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Background

This project began as mere curiosity. While listening to the audio version of the Book of Mormon, I started to notice some of the geographical references. I wondered what I might learn if I were to compile all these references into a single document. So that’s what I did. You can view the results of this here.

It’s amazing to me how much I was able to learn just by going through this exercise. A picture started to emerge. I began to visualize the relative positions of cities, lands, and events. It became apparent to me that the names and locations found in the Book of Mormon are not just part of a made-up story. They are descriptions of actual places in the real world.

Mapping the events in the Book of Mormon does involve a lot of guesswork. But we can figure out quite a lot through a process of deductive reasoning. In fact, we can internally map out most of the Book of Mormon lands and their relative locations. Matching the internal map to the real world is another matter, but as I’ve looked at the references, I believe that this is possible as well.

I am not a scholar. Plenty of people have spent a lot more time studying and thinking about this than I have. A lot of the things I learned and will share in this post are already known by others. But sometimes it’s helpful to have someone look at a topic with fresh eyes. Though I’m not an expert, perhaps I can still contribute something to LDS scholarship.

I could have started off by studying existing research, but I deliberately avoided doing so, because I wanted to come to my own conclusions without being influenced by other people’s ideas. Sometimes I think we rely on experts too much. This can cause us to become passive. There is value in seeking out answers for ourselves.

Today it seems that many church members are not interested in Book of Mormon geography. Others seem to obsess over this or that theory. My philosophy is that we need to seek learning “by study and also by faith.” I think that the information about geography is helpful inasmuch as it gives context to the narrative. The authors of the book went to the trouble of providing this information so that we, the readers, would be better able to understand the events being described.

My approach in doing this research has been to focus primarily on the text itself. Sometimes we may start off with certain biases. For example, we may want to create a geographical model that fits with certain statements made by the prophet Joseph Smith. Or, we may try to make our model fit with known locations of ancient Mayan or Olmec cities. My feeling is that these biases can lead us off course. The best thing to do, in my opinion, is to keep our minds open to all possibilities and focus on the text of the Book of Mormon itself.

Focusing on the text requires more than just a careful reading. It requires us to apply intuition and make mental leaps. We have to enter the mind of the author and understand why he would have used certain words or phrases. Years ago, my BYU Book of Mormon teacher Paul Hoskisson emphasized the need to understand the author’s original intention. For example, he explained that the phrase “looking beyond the mark” (Jacob 4:14) is most likely a metaphor related to hunting and archery.

One example of how this comes into play is the “narrow neck” of land that divides the land northward from the land southward (Alma 22:32, 63:5). What narrow-necked creature is Mormon using as a metaphor? Certainly not a giraffe. Intuition tells us that he is talking about a bird.

I believe that understanding these kinds of subtleties can give us important clues as we try to more fully understand the geographical picture being described in the Book of Mormon.

General Observations

As I compiled the scriptural references, a number of details and themes jumped out at me.

Primary Narrative. Most of the events prior to the Savior’s visit took place around Zarahemla and the land of Lehi-Nephi. This is all in the land southward. We know quite a bit about this land, and most of this information comes from the books of Mosiah and Alma. The Jaredite narrative, in contrast, takes place mostly in the land northward. Less information about this land is given.

Here are some of the facts that we can easily deduce:

Lehi’s family arrived on the west coast.

The land of Nephi is south of the land of Zarahemla.

The River Sidon flows from south to north.

Zarahemla is west of the river Sidon.

The head (source) of the river Sidon is in Lamanite territory.

The narrow neck of land is toward the north.

There are seas on both the east and the west of the land.

Distance and Scale. The overall size of the lands around Zarahemla can be approximated. It took the people of Alma twenty-one days to get from the land of Mormon to Zarahemla. Mormon may have been roughly one day out from Nephi. So the distance from Nephi to Zarahemla could have been up to 500 miles. (A day’s journey in the Bible is about 24 miles.) Zarahemla is described as being in the center of the land. So if the distance from Nephi to Zarahemla is the radius of a circle, then the full diameter (and the full length of the river Sidon) could be up to 1000 miles. So we’re talking about an area that is quite a bit bigger than Israel (which is 290 miles in length), but not big enough to fill a continent. Of course, they may not have traveled quite twenty-four miles each day, so the area could be smaller.

U-Shaped Boundary. In Alma 22, Mormon breaks from the narrative to give an overview of Nephite and Lamanite lands. He explains that the Nephites were “nearly surrounded” by Lamanites on the east and on the west. But the Nephites had retained possession of the northern lands and the passage that led to the land northward. He uses the phrase “round about” to suggest that the boundary was not a straight line, but in fact shaped like a U or a V. This roundness was probably seen as a liability, and later on Captain Moroni established cities to the east to straighten out the boundary.

Elevation and Wilderness. This is one of the first things that jumped out at me as I was compiling the references. I kept noticing the words “up” and “down.” Whenever people go into Lamanite territory and to the land of Nephi, they go up. Whenever people go to Zarahemla, they go down. This is clearly not about direction, because we know that Nephi is south of Zarahemla. “Up” and “down” refer to elevation. The language suggests that Nephi is significantly higher in elevation than Zarahemla. This makes sense given that Zarahemla is in the valley of the River Sidon. We can deduce that Sidon is surrounded by a strip of mountains on the east, west, and south.

Keeping this information in mind, it becomes evident that the word “wilderness,” as it is used in the Book of Mormon, usually refers to mountainous areas and lands that are higher in elevation. The Lamanites (at least the more “idle part”) preferred to live in the mountains, hunting beasts for food, whereas the Nephites preferred to live in the lowlands and raise their own animals.

Alma 22:27 talks about a thin “strip of wilderness” that divides Nephite and Lamanite lands. This can be confusing because what I think Mormon is saying is that the strip of wilderness was not just the boundary. The Lamanites actually lived on the strip of wilderness.

The U-shaped boundary described above is the mountain path that the Lamanites would follow. Instead of venturing down into the valley, they would go around using the surrounding highlands. The head of the river Sidon was at the bottom of the U. When attacking the Nephites, they would try from one side, and if that didn’t work out, they would go around south, across the head of the river Sidon, to try from the other side.

Northward Migration and Expansion. Toward the end of the book of Alma and the beginning of the book of Helaman, Mormon explains that the Nephites began to migrate to the land northward. The Nephites had been guarding the passage to the land northward, considering this land to be of strategic importance. They probably viewed this land as a safety valve, the same way early American settlers viewed the West. The Nephites understood that if things got really bad around Zarahemla, they could always flee north for safety.

By the time of Christ’s visitation, it is evident that the Nephites had built many cities in the land northward. During the three days of darkness, the voice of Christ announced the destruction of many cities, and most of these cities had not been previously mentioned. We can assume that most if not all of these were in the land northward.

We don’t have a lot of information about the land northward. Mormon chose instead to focus the narrative on what he considered to be the most important details. Several times he writes that he’s not even giving us the “hundredth part” of the people’s history.

Apparently when the Book of Mormon was first published, most of the early saints assumed that the “land southward” was South America and that the “land northward” was North America, with the narrow neck being the Isthmus of Darien (Panama). Later on, LDS scholars saw this model as being too simplistic and recognized that the distances involved would be too great. Today, scholars have generally accepted that a limited geography model is more appropriate.

But we have to look at what the text actually says. The text tells us that there is a primary narrative and other narratives that radiate out from it. So we don’t necessarily have to choose between North America, Central America, or South America.

When we look at the mound builders of the Ohio valley, it’s hard to not see the connection to the account of Captain Moroni directing his people to heap up mounds of earth to fortify their cities. But we can also find correlations to the Book of Mormon in Central and South America.

The text describes a steady increase in the size of territories over time. At first, the land of Nephi was a very localized place. Later on, Mormon says that the land of Nephi “ran in a straight course from the east sea to the west,” a much larger area. By the time we get to the book of Helaman, the people had spread out from sea to sea.

During WWII, the main conflict took place in Europe. Yet, related conflicts were taking place as far away as Hawaii. Likewise, the events in the Book of Mormon took place in a localized region, but those events may have rippled out to distant places.

The Narrow Neck. The passage to the land northward is described as being narrow – only a day and a half’s journey from one side to the other. If we assume that a day’s journey is 24 miles, then that would put the width of the narrow neck at 36 miles. Today the narrowest point in Panama is 30 miles, and the total length of the Panama canal from ocean to ocean is about 50 miles. So the length is just about right.

I know that there are several other theories about where the narrow neck could be. Panama could be viewed as too easy or too simplistic, but sometimes the obvious answer is the right one. To me, none of the other theories are very convincing.

Other Clues. There are lots of other little clues that tell us where things were taking place. After Lehi’s family arrived, Nephi described the land as being forested. He also noted that ores were available, suggesting that it was a mountainous region where veining was clearly visible in the rock.

Later on, when the Nephites are having battles with the Lamanites, the Lamanite clothing is described. They were practically naked except for a loincloth. This suggests that this was taking place in a warm location.

Putting It All Together

We actually know quite a lot about Book of Mormon geography from the text alone. When we consider all the facts, the things that must be true, we can really start to narrow down the possible real-world locations for Book of Mormon lands.

We are looking for a river up to 1000 miles long that flows north. This river must be surrounded by a strip of mountains on the east, west, and south forming a U or V shape. There must be significant variation in elevation. Somewhere in the north part of this area, there must be a narrow isthmus that is about 36 miles wide at its narrowest point that leads to northern lands. The land must be forested and warm. There must be seas close by on the west and on the east.

As I considered all this information, I started to look at the watershed of the Magdalena River in Colombia. This location, in my opinion, is the only place on earth that meets all the criteria. The more I dug in to the geographical references, the more I became convinced that this is indeed the location being described by the Book of Mormon. It’s remarkable to me how easily the pieces fit into place. It’s like putting together a jigsaw puzzle.

My theory is that the primary narrative took place in Colombia. But later on, the Nephites expanded into Central America and the southern part of Mexico. By the time of the Savior’s visit, much of the northern lands had been settled. During the centuries after Christ’s visit, the land northward (Mesoamerica) flourished. This corresponds to developments in the Mayan civilization.

Some of the people who fled northward shortly after the time of Captain Moroni may have traveled all the way up into the Ohio valley and other parts of North America. Helaman 3:4 talks about people who traveled an “exceedingly great distance, insomuch that they came to large bodies of water and many rivers.” Given that 1000 miles is a normal distance as I previously established, an exceedingly great distance would have been many thousands of miles.

I place Cumorah somewhere in southern Mexico. This is just a guess, but around the Tabasco region of Mexico there are many lakes and rivers, which could fit the description of Cumorah. Mormon specifically says that he DID NOT deposit the plates which became the Book of Mormon into the Hill Cumorah, but gave them instead to his son Moroni. Moroni, in attempting to take the records far away from danger, likely went to live with the Hopewell people in the Ohio valley and Great Lakes region. There, he completed the record and he was led by the Spirit to upstate New York where he deposited the plates in the hill that we (latter-day saints) call Cumorah.

Having said this, my goal is not to prove that my theories are correct. My philosophy is to keep all possibilities open. But for the time being, I am using Colombia as my working model.

To really understand how geography fits in to the Book of Mormon narrative, we need to go through the entire book from beginning to end and look at the geographical references in the context of the events being described.

The Geographical Story of the Book of Mormon

These maps give a rough picture of where events may have taken place based on relative locations described in the text. As I learn more, I may adjust and fine-tune this model.

Arrival and First Settlements

Lehi’s family arrives somewhere on the west coast in a forested area. Nephi notes the presence of domesticated animals, suggesting that the land was already peopled. At first, they all live together, presumably near the seashore. Later on, due to the hostility of Laman and Lemuel, Nephi takes his family and followers into the wilderness. They travel toward the east and settle in a high, mountainous area.

Both Nephites and Lamanites grow in population and spread out. It is evident that the two peoples had some contact with each other.

Mosiah Discovers Zarahemla

Mosiah is told by God to take his people out of the land. The Nephites travel for some time toward the north and discover the city of Zarahemla. The people there are descendents of Mulek, the son of Zedekiah and had also come from Jerusalem. At first, the two groups could not understand each other’s language. But eventually, the Nephites and Mulekites assimilate and Mosiah is made king.

The Mulekites had made their way down from the land northward, and had previously had contact with a much older civilization (the Jaredites). Mosiah is shown a large stone with engravings which apparently gave some history of this civilization. The route of Mulekites to Zarahemla is described in Alma 22:30-31. From the land northward, they “came from there up into the south wilderness,” eventually settling near the River Sidon.

There is some evidence that suggests that the people of Zarahemla were in fact a mixture of Mulekites and Jaredites.

Mosiah’s son Benjamin leads the Nephites to battle against the Lamanites, and the Lamanites are driven from the land of Zarahemla. After some time, the Nephites do not remember the way back to the land of Nephi.

Zeniff Seeks to Reclaim the Land of Nephi (Mosiah 9)

Zeniff, a man described as being “overzealous,” seeks to reclaim the lands of their inheritance. He takes a group of people into the wilderness to look for the land of Nephi. After some wandering, they find the right place. They go to the leader of the Lamanites who gives them the land of Nephi and the land of Shilom. The relationship with the Lamanites starts off friendly but soon becomes tenuous.

We know that Nephi is higher in elevation than Shilom and Shemlon, and that from King Noah’s tower it was possible to overlook all the land of Shilom and the land of Shemlon. Later, we find out that Ammon approached this land from the hill which was north of the land of Shilom.

Alma’s People Move to Helam (Mosiah 23)

Zeniff’s son Noah is a wicked king who executes the prophet Abinadi. One of the priests of Noah, Alma, is converted by Abinadi’s preaching and starts a righteous colony in the land of Mormon. The land of Mormon is a place that is known to the king, and the name itself may have something to do with wild beasts. Later on, Alma’s people flee into the wilderness and they start a new city in the land of Helam.

Helam is some distance away (8 day’s journey). Because of subsequent events, we know it is deep in a mountainous area that is easy to get lost in. It is toward the direction of Zarahemla. Despite this distance, it is likely that the people of Noah knew of its location. After Noah and his priests fall out of favor with the people and hide in the wilderness, the wicked priests (led by Amulon) set up a colony that is not far from Helam. This suggests that Amulon wanted to be close to Alma, his fellow priest. Perhaps he thought they could eventually join forces.

Limhi Sends Out Explorers (Mosiah 8, 21)

During the time of Noah’s son, Limhi, the people are in bondage to the Lamanites. They are looking for help, but they don’t remember the precise path back to Zarahemla. Limhi sends out a group of explorers, but these explorers get lost. They end up finding ruins of a more ancient people (the Jaredites) and they bring back 24 gold plates to the land of Nephi as evidence.

It’s likely that the path to Zarahemla involved switching from one tributary to another in a mountainous region. Unless you had made the journey before, you couldn’t find the right path on your own. The explorers followed a tributary that led toward the narrow neck.

Deliverance from Bondage (Mosiah 23,24)

Ammon comes from Zarahemla and discovers the people of Limhi. He knows the way back and helps them plan an escape. Instead of going down into the valley, they go around in the wilderness and then turn toward Zarahemla. In Mosiah 22:11 we read:

they went round about the land of Shilom in the wilderness, and bent their course towards the land of Zarahemla, being led by Ammon and his brethren.

The Lamanites follow them but get lost in the wilderness. While in the wilderness, they discover the city of Amulon. Then they discover the city of Helam, where Alma and his people are living. The Lamanites put Amulon in charge of Helam. But God delivers Alma’s people from bondage and they escape. After stopping in a valley, they make their way down to Zarahemla.

The Dissension of the Amlicites (Alma 2)

Amlici, a Nephite, wants to be king. He gathers a group of followers who fight against the other Nephites.

The Amlicites first gather at a hill that is east of the river Sidon. Alma and the Nephite army contends with them, driving them east toward Gideon. Alma makes camp in the valley of Gideon, while the Amlicites continue up into the mountains. Alma’s spies report that the Amlicites have joined with the Lamanites in the land of Minon (which is above Gideon, in the direction of the land of Nephi) and the Lamanites are coming down to attack. Alma takes his army back toward Zarahemla, and they end up fighting the Lamanites at the river Sidon. They drive the Lamanites and Amlicites toward the north and west into the wilderness known as Hermounts.

Alma Goes Out to Preach (Alma 6-15)

Alma decides that he needs to teach the people the word of God, so he goes out to preach. He preaches first in his home city, Zarahemla, then he goes east to Gideon. After that, he comes back to Zarahemla. Then he goes west to Melek. Following this, he takes a three day journey north to the city of Ammonihah. The people there are very wicked. It is likely that they have been influenced by descendants of the priests of Noah. After preaching in Ammonihah, Alma goes to Sidom.

Zoram Frees Captive Nephites (Alma 16)

The city of Ammonihah is attacked and destroyed by the Lamanites. Later we learn that this is due to some internal conflicts among the Lamanites related to the mass conversion of the people of King Lamoni and his father. The Lamanites take some Nephite captives into the wilderness. Alma uses the spirit of prophecy to predict which way the Lamanites will travel. Zoram, the leader of the Nephite armies, intercepts the Lamanites in the south by the head of the river Sidon, successfully freeing the captives.

The Sons of Mosiah Preach Among the Lamanites (Alma 17-22)

The sons of Mosiah, which include Ammon and Aaron, decide to go preach to the Lamanites. Ammon goes first to Ishmael where he is successful in converting King Lamoni. Aaron goes first to Jerusalem, where the people are not receptive. (The influence of the Amulonites is probably stronger in the northern areas.) Aaron goes to Middoni where he is imprisoned. Ammon and Lamoni go to Middoni and free Aaron and his companions. Later, Aaron goes to the city of Nephi and converts Lamoni’s father.

Nephite and Lamanite Lands (Alma 22)

Mormon breaks from the narrative to give us an overview of Nephite and Lamanite lands. This is so we can understand what happened when the Lamanites converted. In Alma 22:27 we read:

[Lamanite land] was divided from the land of Zarahemla by a narrow strip of wilderness, which ran from the sea east even to the sea west, and round about on the borders of the seashore, and the borders of the wilderness which was on the north by the land of Zarahemla, through the borders of Manti, by the head of the river Sidon, running from the east towards the west—and thus were the Lamanites and the Nephites divided.

On the map above, I put numbers which correspond to the text in this verse:

1. round about on the borders of the seashore,

2. and the borders of the wilderness which was on the north by the land of Zarahemla,

3. through the borders of Manti,

4. by the head of the river Sidon,

Converted and Unconverted Lamanites/Amulonites (Alma 23-24)

Mormon tells us which Lamanite cities converted and which didn’t. He mentions that Amulon, Helam, and Jerusalem did not convert. This suggests that the influence of the Amulonites was strong in these areas. This is significant because it is likely that Ammonihah was close to this Amulonite-infested area.

Amulonites Hunted (Alma 25)

In fulfillment of Abinadi’s prophecies, the descendants of the priests of Noah are hunted. After the attack on Ammonihah, the Nephites have many battles with the Lamanites in which most of the Amulonites are destroyed. Also, on the east side of the land, the Lamanites hunt the Amulonites and push them into the east wilderness.

Anti-Nephi-Lehites Move to Jershon (Alma 27)

The converted Lamanites gather to the land of Nephi. There they are surrounded by hostile Lamanites and Amulonites, so they seek refuge elsewhere. The Nephites give them the land of Jershon, which is described as being on the east (meaning near the east sea) and south of the land of Bountiful.

Zoramite Dissension (Alma 31-43)

A group of Nephite dissenters known as the Zoramites has settled in the land of Antionum. Antionum is east of Zarahemla, near the east sea, and south of Jershon, bordering on the south wilderness.

You may notice that the location where I placed Antionum on the map is an area that I previously designated as Lamanite territory. Because of the recent conversion of the Lamanites, the Zoramites perhaps felt comfortable venturing out this way. But Alma was very concerned about this. Alma 31:4 reads:

Now the Nephites greatly feared that the Zoramites would enter into a correspondence with the Lamanites, and that it would be the means of great loss on the part of the Nephites.

So Alma takes his sons and preaches to the Zoramites. They have some success among the poor, but not among the main body of people. Later on the Zoramites join with the Lamanites, who gather to the land of Antionum. The Lamanites have an intense hatred for the Anti-Nephi-Lehites, and they go out to the land of Jershon to attack.

The people of Ammon flee from Jershon to Melek. When the Lamanites get to Jershon, the young Captain Moroni is ready to meet them. Instead of fighting, the Lamanites go south toward the head of the river Sidon to take the land of Manti.

Moroni Defeats Zerahemnah (Alma 43)

In Manti, the Nephites are prepared to meet the Lamanites. Moroni takes part of the Nephite armies south of Manti. He then divides the forces into two. Lehi takes some of the men to the east of the river Sidon and hides them on the east and south of the hill Riplah. Moroni and his men hide on the west side of the river. The Lamanites come from the northeast and start to cross the river. Lehi’s men attack them from their rear, pushing them into the river. When the Lamanites get to the other side, Moroni’s men come out to meet them on the west. The Lamanites surrender.

Moroni Fortifies the Land (Alma 48-50)

After the close call in Jershon, Moroni realizes that the northern lands are vulnerable. So he fortifies the land by building new cities in the east and north. He also fortifies the cities of Ammonihah and Noah. In addition, new cities are built in the south (not shown).

New Boundaries (Alma 50)

Moroni pushes the Lamanites out of the eastern lands to make way for new Nephite cities. This straightens out the previously rounded border. Alma 50:8 reads:

And the land of Nephi did run in a straight course from the east sea to the west.

Here, the land of Nephi refers to all of Lamanite territory and not just the localized land of Nephi in the southwest.

Morianton Attempts to Flee Northward (Alma 50)

One of the new cities established in the north is Morianton, founded by a man named Morianton. The people there get into a dispute with the people of Lehi. Morianton decides that he wants to flee with his people to the land northward, but Moroni doesn’t think he should do this. So Moroni sends an army led by Teancum to stop Morianton. Teancum is not able to stop them until they get up into the narrow neck.

Amalickiah Attacks (Alma 51)

Meanwhile, Moroni is dealing with some serious internal issues in Zarahemla. Amalickiah, a Nephite dissenter who has become king of the Lamanites, takes advantage of the Nephites’ vulnerability and attacks, starting with Moroni and conquering all the new cities that Moroni worked so hard to establish. Teancum, having just finished stopping Morianton, meets Amalickiah in battle between Bountiful and Mulek. At night, Teancum sneaks into the Lamanite camp and kills Amalickiah.

Moroni Comes to the Aid of Teancum (Alma 52)

At first, Moroni is tied up with problems at Zarahemla and cannot come to the aid of Teancum. He sets up armies in the south, takes care of business, then heads up to Bountiful to help Teancum. Together, they go try to retake the city of Mulek.

Moroni and Teancum Retake Mulek (Alma 52)

To retake Mulek, Teancum takes a small force down by the seashore, drawing the Lamanite force out. The Lamanites chase them down to the sea toward the north. Then Teancum turns and heads toward the city of Bountiful. Meanwhile, Moroni’s force approaches from the west and takes the city of Mulek. The Lamanites chase Teancum’s army all the way to Bountiful, where they are met by Lehi’s army. The Lamanites flee back to Mulek, but encounter Moroni’s army. Then they surrender.

Moroni Waits for Aid (Alma 53-55)

Moroni, along with Lehi and Teancum are able to retake Gid (and presumably Omner). They would like to retake the city of Morianton, but the Lamanites are too strong. They need more men. At this point, Moroni receives a letter from Helaman who is fighting in the south. Helaman has had success in retaking lands, but needs men to retain those lands. Moroni wonders why more help isn’t being sent from Zarahemla. He writes an angry letter to Pahoran, the chief judge.

Stripling Warriors Head to Judea (Alma 56)

Helaman’s army of 2,000 converted teenage Lamanites heads south to Judea to help the other Nephite army led by Antipus.

Stripling Warriors Help Defeat Lamanites (Alma 56)

Helaman’s army marches by the city of Antiparah, occupied by Lamanites, as if they are delivering supplies to cities by the west coast. This draws the Lamanite armies out. They go straight north, being pursued by the Lamanites. After some time, the Lamanites stop, having turned to fight Antipus’ army on the south. Helaman’s stripling warriors turn around and fight the Lamanites from the north. Miraculously, none of Helaman’s young fighters are killed.

Helaman Retakes Antiparah and Cumeni (Alma 57)

After this first victory, the Nephites are able to retake Antiparah and Cumeni. They attempt to transport large numbers of Lamanite prisoners back to Zarahemla, but the prisoners revolt. Many are killed and the rest escape into the wilderness. Cumeni is attacked, but the Nephites manage to retain it.

Helaman, Teomner, and Gid Retake Manti (Alma 58)

The last city the Nephites need to retake in the south is Manti. Helaman’s army approaches the city of Manti, but Teomner and Gid have forces hidden in the wilderness. Helaman draws the Lamanite forces out towards the wilderness, and after this Gid and Teomner go to Manti and retake it. Helaman’s army starts to turn toward the land of Zarahemla.

The Lamanites, in pursuit of Helaman’s army, realize that they are turning toward Zarahemla. They stop and retreat the way they came, toward the city of Manti. The stripling warriors go around a different way. They march during the night instead of sleeping, thus arriving back at Manti before the Lamanites. The Lamanites, finding Manti retaken, flee into the wilderness.

Moroni, Lehi, and Teancum Retake Northeastern Cities (Alma 61-62)

Moroni receives a letter from Pahoran explaining that Zarahemla has been taken over by dissenters. Moroni leaves Lehi and Teancum in charge of the armies in the north and heads over to the land of Gideon, where Pahoran has fled to. There, Moroni raises the standard of liberty and gathers followers. Then he goes to Zarahemla and retakes the city. After this, he takes an army and retakes the city of Nephihah. From there he goes to retake the city of Lehi. At this point he meets up with Lehi and Teancum. Together, they go from city to city, retaking the lands and pushing the Lamanites east in the land of Moroni. Finally, the Lamanites are cornered.

Alma 62:33-34:

And the armies of the Lamanites were all gathered together, insomuch that they were all in one body in the land of Moroni…Moroni and Lehi and Teancum did encamp with their armies round about in the borders of the land of Moroni, insomuch that the Lamanites were encircled about in the borders by the wilderness on the south, and in the borders by the wilderness on the east.

Northward Expansion (Alma 63, Helaman 3)

After all these battles, many of the Nephites realize that the land southward is not safe. So they begin to head north. Some people go with Hagoth and take ships. Others presumably go by land. This migration happens in several phases.

Coriantumr Takes Zarahemla (Helaman 1)

The Lamanites, led by Coriantumr, march straight into Zarahemla and take the city. Feeling confident, Coriantumr proceeds straight over to Bountiful to take the land northward. But he is met by Lehi and is defeated.

This event likely accelerated the northward migration of the Nephites and righteous Lamanites.

Lamanites Take Land Southward (Helaman 4)

In the 56th year of the reign of the judges, dissenters go up to the Lamanites. They end up taking over all the land southward. The Nephites are pushed up to the borders of the land Desolation. After this loss, the Nephites do manage to retake half their lands, but not more.

Nephi and Lehi Preach in Land Southward (Helaman 5)

Helaman’s sons Nephi and Lehi decide to preach to the people. They start in Bountiful and then go to Gid and Mulek. After this they preach in other cities around Zarahemla. Finally they go into the land of Nephi, where a marvelous spiritual experience takes place. Because of this experience, most of the people are converted. For some time, the people live in peace.

The People Gather Together (3 Nephi 3)

After the period of peace, robbers start to infest the land. The robbers hide up in the mountains and pilfer from the people in the lowlands. Things get really bad. To protect themselves from the robbers who threaten to annihilate them, the people gather themselves together in the land of Zarahemla, and in the land of Bountiful, up to the land of Desolation. The robbers come down to battle and are defeated. After this victory, the people return to their lands.

Mormon Visits Zarahemla (Mormon 1)

After Christ’s visit to the people in the city of Bountiful, the people have centuries of peace. But after 300 years or so, the people start to become wicked again. The prophet Mormon lived during a time when most of the people were wicked. He was born in the land northward, but when he was a child his father took him to the land of Zarahemla.

When Mormon was 15, he was made captain of the Nephite armies. Mormon was too modest to write about this, but his appointment was likely due to his reputation of having the spirit of prophesy (see 3 Nephi 3:19). Mormon seemed reluctant to lead the armies and he didn’t have much respect for the people.

First Northward Retreat (Mormon 2)

The Nephites, led by Mormon, are pushed northward from city to city until they reach the city of Shem. This path was likely along the west coast. Mormon explains that the land of Jashon is near the place where all the Nephite records were kept.

Nephites Retake Lands (Mormon 2)

After this defeat, the Nephites manage to retake a lot of their lands. They push the Lamanites back to the land of Bountiful. They make an unsuccessful attempt to reclaim the land southward.

Final Retreat (Mormon 4-6)

The Nephites and Lamanites have several battles around the cities of Desolation and Teancum. But then they are again pushed north, to David, then Boaz, then Jordan. Finally they gather to Cumorah for the last battles. The Nephites are defeated. Mormon is wounded and eventually killed.

We have reason to believe that Cumorah is near the east coast. This evidence comes from the book of Ether, which indicates that the hill Cumorah is the same hill known by the Jaredites as Ramah. The description near the end of the book of Ether suggests that Ramah may be near the east sea.

The Records (Mormon 4,6)

When the Nephite armies retreat to Jordan, Mormon goes to the Hill Shim to retrieve the Nephite records. (Mormon had previously mentioned that Shim is near Jashon.) Between the time that the Nephites retreat to Jordan and the time they gather to Cumorah for the final battles, nine years pass. During this time, Mormon compiles the records into what is known today as the Book of Mormon. When the Nephites have gathered to Cumorah, Mormon deposits all the other records into the Hill Cumorah. But he gives the sacred record to Moroni for safekeeping, knowing that the Nephites are going to be destroyed. Moroni likely takes the record far away. Finding himself still alive, Moroni adds the record of the Jaredites and a few of his own words to complete the Book of Mormon.

Additional Reading

Geography Wars: Toward a Reconciliation – the debate over the Mesoamerican model and the “Heartland” theory

Deforestation and Drought in the Land Northward

Narrow Necks, Shadow Warriors, and the Cocoa Connection