroplating technology without any Old World influences. The Moche used electricity derived from chemicals to gild copper with a thin outer layer of gold. In order to start the electroplating process, the Moche first concocted a very corrosive and a highly acidic liquid solution in which they dissolved small traces of gold. The technique also involved copper, which was then inserted into the resulting acidic solution. The copper then acted both as a cathode and an anode, and this generated the necessary electric current needed to start the electroplating process. The gold ions in the solution were attracted to the copper anode and cathode and formed a thin layer over the copper, giving the latter the appearance of a solid gold object, even though gold only coated the outermost layer of the copper object. The Moche then allowed the acidic solution to boil slowly, causing a very thin layer/coating of gold to permanently coat the copper anode and cathode. This advanced electroplating technique was developed during 500 CE by the Moche, a thousand years before Europeans invented the same process.

Embalming – Egyptians are known for mummification, which began around 6000 BCE to 600 CE. In what is now Chile, however, the Chinchorro peoples are known to have been embalming and mummifying their dead since around 5000 BCE. Embalming is using preservatives to prevent decay of the body. Many other indigenous American peoples further perfected the art of embalming and mummification including the skilled Moche peoples in present-day Peru.

Ephedra – the Aztecs used ephedra in order to treat common colds. Unlike the Chinese version of the ephedra, the New World ephedra that was used by the indigenous Americans contained milder alkaloids.

F [ edit ]

Freeze-drying – the Andean civilizations learned to freeze dry potatoes (chuño) and other food items, so that the resultant dehydrated powder could be stored for years and then later transported across vast distances to feed countless hungry peoples. The Spanish conquistadors used this Andean invented freeze-drying technique to transport several tonnes of dehydrated potatoes across the Atlantic Ocean back to Europe to feed hungry Europeans.[11]

G [ edit ]

Gold plating – the Moche dissolved gold using an alum/saltpetre/salt mixture which was then deposited onto copper vessels. [12] [13]

Green bean – this, as well as other varieties, were first farmed in South America and migrated to North America where it was adopted by Europeans.

Guinea pigs – indigenous South Americans had domesticated the guinea pig as a food source around 9,000 to 6,000 BCE. The Inca people took guinea pig farming to new heights.

Two guinea pigs

H [ edit ]

I [ edit ]

Inside an igloo

Igloos – built by the Inuit, igloos were constructed for many centuries as a form of protection and shelter to house people from the harsh Arctic weather. While the temperature outside an igloo may have been −45 °C (−49 °F), the temperature within an igloo was stable ranging from −7 to 16 °C (19 to 61 °F) when warmed by body heat. The Central Inuit people in Northern Canada (especially those, who lived around the Davis Strait), lined the inside living area of an igloo with animal skin and hides. This assisted in increasing the temperature within an igloo from around 2 °C (36 °F) to 10–20 °C (50–68 °F), thereby insuring a more comfortable existence for the inhabitants of the igloo from the fierce cold outside. With the addition of a kudlik the temperature could be raised even more.

Inca road systems – the Inca built one of the most extensive road systems in the ancient world. The Incas built upon the roads, which were originally constructed by previous Andean civilizations such as the Chimu, Nazca, Wari, Moche, and others. The Inca also further refined and expanded upon the earlier innovations and systems laid in place by previous Indigenous cultures. The Incan road system, at its peak, spanned over 20,000 mi (32,000 km) and criss crossed mountains, rivers, deserts, rainforests, and plains. The road system connected the empire from the Andes mountain in Colombia all through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northeastern Argentina, and present-day northern Chile. The Inca roads were used to transport food, goods, people, and armies, while Inca officials frequently relayed messages using the roads across the vast stretches of the Inca Empire. In areas, where rivers blocked the directions of the roads, the Inca constructed elaborate and complex rope bridges.

Inuit snow goggles – the Inuit made snow goggles which protected their eyes against the harsh winds in the Arctic regions of North America, long before sunglasses became available to modern Europeans.

Snow goggles

J [ edit ]

Jerky – indigenous Americans were the first to develop jerky from smoked buffalo meat.[5]

K [ edit ]

L [ edit ]

Llama overlooking Machu Pichu

Lasso – the Lenape and early settlers allegedly record the use of the lasso as a sort of snare to trap large game. The Lenape eventually brought this to Texas, where it came to be implemented by the American and Mexican cowboy cultures.

Lacrosse – lacrosse may have developed as early as 1100 CE among indigenous peoples on the North American continent.

Llamas – indigenous people from Peru domesticated llamas in around 5000 BCE.

M [ edit ]

Maize – first cultivated in present-day Mexico several thousand years ago, corn is currently the most cultivated grain in the world with the US being the largest cultivator of maize followed by mainland China. Over 700 million tons of maize are grown worldwide annually today in order to feed people and animals. In addition, ethanol extracted from corn is also used to fuel engines in millions of vehicles, thousands of planes, and other engines throughout the world.

Manioc – Native Americans were the first peoples in the world to cultivate manioc. [11]

Maple syrup and maple sugar – indigenous Americans were the first to extract the sap from maple trees and convert the sap into maple syrup and maple sugar. [5]

Mathematics – the Olmec and the Maya–who who came after the Olmec–independently developed the concept of zero (independent of the ancient Hindus in India) in mathematics. The ancient Mexicans also developed complex arithmetic functions and operations such as additions, subtractions, divisions, and multiplications. The development of mathematics by the Mexicans complemented and assisted them in making sense of the universe, cosmos, astronomy, architecture, and pre-Columbian calendars that were so essential in maintaining a connection between them and the gods and heavens.

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America – many pre-Columbian cultures, especially the Moche in the Andean regions were skilled metallurgists. Indigenous Americans mastered smelting, soldering, annealing, electroplating, sintering, alloying, low-wax casting, and many other metallurgical techniques independent of any Old World influences. The Moche were skilled in hammering and shaping gold, silver, copper, and bronze into intricate ornamental objects and chisels, while the later Incas developed more utilitarian objects using these metals and alloys. Metallurgical techniques later diffused from the Andean region of South America to Colombia and then later to Mesoamerica, where local artists and metallurgists developed even more unique techniques using a wide range of material, including alloys of copper-silver, copper-arsenic, copper-tin and copper-arsenic-tin.

Moccasins – highly comfortable shoes used by indigenous Americans to travel vast distances. These shoes were often made of leather and were highly comfortable to wear. In addition, the moccasins could withstand the rugged terrain over which Native Americans traversed.

Muscovy duck – indigenous peoples were the first in the world to domesticate the muscovy duck.

N [ edit ]

O [ edit ]

Observatories, astronomical – Andean and Mesoamerican astronomers constructed towers to observe the movements of the planets and other astronomical features and events. Although culture groups throughout the world have observed the planets and stars and recorded their movements, the stone structures of the Mesoamerican and Andean culture groups are significant because they show the emphasis these early astronomers placed on making clear and accurate observations. In the U.S., the Anasazi built structures with windows aligned for the observation of celestial events. The most notable example of Maya astronomical observatories is Caracol, in Chichén Itzá. In 1975, archaeoastronomers Anthony F. Aveni and Horst Hartung surveyed the site and suggested that ancient Maya astronomers used the structure to observe the planet Venus. The Maya, as well as other Mesoamerican culture groups, used Venus to set times for ceremonies and as a divination tool.[15]

P [ edit ]

Painting – Maya paintings from the ancient era found in the archaeological sites, such as Cacaxtla and Bonampak, are some of the most refined paintings ever to come out of the ancient Americas. Besides the Maya, other indigenous civilizations were also known for their wall paintings, including the Aztec and the Navajo, who developed the art of sand painting.

The palace observation tower at Palenque

Pottery – many indigenous American cultures and peoples independently invented and then refined pottery in the Americas into fine works of art, as well for utilitarian usage. The Moche and Maya were some of the best potters from the ancient Americas, and their work still inspires awe amongst us for the level of artistry, creativity, and sophistication, which such highly prized works of arts involved. The Navajo are also very skilled developers of pottery and their works in the present time are highly detailed and much prized. Many other indigenous American cultures also developed their own pottery styles during the pre-Columbian time periods and continued to refine their artwork into the modern era.

Pulque – corn-based alcoholic beverage created in Mesoamerica sometimes called agave wine. Still popular in Mexico today. [6]

Pumpkins – indigenous Americans were the first to domesticate and grow pumpkins. [5]

Pyramids – advanced civilizations in Mexico, such as the Toltecs, Olmecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs, Mayans, Mixtecs, developed their own myriad styles of pyramids, usually step pyramid, which served for ceremonial/religious and administrative functions. In Mesoamerica, the largest pyramid in the world—The Great Pyramid of Cholula—began to be constructed by the inhabitants of Cholula in the 3rd century BC. In the Andean regions, the Moches, and some ancient Peruvians also constructed gigantic pyramids as well without any influence from Old World civilizations.

Q [ edit ]

Quinoa – first grown and cultivated in the Andes. This is a food grain which the indigenous Americans first developed and the grain is considered to be one of the most nutritious items there is.

Quinine – a muscle relaxant, which has been used for many centuries by the Quechua people in the Andes area of South America. The medicine was used by many Andean people to prevent shivering due to cold in the low-temperature areas in the high Andes mountains of Peru. The ancient Peruvians would mix the ground bark of cinchona trees with water to eliminate the bark's bitter taste, and then drink the resultant tonic water to soothe their nerves and senses.

Quipu – quipus were developed by the ancient Andeans. Quipus mimic an accounting, record-keeping, and communication system that uses knots and strings in order to record valuable information related to population, economic data, food grain supplies, calendars, events, etc.

R [ edit ]

Rubber – the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica were the first peoples in the world to extract the sap from rubber trees and then use it to make clothes, rubber balls to be played in ceremonial ball games, and many other utilitarian uses. Indigenous peoples, especially those who lived in the Amazon rainforest found many other uses for rubber. The science and technique of extracting sap from rubber trees and then using the sap to make goods made of rubber then spread to the high civilizations of the Andes and elsewhere in the Americas.

Rubber balloons – the Olmec were the first people to use rubber balloons. Their civilization arose in BCE 1700 in the Yucatán Peninsula. [22]

Reed boats – a balsa was a boat that was constructed by pre-Columbian South Americans from woven reeds of totora bullrush. These reed boats varied in size from that of a small canoe used for navigation, transportation, and for small-scale fishing to large ships of up to 30 m (98 ft) in length, which were used for war, transportation, bulk goods hauling, and transporting royalty and nobility. They are still used today on Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia by the indigenous peoples living along the banks of the lake.

S [ edit ]

Salsa – one of several sauces typical of Mexican cuisine.

chanunpa pipestem, without the pipe bowl Lakota (Sioux)pipestem, without the pipe bowl

T [ edit ]

Nez Perce tipi

Tamales – although largely associated with Mexico, and its indigenous Mesoamerican origin, records from the Iroquoian people show that they too made such a dish. [14]

Taxation – the Inca had a sophisticated taxation system, the mita, using quipus (knotted strings) as recording devices. Quipus were transported through the Inca road network messengers (chaskis) and administered by the quipu authorities (quipucamayoc).

Tipi – a cone-shaped, portable dwelling popularized by Plains Indians (Native Americans and First Nations) of the Great Plains and the Canadian Prairies. Tipis were warm, durable, comfortable, and could be easily disassembled and packed. A settlement could be ready to move in about one hour.

Tlingit armor – Tlingit armor was worn by coastal Indigenous Nation in Alaska and British Columbia. Tlingit warriors wore battle helmets depicting crest animals or ancestors, along with wooden visors, thick leather tunics, and body armor covered with wooden slats or coins. This battle attire combines technology, ingenuity, and symbolic power and protection.

Tobacco – tobacco was used in the Americas for many centuries prior to the arrival of white Europeans. Consumed in high doses, tobacco can become highly hallucinogenic and was accordingly used by many indigenous peoples in the Americas to inspire dreams and dreamtime. Tobacco was also often consumed as a medicine amongst some tribes, although this was strictly practiced by experienced shamans and medicine men. Eastern tribes in the mainland US also traded tobacco as a trade item in exchange for food, clothing, beads, and salt, and would often smoke tobacco during sacred and ritualized ceremonies using pipes. Tobacco was considered to be a gift from the gods and it was believed that the exhaled tobacco smoke generated from smoking a pipe would carry one's thoughts and prayers to the creator up above in the heavens.

Toboggan – the Innu and the Cree nations of Canada developed a sled in the form of the toboggan. These sleds were used to transport people and cargo across the snow using dogs as draft animals. Sled dogs such as Huskies were used to pull the dog sled along the harsh Canadian winter snows.

Toggling harpoon – first used by the Red Paint People of the North American east coast they were later used by the Thule.

Tomato – indigenous Americans were the first peoples in the world to domesticate and then grow the tomato.The tomato was an essential ingredient that formed the basis of many indigenous foods including tamales, tostado, soups, and salads. Indigenous Mesoamericans were the first peoples in the world to cultivate the tomato several thousand years ago.

Tortillas – this staple food well known today was used throughout Mesoamerican and Southwestern US cultures. Although they were mainly made of corn, squash and amaranth were also popular. The tortillas were wrapped around different fillings such as avocado. Today this has resulted in the creation of the modern taco, burrito, and enchilada.

Tug of war – the Iroquois claim tug of war was once related to some sort of celebratory ritual they used to do. [2] The Mohave people occasionally used tug-of-war matches as means of settling disputes. [25]

The Mohave people occasionally used tug-of-war matches as means of settling disputes. Turkey – approximately 2,000 years ago, ancient Mesoamericans domesticated the turkey during the Late Preclassic period—from 300 B.C. to A.D. 100.[26]

U [ edit ]

An ulu in the western Arctic style

Ulu – a multi-purpose knife normally used by Inuit, Yupik and Aleut women

Umbrellas – independent of the ancient Chinese (who had also invented the umbrellas on their own), the Maya and the Inca had invented circular umbrellas, which were made from bird feathers.

V [ edit ]

Vanilla – the Totonac are believed to had been the first to extract vanilla from the pods of vanilla orchids and use it as a flavor enhancer. [11]

Vulcanization – the Olmec people of Veracruz, Mexico treated the sap from rubber trees with chemicals and shaped the resulting rubber into a myriad of products such as balls, sandals, balloons, rubber syringes, etc. centuries before Charles Goodyear re-invented the process during the 19th century.

W [ edit ]

Water gun – some of the first water guns were more of a syringe-type device. The missionary Eugene Buechel recorded the Lakota peoples as making such toys for their children out of log rounds. However, whether or not they actually invented the device is up for debate. [27]

Whaling – indigenous peoples, such as the Inuit, have been whaling for many centuries using boats. Their whaling tradition in the Arctic region predates European colonization of the Americas.

An Aztec toy dog on wheels

Wheel and axle – it has been argued that indigenous Mesoamericans had invented the wheel. The oldest wheeled figure to have been uncovered in Mesoamerica is a crowned, dog-like figure in Tres Zapotes, Veracruz, dated ca. 100-200 CE. However, the most common examples of the Mesoamerican wheel and axle are the excavated Aztec clay wheeled "toys".

Whoopee cushion – natives of the great plains were known to use animal bladders as whoopee cushions to play practical jokes on each other. They were so popular, a common Lakota myth actually depicts a sorcerer using an animal bladder to put a spell of flatulence on a girl who spurned him. [21]

Wigwam – a wigwam, wickiup, or wetu is a domed room-dwelling formerly used by certain Native American and First Nations tribes, and still used for ceremonial purposes. The wigwam is not to be confused with the Plains tipi, which has a very different construction, structure, and use.

Writing system – many indigenous American cultures, such as the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Zapotec, and Toltec, had developed their own unique writing system independent of any Old World influences. Other native peoples to the north—mainly Algonquians—had organized pictographing that was close to evolving into a writing system, but was not yet there. The Mi'kmaq used a hieroglyphic writing system prior to European arrival.

X [ edit ]

Y [ edit ]

Yam – indigenous Americans were the first peoples in the world to cultivate yams. [11]

Yucca – indigenous Americans were the first peoples in the world to cultivate yucca.

Z [ edit ]

The back of Stela C

Zero – the Olmec independently invented the concept of zero. The second earliest found instance of the use of zero—in Mesoamerica—has been dated to 32 B.C. by the Epi-Olmec culture. This date has been arrived at based off the Long Count date on Stela C at Tres Zapotes. The symbol used for "zero" is a shell glyph, which is seen on the stone carving. Although the Olmec didn't leave behind any statues or reliefs with a "zero" glyph, the use of the Long Count calender requires the knowledge of this concept since it's based off the Vigesimal number system, which the Olmec are credited to have created.[28]

See also [ edit ]

Notes [ edit ]

References [ edit ]