Question: Who is in charge of redrawing congressional and legislative districts?

In 28 states, the responsibility for redrawing congressional and legislative districts primarily falls on the state legislature, often requiring approval from the state governor. To minimize political influence, twelve states (Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington) have established independent or bipartisan redistricting commissions to handle congressional redistricting. Five states—Maine, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia—empower independent bodies to propose redistricting plans, while still allowing the legislature to have the final say. Arkansas uses a commission comprising its governor, attorney general, and secretary of state for redistricting. Seven states, due to their small populations (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming), have only one representative each and thus do not require complex redistricting processes.

In early 2012, Rangel was beset by a back injury and a serious viral infection, and was away from Congress for three months.[178] Moreover, he had been redistricted into New York's 13th congressional district following the 2010 census; it included new geographic areas and its makeup was now 55 percent Hispanic compared to 27 percent African American.[57] As a result, Rangel faced a serious primary challenge from State Senator Adriano Espaillat.[178] Rangel struggled with fundraising, and he began receiving contributions from fellow members of Congress whom he had helped over the years.[179] In the June 26 primary, Rangel defeated Espaillat by less than a thousand votes, in a result that took two weeks to be fully resolved.[180] He won the subsequent November general election easily.[181]

Judicial councils are panels in each circuit that are charged with making "necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and expeditious administration of justice" within their circuits.[9][10] Among their responsibilities is judicial discipline, the formulation of circuit policy, the implementation of policy directives received from the Judicial Conference of the United States, and the annual submission of a report to the Administrative Office of the United States Courts on the number and nature of orders entered during the year that relate to judicial misconduct.[9][11] Judicial councils consist of the chief judge of the circuit and an equal number of circuit judges and district judges of the circuit.[9][12]

Following the 1910 census, Alabama was apportioned ten seats. At first, the extra seat was elected at-large. Starting with the 1916 elections, the seats were redistricted and a tenth district was added.

Before the population of a territory reached 5,000, there would be a limited form of government. There would be a governor, a secretary, and three judges, all appointed by Congress. The governor will have a "freehold estate therein, in one thousand acres of land,". The secretary and the judges will have a, "freehold estate therein, in five hundred acres of land". The governor would be commander-in-chief of the militia, appoint magistrates and other civil officers, and help create and publish laws as they see fit for their territory. They would have a three-year term. The secretary would be in charge of keeping and preserving the acts and laws passed by the territorial legislatures, the public records of the district and to transit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings every six months to the secretary of the Continental Congress. They would have a four-year term. The judges would be in charge will help the governor create and pass acts and laws and in making official court rulings. Their terms did not have a set time period. As soon as the population of a territory reached 5000 free, male inhabitants, then they would receive authority to elect representatives from their counties or townships for the general assembly. For every 500 free, males there would be one representative, until there were 25 representatives. Then the Congress will control the number and proportion of the representatives from that legislature. No male can be a representative unless they have been a citizen of the United States for at least three years or lived in the district for three years. In both cases the male in question would have to own at least 200 acres of land within the same district. These representatives shall serve for a term of two years. If a representative died or was removed from office, a new one would be elected to serve out the remainder time.

The Texas House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Texas Legislature. It consists of 150 members who are elected from single-member districts for a term of 2 years. As of the 2010 Census, each member represents an average of 167,637 people. There are no term limits, with the most senior member, Tom Craddick, having been elected in 1968.

The Constitution vests in the governor all the executive powers of the state government. The governor appoints the chief minister, who enjoys the support of the majority in the Legislative Assembly. The governor also appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers and distributes portfolios to them on the advice of the chief minister.

Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.

The United States Census is a decennial census mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution, which states: "Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States ... according to their respective Numbers ... . The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years."[1][2] Section 2 of the 14th Amendment states: "Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed." The United States Census Bureau (officially the Bureau of the Census, as defined in Title 13 U.S.C. ยง 11) is responsible for the United States Census. The Bureau of the Census is part of the United States Department of Commerce.[3]

State legislatures have used gerrymandering along racial or ethnic lines both to decrease and increase minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations. In the state of Ohio, a conversation between Republican officials was recorded that demonstrated that redistricting was being done to aid their political candidates. Furthermore, the discussions assessed race of voters as a factor in redistricting, because African-Americans had backed Democratic candidates. Republicans apparently removed approximately 13,000 African-American voters from the district of Jim Raussen, a Republican candidate for the House of Representatives, in an attempt to tip the scales in what was once a competitive district for Democratic candidates.[5]

The One Hundred Twelfth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, from January 3, 2011, until January 3, 2013. It convened in Washington, D.C. on January 3, 2011, and ended on January 3, 2013, 17 days before the end of the presidential term to which Barack Obama was elected in 2008. Senators elected to regular terms in 2006 completed those terms in this Congress. This Congress included the last House of Representatives elected from congressional districts that were apportioned based on the 2000 census.


Question: When was Nepal declared a secular state in the Bikram Sambat calendar?

Nepal's transition to a secular state occurred under the Interim Constitution, which took effect on January 15, 2007. This constitution guarantees the freedom to practice one's religion but prohibits the conversion of others. Prior to this, the 1990 constitution, which was in force until January 15, 2007, referred to Nepal as a "Hindu Kingdom," although Hinduism was not officially recognized as the state religion. The government typically did not interfere with the activities of other religious groups, and there was a general atmosphere of religious tolerance, albeit with certain limitations.

However, on 14 December 2012, Hinduism, along with Buddhism, was recognised and given freedom as a religion not conflicting with the Italian Law, as per Article 8 of the Italian constitution. The move has been hailed as a new milestone for religious freedom and equality between religions.[269]

The Plan of Iguala, also known as The Plan of the Three Guarantees ("Plan Trigarante"), was a revolutionary proclamation promulgated on 24 February 1821, in the final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain. The Plan stated that Mexico was to become a constitutional monarchy, whose sole official religion would be Roman Catholicism, in which the Peninsulares and Creoles of Mexico would enjoy equal political and social rights.[2] It took its name from the city of Iguala in the modern-day state of Guerrero.

A conflict between the Nepalese government forces and the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN- Maoist) occurred between 1996 and 2006, resulting in an increase in human rights abuses throughout the country. Both sides have been accused of torture, unlawful killings, arbitrary arrests, and abductions. Nepal was home to the most disappearances in the world during the conflict.The conflict also is considered as one of major reasons for lack of development in Nepal.

In contrast to prior governments, which emphasised divisions of caste and religion, Nitish Kumar's manifesto was based on economic development, curbs on crime and corruption and greater social equality for all sections of society. Since 2010, the government has confiscated the properties of corrupt officials and redeployed them as schools buildings.[88] Simultaneously they introduced Bihar Special Court Act to curb crime.[89] It has also legislated for a two-hour break on Fridays, including lunch, to enable Muslim employees to pray and thus cut down on post-lunch absenteeism by them.[90] The government has prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol in the state since March 2016;[91] this ban has been linked to a drop in tourism to Bihar.[92]

India and Pakistan acquired independence in 1947, but Governors-General continued to be appointed over each nation until republican constitutions were written. Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma remained Governor-General of India for some time after independence, but the two nations were otherwise headed by native Governors-General. India became a secular republic in 1950; Pakistan became an Islamic one in 1956.

In 1928, the ruling Kuomintang party in China decreed that Chinese New Year will fall on 1 Jan of the Gregorian Calendar, but this was abandoned due to overwhelming opposition from the populace. In 1967 during the Cultural Revolution, official Chinese New Year celebrations were banned in China. The State Council of the People's Republic of China announced that the public should  "Change Customs", have a "revolutionized and fighting Spring Festival", and since people needed to work on Chinese New Year Eve, they didn't have holidays during Spring Festival day. The public celebrations were reinstated by the time of the Chinese economic reform.[51]

Venda was declared self-governing on 1 February 1973,[4] with elections held later in the year.[5] Further elections were held in July 1978.[5] The territory was declared independent by the South African government on 13 September 1979 and its residents lost their South African citizenship.[6][7] In common with other Bantustans, its independence was not recognized by the international community.

In 2003, with the thawing of Sino-Indian relations, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's visit to China led to the resumption of talks on opening the border. Later in 2004, the Indian Defence Minister's visit to China led to the formal opening of the pass. The opening, originally scheduled for 2 October 2005, was postponed due to last-minute infrastructure problems on the Chinese side. Finally, after a decade of talks, Nathu La was opened on 6 July 2006.[11] The date of the reopening, which also formally recognised Tibet as part of China by India and Sikkim's accession to India,[7] coincided with the birthday of the reigning Dalai Lama.[7] In the years before the reopening, the only person permitted to cross the barbed-wire frontier had been a Chinese postman with an Indian military escort, who would hand over mail to his Indian counterpart in a building at the border.

The Spanish arrival and colonization brought Roman Catholicism to the country, which became the main religion of Mexico. Mexico is a secular state, and the Constitution of 1917 and anti-clerical laws imposed limitations on the church and sometimes codified state intrusion into church matters. The government does not provide any financial contributions to the church, and the church does not participate in public education.

In the early 1990s, a few years after the end of the Zia dictatorship, the passport changed again. The green became slightly lighter in colour, and the English words 'Islamic Republic of Pakistan' were once again pushed up and the Urdu ones pushed down. The Arabic text was removed, but the section noting the holder's faith remained and so did the declaration denouncing the Ahmadiyya community. This version of the passport has remained as is till this day, even though the Pervez Musharraf regime (1999-2008) attempted to replace the words 'Islamic Republic of Pakistan' with the old 'Republic of Pakistan'. But the attempt failed due to protests by religious parties. After 9/11, and the rise of religious militancy in Pakistan, more and more countries stopped providing on-arrival-visa facilities to Pakistanis. Pakistanis now require a pre-arrival visa for China as well. According to a 2016 Henley and Partners Visa Restrictions Report, the Pakistani passport's value has been rapidly diminishing in the last two decades and it is now one of the least valuable passports in the world.[14]


Question: Who assumed control of Jamestown and established new rules that required everyone to work?

In 1609, John Smith established a strict work ethic in Jamestown, enforcing the principle that "he who does not work, neither shall he eat." This rule was implemented to ensure that all colonists contributed to the community's survival and productivity.

**Question**: what is the difference between a stock and a bond

**Documents**: Stocks vs. Bonds
Stocks and bonds are both securities, but the major difference between the two is that stockholders have an ownership stake in the company (i.e., they are equity owners), whereas bondholders have a creditor stake in the company (i.e., they are lenders). Another difference is that bonds usually have a defined term, or maturity date, at which the full amount borrowed from the bond issuer must be repaid, whereas stocks may be outstanding indefinitely.

**Similar Documents**: Equity vs. Debt
While both stocks and bonds are financial securities, they differ significantly in terms of ownership and repayment. Stockholders are considered equity owners, holding a portion of the company's ownership, whereas bondholders are creditors who lend money to the company. Unlike stocks, which can remain outstanding indefinitely, bonds have a fixed maturity date at which the principal must be repaid.

In the mid-1760s, a survey team divided the Island into 67 lots. On July 1, 1767, these properties were allocated to supporters of King George III by means of a lottery. Ownership of the land remained in the hands of landlords in England, angering Island settlers who were unable to gain title to land on which they worked and lived. Significant rent charges (to absentee landlords) created further anger. The land had been given to the absentee landlords with a number of conditions attached regarding upkeep and settlement terms; many of these conditions were not satisfied. Islanders spent decades trying to convince the Crown to confiscate the lots, however the descendants of the original owners were generally well connected to the British government and refused to give up the land.

Due to the high cost of the trans-atlantic voyage at this time, many English settlers came to Jamestown as indentured servants: in exchange for the passage, room, board, and the promise of land or money, these immigrants would agree to work for three to seven years. Immigrants from continental Europe, mainly Germans, were usually redemptionersâ€”they purchased some portion of their voyage on credit and, upon arrival, borrowed or entered into a work contract to pay the remainder of their voyage costs.[49] Along with European indentured servants, around 20 African slaves arrived in Jamestown in 1619. These slaves were captives taken from a ship headed for Mexico. Though these Africans started in Jamestown as slaves, some were able to obtain the status of indentured servant later in life.

The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat of the forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of the hill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and military skill", was so effective that most of the wounded were saved;[66] most of the prisoners taken by the British were mortally wounded.[66] General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 p.m., the colonists had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.[67]

Jamestown Settlement is a living-history park and museum located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) from the original location of the colony and adjacent to Jamestown Island. Initially created for the celebration of the 350th anniversary in 1957, Jamestown Settlement is operated by the Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation, and largely sponsored by the Commonwealth of Virginia. The museum complex features a reconstruction of a Powhatan village, the James Fort as it was c. 1610–1614, and replicas of the three ships that brought the first settlers, Susan Constant, Godspeed, Discovery.

The site gained renewed importance when in 1996 the Jamestown Rediscovery project began excavations in search of the original James Fort site, originally in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown's founding. The primary goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of "the first years of settlement at Jamestown, especially of the earliest fortified town; [and the] subsequent growth and development of the town".[64]

In 1665, Louis XIV sent a French garrison, the Carignan-Salières Regiment, to Quebec. The government of the colony was reformed along the lines of the government of France, with the Governor General and Intendant subordinate to the Minister of the Marine in France. In 1665, Jean Talon was sent by Minister of the Marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert to New France as the first Intendant. These reforms limited the power of the Bishop of Quebec, who had held the greatest amount of power after the death of Champlain.

The non-separatist Puritans constituted a much larger group than the Pilgrims, and they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies. During the 17th century, the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut.[48]

Trade and business had completely dried up, and the streets were empty of people except for the dead-carts and the desperate dying victims, as witnessed and recorded by Samuel Pepys in his diary: " Lord! How empty the streets are and how melancholy, so many poor sick people in the streets full of soresâ€¦ in Westminster, there is never a physician and but one apothecary left, all being dead." [45] That people did not starve was down to the foresight of Sir John Lawrence and the Corporation of London who arranged for a commission of one farthing to be paid above the normal price for every quarter of corn landed in the Port of London.[46] Another food source was the villages around London which, denied of their usual sales in the capital, left vegetables in specified market areas, negotiated their sale by shouting, and collected their payment after the money had been left submerged in a bucket of water to "disinfect" the coins.[46]

The Jamestown settlers arrived in Virginia during a severe drought, according to a research study conducted by the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment (JAA) team in the 1990s. The JAA analyzed information from a study conducted in 1985 by David Stahle and others, who obtained borings of 800 year-old baldcypress trees along the Nottoway and Blackwater rivers. The lifespan of these trees is up to 1,000 years and their rings offer a good indication of an area’s annual amount of rainfall. The borings revealed that the worst drought in 700 years occurred between 1606 and 1612. This severe drought affected the Jamestown colonist and Powhatan tribe’s ability to produce food and obtain a safe supply of water.[21]

Edward Winslow (18 October 1595 – 8 May 1655) was a Separatist who traveled on the Mayflower in 1620. He was one of several senior leaders on the ship and also later at Plymouth Colony. Both Edward Winslow and his brother, Gilbert Winslow signed the Mayflower Compact. In Plymouth he served in a number of governmental positions such as assistant governor, three times was governor and also was the colony's agent in London.[2] In early 1621 he had been one of several key leaders on whom Governor Bradford depended after the death of John Carver. He was the author of several important pamphlets, including Good Newes from New England and co-wrote with William Bradford the historic Mourt's Relation, which ends with an account of the First Thanksgiving and the abundance of the New World. In 1655 he died of fever while on a British naval expedition in the Caribbean against the Spanish. He is the only Plymouth colonist with an extant portrait, and this can be seen at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Massachusetts.


Question: What U.S. state forms the western boundary of Montana?

Montana shares its western boundary with Idaho, which lies to its west and southwest. As one of the Mountain States in the northern part of the Western United States, Montana also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and three Canadian provinces to the north.

Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada.

From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River:

Other major Montana tributaries of the Missouri include the Smith,[81] Milk,[82] Marias,[83] Judith,[84] and Musselshell Rivers.[85] Montana also claims the disputed title of possessing the world's shortest river, the Roe River, just outside Great Falls.[86] Through the Missouri, these rivers ultimately join the Mississippi River and flow into the Gulf of Mexico.[87]

The wolves in Yellowstone and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem fall within this population. In response to the change in status, state wildlife authorities in Idaho and Montana enacted quota-based hunting seasons on wolves as part of their approved state Wolf Management Plans. Environmental groups objected to the delisting and the hunting seasons, but despite legal attempts to stop them (Defenders of Wildlife et al v Ken Salazar et al), the wolf hunts, which commenced in Montana in September 2009 were allowed to proceed. A number of noted wildlife biologists that had been instrumental in the restoration of wolvesâ€”David Mech,[38] Douglas Smith,[39] and Mark Hebblewhite [40] supported the state wildlife management plans and the delisting because they believed the wolf populations were now at sustainable levels.

The modern boundary between Wales and England runs from the salt marshes of the Dee estuary adjoining the Wirral Peninsula, across reclaimed land to the River Dee at Saltney just west of Chester. It then loops south to include within England an area southwest of Chester, before rejoining the Dee, and then loops east of the river to include within Wales a large area known as Maelor, formerly an exclave of Flintshire, between Bangor-on-Dee (in Wales) and Whitchurch (in England). Returning to the River Dee as far as Chirk, the boundary then loops to the west, following Offa's Dyke itself for about 2 miles (3 km), and including within England the town of Oswestry, before reaching the River Vyrnwy at Llanymynech. It follows the Vyrnwy to its confluence with the River Severn, and then continues southwards, rising over Long Mountain east of Welshpool. East of Montgomery, the boundary again follows the line of Offa's Dyke for about 2 miles (3 km), before looping eastwards to include within Wales a large area near Churchstoke. It then runs westwards to the River Teme, and follows the river southeastwards through Knighton before turning south towards the River Lugg at Presteigne, which is within Wales.

When John Quincy Adams became Secretary of State in 1817, one of his highest priorities was to negotiate the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase with Spain. He negotiated with the Spanish Minister to the United States, Luis de Onis, and finally concluded Adams–Onis Treaty, also known as the Treaty of 1819. The treaty defined the south bank of the river as the boundary between the United States and Spain. That boundary continued to be recognized when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, then again when Texas became independent from Mexico. It remained so [9] until the United States Congress consented to the Red River Boundary Compact adopted by the states of Oklahoma and Texas, which set the jurisdictional boundary between Texas and Oklahoma at the vegetation line on the south bank, but left title of adjacent property owners at the south bank.

The Oregon Country was a predominantly American term referring to a disputed region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. The region was occupied by British and French Canadian fur traders from before 1810, and American settlers from the mid-1830s, with its coastal areas north from the Columbia River frequented by ships from all nations engaged in the maritime fur trade, most of these from the 1790s through 1810s being Boston-based. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ended disputed joint occupancy pursuant to the Treaty of 1818 and established the British-American boundary at the 49th parallel (except Vancouver Island).[citation needed]

For some northbound travelers on I-15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted "we ... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard."[122]

The region does not have specific boundaries, but is generally considered to include the 71 miles (114 km) segment of California State Route 1 from Malpaso Creek near Carmel Highlands south to San Carpóforo Creek near San Simeon and the entire Santa Lucia range between the rivers.[5] The interior region is uninhabited, while the coast remains relatively isolated and sparsely populated with about 1,000 year-round residents and relatively few visitor accommodations scattered among four small settlements. When the region was ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848, it was the United States' "last frontier."[7] The region remained one of the most isolated areas of California and the United States until, after 18 years of construction, the Carmel–San Simeon Highway (now signed as part of State Route 1) was completed in 1937. The winding, narrow road, often cut into the face of seaside cliffs, dominates the visitor's experience of Big Sur. The highway has been closed more than 55 times by slides, and in May 2017, a 2 million cubic foot landslide blocked the highway at Mud Creek, north of Salmon Creek near the San Luis Obispo border, to just south of Gorda. The road is expected to be reopened in June 2018.

Independent state agencies, not located within a department or office, include the Montana Arts Council, Montana Board of Crime Control, Montana Historical Society, Montana Public Employees Retirement Administration, Commissioner of Political Practices, the Montana Lottery, Office of the State Public Defender, Public Service Commission, the Montana School for the Deaf and Blind, the Montana State Fund (which operates the state's unemployment insurance, worker compensation, and self-insurance operations), the Montana State Library, and the Montana Teachers Retirement System.


Question: Summary of the "I Have a Dream" speech?

In his "I Have a Dream" speech, Martin Luther King Jr. began by referencing the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves in 1863, yet noted that a century later, African Americans still faced oppression. Inspired by Mahalia Jackson's call to "Tell them about the dream, Martin!", King departed from his script to passionately articulate his vision of a future where freedom and equality would prevail over the legacy of slavery and hatred. This section of the speech, particularly the "I have a dream" segment, resonated deeply with the audience and has since become the most celebrated part of the speech. King's words have been recognized as transformative, placing him alongside Jefferson and Lincoln as a shaper of modern America. In fact, a 1999 poll of public address scholars ranked his "I Have a Dream" speech as the most influential American speech of the 20th century.

On the first day of classes, they are surprised by the unorthodox teaching methods of the new English teacher John Keating, a Welton alumnus who encourages his students to "make your lives extraordinary", a sentiment he summarizes with the Latin expression carpe diem. Subsequent lessons include having them take turns standing on his desk to teach the boys how they must look at life in a different way, telling them to rip out the introduction of their poetry books which explains a mathematical formula used for rating poetry, and inviting them to make up their own style of walking in a courtyard to encourage them to be individuals. His methods attract the attention of strict headmaster Gale Nolan.

The song's title was originally a popular slogan among the 1960s Black Power movements in the United States.[1] Its lyrics either mention or allude to several television series, advertising slogans and icons of entertainment and news coverage that serve as examples of what "the revolution will not" be or do. The song is a response to the spoken word piece "When the Revolution Comes" by The Last Poets, from their eponymous debut, which opens with the line "When the revolution comes some of us will probably catch it on TV".[2]

In his review for Empire, Simon Braund summarized the political motives in the film viewed as a legal thriller stating, "It (Roman's idealism) illustrates succinctly how at odds with the modern world Roman Israel is. A brilliant legal mind, trapped in the body of a twitchy social misfit, he has all the hallmarks of a true genius-savant — the interpersonal skills of a yeast cell, dress sense of an Open University lecturer circa 1973 and an unshakeable conviction that justice for the poor and dispossessed is a cause worth fighting for. To this deeply unfashionable end, he’s spent decades toiling in the shadows at a tiny law firm, making trouble for The Man while compiling a vast, unwieldy brief he hopes will, one day, set the American legal system on its ear".[25]

In the first decade of the new century, Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race, second only to Booker T. Washington.[48] Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, and wielded tremendous influence within the African-American and white communities.[49] Washington was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise, an unwritten deal he struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction. Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks, who overwhelmingly lived in rural communities, would submit to the current discrimination, segregation, disenfranchisement, and non-unionized employment; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education, some economic opportunities, and justice within the legal system; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities.[50]

"Given the context of drama and tension in which it was situated", King's speech can be classified as a dynamic spectacle.[40] A dynamic spectacle is dependent on the situation in which it is used. It can be considered a dynamic spectacle because it happened at the correct time and place: during the Civil Rights Movement and the March on Washington.

Three and half millions have quietly, orderly, soberly, peaceably but firmly asked of their rulers to do justice; and their rulers have turned a deaf ear to that protest. Three and a half millions of people have asked permission to detail their wrongs, and enforce their claims for RIGHT, and the 'House' has resolved they should not be heard! Three and a half millions of the slave-class have holden out the olive branch of peace to the enfranchised and privileged classes and sought for a firm and compact union, on the principle of EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW; and the enfranchised and privileged have refused to enter into a treaty! The same class is to be a slave class still. The mark and brand of inferiority is not to be removed. The assumption of inferiority is still to be maintained. The people are not to be free.[14]:34

In the book, Selby refers to the "American Dream" as amorphous and unattainable, a compilation of the various desires of the story's characters.

The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the western end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., across from the Washington Monument. The architect was Henry Bacon; the designer of the primary statue – Abraham Lincoln, 1920 – was Daniel Chester French; the Lincoln statue was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers;[2] and the painter of the interior murals was Jules Guerin. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several monuments built to honor an American president. It has always been a major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations.

On February 2, 1948 President Truman delivered a special message to Congress. It consisted of ten objectives that Congress should focus on when enacting legislation. Truman concluded by saying, "If we wish to inspire the peoples of the world whose freedom is in jeopardy, if we wish to restore hope to those who have already lost their civil liberties, if we wish to fulfill the promise that is ours, we must correct the remaining imperfections in our practice of democracy."[29]

Several songs and scenes from the show address racial issues.[61] "Colored Spade", which introduces the character Hud, a militant black male, is a long list of racial slurs ("jungle bunny... little black sambo") topped off with the declaration that Hud is the "president of the United States of love".[64] At the end of his song, he tells the tribe that the "boogie man" will get them, as the tribe pretends to be frightened.[63] "Dead End", sung by black tribe members, is a list of street signs that symbolize black frustration and alienation. One of the tribe's protest chants is "What do we think is really great? To bomb, lynch and segregate!"[63] "Black Boys/White Boys" is an exuberant acknowledgement of interracial sexual attraction;[65] the U.S. Supreme Court had struck down laws against the practice in 1967.[66] Another of the tribe's protest chants is "Black, white, yellow, red. Copulate in a king-sized bed."[63]


Question:
If a piece of music seems to have shifted in key, we say that the piece has

**Question**: who was the last roman emperor and how old was he when he ruled

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**Similar Question**: How many episodes are there in season 10 of The Big Bang Theory?

In music theory, when a piece of music appears to have shifted from one key to another, we say that the piece has undergone a modulation or a key change. This occurs when the pitches used in the composition deviate from the original scale and adopt a new set of pitches associated with a different scale. Modulation can serve various artistic purposes, such as enhancing the emotional impact or accommodating the vocal range of a performer. When music is transposed, all pitches are shifted up or down by the same interval, preserving the original intervallic relationships but altering the overall pitch range. For instance, moving from the key of C major to D major raises each pitch by a whole step. Although the interval relationships remain constant, the change in pitch range can significantly affect the music's character and the technical demands on the performers.

To avoid the problem of enharmonic spellings, theorists typically represent pitch classes using numbers beginning from zero, with each successively larger integer representing a pitch class that would be one semitone higher than the preceding one, if they were all realised as actual pitches in the same octave. Because octave-related pitches belong to the same class, when an octave is reached, the numbers begin again at zero. This cyclical system is referred to as modular arithmetic and, in the usual case of chromatic twelve-tone scales, pitch-class numbering is regarded as "modulo 12" (customarily abbreviated "mod 12" in the music-theory literature)â€”that is, every twelfth member is identical. One can map a pitch's fundamental frequency f (measured in hertz) to a real number p using the equation:

The drone strings produce steady sounds at fixed pitches. The melody string(s) (French chanterelle(s), Hungarian dallamhÃºr(ok)) are stopped with tangents attached to keys that change the vibration length of the string, much as a guitarist uses his or her fingers on the fretboard of a guitar. In the earliest hurdy-gurdies these keys were arranged to provide a Pythagorean temperament, but in later instruments the tunings have varied widely, with equal temperament most common because it allows easier blending with other instruments. However, because the tangents can be adjusted to tune individual notes, it is possible to tune hurdy-gurdies to almost any temperament as needed. Most contemporary hurdy-gurdies have 24 keys that cover a range of two chromatic octaves.

In the modern era, musical set theory uses the language of mathematical set theory in an elementary way to organize musical objects and describe their relationships. To analyze the structure of a piece of (typically atonal) music using musical set theory, one usually starts with a set of tones, which could form motives or chords. By applying simple operations such as transposition and inversion, one can discover deep structures in the music. Operations such as transposition and inversion are called isometries because they preserve the intervals between tones in a set. Expanding on the methods of musical set theory, some theorists have used abstract algebra to analyze music. For example, the pitch classes in an equally tempered octave form an abelian group with 12 elements. It is possible to describe just intonation in terms of a free abelian group.[98]

In music, texture is how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall quality of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices. For example, a thick texture contains many "layers" of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section, or another brass.

Ragtime is not a "time" (meter) in the same sense that march time is 2/4 meter and waltz time is 3/4 meter; it is rather a musical style that uses an effect that can be applied to any meter. The defining characteristic of ragtime music is a specific type of syncopation in which melodic accents occur between metrical beats. This results in a melody that seems to be avoiding some metrical beats of the accompaniment by emphasizing notes that either anticipate or follow the beat ("a rhythmic base of metric affirmation, and a melody of metric denial"[25]). The ultimate (and intended) effect on the listener is actually to accentuate the beat, thereby inducing the listener to move to the music. Scott Joplin, the composer/pianist known as the "King of Ragtime", called the effect "weird and intoxicating." He also used the term "swing" in describing how to play ragtime music: "Play slowly until you catch the swing...".[26] The name swing later came to be applied to an early style of jazz that developed from ragtime. Converting a non-ragtime piece of music into ragtime by changing the time values of melody notes is known as "ragging" the piece. Original ragtime pieces usually contain several distinct themes, four being the most common number. These themes were typically 16 bars, each theme divided into periods of four four-bar phrases and arranged in patterns of repeats and reprises. Typical patterns were AABBACCCâ€², AABBACCDD and AABBCCA, with the first two strains in the tonic key and the following strains in the subdominant. Sometimes rags would include introductions of four bars or bridges, between themes, of anywhere between four and 24 bars.[2]

The notes of a maqam are not tuned in equal temperament (meaning that the frequency ratios of successive pitches are not necessarily identical, unlike the chromatic scale used in modern Western music). A maqam also determines other things, such as the tonic (starting note), the ending note, and the dominant note. It also determines which notes should be emphasized and which should not.[3]

Arnold Schoenberg labeled the last of his Five Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 16, as "Das obligate Rezitativ" (English: "The obbligato recitative"), and also composed a piece for organ, Variations on a Recitative, Op. 40. Other examples of instrumental recitative in twentieth century music include the third movement of Douglas Moore's Quintet for Clarinet and Strings (1946), the first of Richard Rodney Bennett's Five Impromptus for guitar (1968), the opening section of the last movement of Benjamin Britten's String Quartet No. 3 (1975), and the second of William Bolcom's 12 New Etudes for Piano (1977â€“86).

The imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empire's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace". Following Octavian's victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in AD 41, the Senate briefly considered restoring the republic, but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead. Under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. After Claudius' successor, Nero, committed suicide in AD 68, the empire suffered a series of brief civil wars, as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea, during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor. Vespasian emerged triumphant in AD 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus, who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The Senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors. The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line.

In music, a pitch class (p.c. or pc) is a set of all pitches that are a whole number of octaves apart, e.g., the pitch class C consists of the Cs in all octaves. "The pitch class C stands for all possible Cs, in whatever octave position."[1] Important to musical set theory, a pitch class is, "all pitches related to each other by octave, enharmonic equivalence, or both."[2] Thus, using scientific pitch notation, the pitch class "C" is the set

The most frequently encountered chords are triads, so called because they consist of three distinct notes: further notes may be added to give seventh chords, extended chords, or added tone chords. The most common chords are the major and minor triads and then the augmented and diminished triads. The descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are sometimes referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also commonly classed by their root noteâ€”so, for instance, the chord C major may be described as a triad of major quality built on the note C. Chords may also be classified by inversion, the order in which the notes are stacked.


Question: Who developed the initial car air conditioning system?

Automobile air conditioning was first introduced by a company in New York City, USA, in 1933, offering installation services primarily for limousines and luxury vehicles, marking the beginning of in-car air conditioning technology.

Attempting to circumvent the patent, Glenn Curtiss and other early aviators devised ailerons to emulate lateral control described in the patent and demonstrated by the Wrights in their public flights. Soon after the historic July 4, 1908, one-kilometer flight by Curtiss in the AEA June Bug, the Wrights warned him not to infringe their patent by profiting from flying or selling aircraft that used ailerons.

By 1928, Flynn had gathered sufficient funds through fundraising activities to launch the experiment of the AMS on 15 May. Its supporters included industrialist HV McKay, medical doctor George Simpson, and Hudson Fysh, one of the founders of Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, the company which would go on to become Qantas. Qantas supplied the first aircraft to the fledgling organisation, VH-UER a De Havilland DH.50, dubbed "Victory". On 17 May 1928,[5] two days after inception, the service's first official flight piloted by Arthur Affleck departed from Cloncurry, 85 miles to Julia Creek in Central Queensland, where the plane was met by over 100 people at the airstrip. Qantas charged two shillings per mile for use of the Victory during the first year of the project.[5]

From the early days of motor bus operation by the London General Omnibus Company (LGOC) in the 1900s (decade) until the 1960s, London went its own way, designing its own vehicles specially for London use rather than using the bus manufacturers' standard products used elsewhere. The Associated Equipment Company (AEC) was created as a subsidiary of the LGOC in 1912 to build buses and other equipment for its parent company, and continued in the ownership of LGOC and its successors until 1962. Many of London's local service buses over this period were built by AEC, although other manufacturers also built buses to London designs, or modified their own designs for use in London.[4]

In Germany, the first ice skating rink opened in 1882 in Frankfurt during a patent exhibition. It covered 520mÂ² and operated for two months; the refrigeration system was designed by Linde.[4]

Four-wheel disc brakes were introduced in 1965, as was a "big block" engine option: the 396 cu in (6.49 L) V8. Side exhaust pipes were also optionally available in 1965, and continued to be offered through 1967. The introduction of the 425 bhp (317 kW) 396 cu in (6.49 L) big block in 1965 spelled the beginning of the end for the Rochester fuel injection system.[26] The 396 cu in (6.49 L) option cost US$292.70 while the fuel injected 327 cu in (5.36 L) engine cost US$538.00. Few people could justify spending US$245.00 more for 50 bhp (37 kW) less, even though FI could deliver over 20 mpg on the highway and would keep delivering fuel despite high G-loading in corners taken at racing speeds. Another rare '63 and '64 option was the Z06 competition package, which offered stiffer suspension, bigger, multi-segment lined brakes with finned drums and more, only a couple hundred coupes and ONE convertible were factory-equipped this way in 1963. With only 771 fuel-injected cars built in 1965, Chevrolet discontinued the option at the end of the '65 production, having introduced a less-expensive big block 396 engine rated at 425 hp in the middle of the production year and selling over 2,000 in just a few months. For 1966, Chevrolet introduced an even larger 427 cu in (7.00 L) Big Block version. Other options available on the C2 included the Wonderbar auto-tuning AM radio, AM-FM radio (mid-1963), air conditioning (late-1963), a telescopic steering wheel (1965), and headrests (1966). The Sting Ray's independent rear suspension was successfully adapted for the new-for-1965 Chevrolet Corvair, which solved the quirky handling problems of that unique rear-engine compact.[27]

Prest-O-Lite's CD-65, which relied on capacitance discharge (CD), appeared in 1965, and had "an unprecedented 50,000 mile warranty."[4] (This differs from the non-CD Prest-O-Lite system introduced on AMC products in 1972, and made standard equipment for the 1975 model year.)[4] A similar CD unit was available from Delco in 1966,[3] which was optional on Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and GMC vehicles in the 1967 model year.[4] Also in 1967, Motorola debuted their breakerless CD system.[4] The most famous aftermarket electronic ignition which debuted in 1965, was the Delta Mark 10 capacitive discharge ignition, which was sold assembled or as a kit.

The first flight decks were inclined wooden ramps built over the forecastle of warships. Eugene Ely made the first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship from USS Birmingham on 14 November 1910. Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher plane on a platform on Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay using the first tailhook system, designed and built by circus performer and aviator Hugh Robinson. Ely told a reporter: "It was easy enough. I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten." On 9 May 1912,[2] Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his Short S.27 off of HMS Hibernia, which was steaming at 10.5 kn (12.1 mph; 19.4 km/h). Because the take-off speed of early aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. Later, removable "flying-off platforms" appeared on the gun turrets of battleships and battlecruisers starting with HMS Repulse, allowing aircraft to be flown off for scouting purposes, although there was no chance of recovery.

SmartKeys was developed by Siemens in the mid-1990s and introduced by Mercedes-Benz in 1997 to replace the infrared security system introduced in 1989. Daimler-Benz filed the first patents for SmartKey on February 28, 1997 in German patent offices, with multifunction switchblade key variants following on May 17, 1997.[7][8][9][10] The device entailed a plastic key to be used in place of the traditional metal key.  Electronics that control locking systems and the ignitions made it possible to replace the traditional key with a sophisticated computerized "Key".  It is considered a step up from remote keyless entry.  The SmartKey adopts the remote control buttons from keyless entry, and incorporates them into the SmartKey fob.

The basic design of a passenger car was standardized by 1870. By 1900 the main car types were: baggage, coach, combine, diner, dome car, lounge, observation, private, Pullman, railroad post office (RPO) and sleeper.

In 1969 there were 859 Boss 429s made by Ford Motor Company, two of which were Cougars for the Lincoln/Mercury Race Division. There were five different colors available in 1969 (Raven Black, Wimbledon White, Royal Maroon, Candy apple Red, and Black Jade), and the only color for the interior was black. The fully functional hood scoop was the same color as the car, and noticeably larger than anything else offered on any Ford product at the time, with the exception of the two Boss 429 Cougars. This scoop would carry over to the 1970 model year but would be painted black on all cars. To this day, it is the largest factory hood scoop ever installed on a factory produced Mustang. All these cars were a manual transmission, and there was no air conditioning available due to the size of the engine. Though not originally offered as an option, it is common to add a spoiler and window louvers commonly seen on 1969â€“1970 Mach 1's and Boss 302's. Some early cars were known as "S" code cars and as such had a slightly different engine.  These cars had magnesium valve covers, NASCAR style forged internals, nearly no smog or emissions equipment and are said to be more powerful than the later "T" and "A" code engines which had the emissions related equipment to satisfy government regulations. The engines in some cases were removed from the cars for use in other applications such as tractor pulling, due to the extreme torque and horsepower the engine was capable of producing.


Question: Who was permitted to cast a vote in the Roman Republic?

In the Roman Republic, elections were held annually for almost all public offices. The right to vote, however, was reserved for Roman citizens. This system of popular elections for high office was significantly altered and eventually terminated by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, although local and municipal elections persisted.

Apart from the citizen-regiments raised by Augustus, Roman citizens were regularly recruited to the auxilia. Most likely, the majority of citizen-recruits to auxiliary regiments were the sons of auxiliary veterans who were enfranchised on their fathers' discharge.[141] Many such men may have preferred to join their fathers' old regiments, which were a kind of extended family to them, rather than join a much larger, unfamiliar legion. Legionaries frequently transferred to the auxilia (mostly promoted to a higher rank).[142] The incidence of citizens in the auxilia would thus have grown steadily over time until, after the grant of citizenship to all peregrini in 212, auxiliary regiments became predominantly, if not exclusively, citizen units.

The most comprehensive surviving source is the Commentariolum Petitionis (Little Handbook on Electioneering) by Quintus Tullius Cicero. It is a how-to guide on running for consul, written by Quintus for his brother's campaign in 64 BCE. Unfortunately there are many doubts as to its authenticity, accepted by some as authentic to the period, others date it a century later to an author who would not have direct knowledge of election realities.[5]

In the beginning, Finnish nobles were all without honorific titulature, and known simply as lords. Since the Middle Ages, each head of a noble family had been entitled to a vote in any of Finland's provincial diets whenever held, as in the realm's House of Nobility of the Riksdag of the Estates. In 1561, Sweden's King Eric XIV granted the hereditary titles of count and vapaaherra to some of these, but not all. Although their cadet family members were not entitled to vote or sit in the Riksdag, they were legally entitled to the same title as the head of the family, but in customary address they became Paroni or Paronitar. Theoretically, in the 16th and 17th centuries, families elevated to vapaaherra status were granted a barony in fief, enjoying some rights of taxation and judicial authority. Subsequently, the "barony" was titular, usually attached to a family property, which was sometimes entailed. Their exemptions from taxes on landed properties continued into the 20th century, although in the 19th century tax reforms narrowed this privilege. Nobility creations continued until 1917, the end of Finland's grand ducal monarchy.

Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30% or higher, depending in part on the definition of "literacy".[507][508][509][510] The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word.[511][512][513][514][515] The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government's concerns."[516] Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out. Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe (scriba) read or write their official documents for them.[509][517] Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read.[518] Although the Romans were not a "People of the Book", they had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities, as well as on binding tablets and other "magic spells", with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri.[519][520][521][522] The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records,[523] and literacy in the army was "strikingly high".[524] Urban graffiti, which include literary quotations, and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites.[525][526][n 19][82] In addition, numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce.[512][527] Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers, and some were highly educated.[528]

Still, Aristotle's conception of citizenship was that it was a legally guaranteed role in creating and running government.[13]:p.151 It reflected the division of labor which he believed was a good thing; citizenship, in his view, was a commanding role in society with citizens ruling over non-citizens. At the same time, there could not be a permanent barrier between the rulers and the ruled, according to Aristotle's conception, and if there was such a barrier, citizenship could not exist.[13]:p.151 Aristotle's sense of citizenship depended on a "rigorous separation of public from private, of polis from oikos, of persons and actions from things" which allowed people to interact politically with equals.[17] To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community:

In ancient times, violent repression of even basic equality was commonplace. Despite the recent overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic and sacrosanct Tribunes of the Plebs, Cincinnatus's son Caeso led a gang that chased plebs from the forum to prevent the creation of equitable written laws. In Rome's case, the organization of the plebs and the patricians' dependence upon them as both laborers and soldiers meant the Conflict of the Orders was resolved by the establishment of the Twelve Tables and greater equality. Nominally, all citizens except the emperor were equal under Roman law in the imperial period. However, this principle was not implemented in most of the world and, even in Europe, the rise of aristocracies and nobility created unequal legal systems that lasted into the modern era.

During the reign of Władysław IV (1632–48), the liberum veto: a policy of parliamentary procedure was developed, based on the assumption of the political equality of every "gentleman", with the corollary that unanimous consent was needed for all measures.[1] A single member of parliament's belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency (usually simply his own estate), even after the act had been approved, became enough to strike the act. It became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The liberum veto also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways, through bribing nobles to exercise it.[1] Thus, one could characterise Poland–Lithuania in its final period (mid-18th century) before the partitions as already in a state of disorder and not a completely sovereign state; almost as a vassal state,[5] or in modern terms, a Russian satellite state, with Russian tsars effectively choosing Polish kings. This applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King Stanisław August Poniatowski, who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress Catherine the Great.

Article VI also recognized the Prawo o sejmikach, the act on regional assemblies (sejmiks) that had been passed on 24 March 1791.[69][90] By reducing the enfranchisement of the noble classes, this law introduced major changes to the electoral ordinance.[68] Previously, all nobles had been eligible to vote in sejmiks, which de facto meant that many of the poorest, landless nobles—known as "clients" or "clientele" of local magnates—voted as the magnates bade them.[36][68] Now the voting right was tied to a property qualification: one had to own or lease land and pay taxes, or be closely related to somebody who did, to be eligible to vote.[69][91] 300,000 of 700,000 previously eligible nobles were thus disfranchised, much to their displeasure.[68] Voting rights were restored to landowners who were in military service. They had lost these rights in 1775.[68] Voting was limited to males of at least 18 years of age.[84] The eligible voters elected deputies to local powiats, or county sejmiks, which elected deputies to the General Sejm.[84]

In Roman times, the law was that people could obtain temporary usufructuary rights for running water. These rights were independent of land ownership, and lasted as long as use continued.[15] Under Roman law, no land was "owned" by citizens, it was all owned by the "republic" and controlled by politicians.[citation needed]

Each legion contained six senior officers, five of equestrian and one of senatorial rank, called tribuni militum ("tribunes of the soldiers"). The title "tribune" derives from the fact that in Republican days, they were elected by the Roman people's assembly (comitia centuriata) from the ranks of Roman knights. The elected officers would stand on the tribunal (dais). Originally the elected tribunes took turns to command their legion in pairs (see Roman army of the mid-Republic). Under Julius Caesar, command of legions became informally entrusted to single officers dubbed legati ("chosen ones") appointed by the proconsul, or governor, of the province in which the legions were stationed. This position was formalised under Augustus.


Question: Who was permitted to cast a vote in the Roman Republic?

In the Roman Republic, the right to vote was generally reserved for full Roman citizens, which notably excluded women, slaves, and initially, those residing outside Rome. As the Republic expanded, so did the electorate. A significant milestone was the Lex Julia of 90 BCE, which broadened the voting rights to include citizens throughout Italy, leading to a substantial increase in the number of eligible voters. By the last Republican census in 70 BCE, the potential electorate had grown to approximately 910,000 individuals.

As the Roman Republic, and later the Roman Empire, expanded, it came to include people from a variety of cultures, and religions. The worship of an ever increasing number of deities was tolerated and accepted. The government, and the Romans in general, tended to be tolerant towards most religions and cults.[1] Some religions were banned for political reasons rather than dogmatic zeal,[2] and other rites which involved human sacrifice were banned.[3]

In ancient times, violent repression of even basic equality was commonplace. Despite the recent overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic and sacrosanct Tribunes of the Plebs, Cincinnatus's son Caeso led a gang that chased plebs from the forum to prevent the creation of equitable written laws. In Rome's case, the organization of the plebs and the patricians' dependence upon them as both laborers and soldiers meant the Conflict of the Orders was resolved by the establishment of the Twelve Tables and greater equality. Nominally, all citizens except the emperor were equal under Roman law in the imperial period. However, this principle was not implemented in most of the world and, even in Europe, the rise of aristocracies and nobility created unequal legal systems that lasted into the modern era.

Under the Augustan settlement, the Roman state formally remained a republic, with the same official name, Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR â€“ "The Senate and People of Rome") and administered by the same magistrates (state executive officers) as before: the Consuls (2 elected each year), Praetors (4), Aediles (12), Quaestors (20), who were elected (by the Senate after AD 14) annually, and the Censors (2), who were elected every five years. In practice, however, political and military power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, whose official titles were princeps ("First Citizen") and Augustus. (In conversation, the emperor was normally addressed as "Caesar" and referred to in popular speech as imperator, a term which originally meant "supreme commander", and from which the English word "emperor" derives, via Proto-Romance *imperatore and Old French empereor.) The emperor's supremacy was based on his assumption of two permanent and sweeping powers: the tribunicia potestas ("power of the tribune (of the plebs)"), which gave him control of the legislative body, the Senate (by giving him a veto over its decrees); and the imperium proconsulare maius (literally: "eminent proconsular command"), which made the emperor, in effect, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces (by subordinating to his command the provincial governors, who controlled the military forces in their province).[31] In addition, the emperor frequently had himself elected as one of the Consuls or Censors. The latter post was especially useful, as it gave him the power to appoint (or remove) members from the roll of Senators and from the Order of Knights, the two aristocratic orders of imperial Rome, which filled all senior administrative and military positions.

The right of suffrage is nearly universal for citizens eighteen years of age and older. All states and the District of Columbia contribute to the electoral vote for President. However, the District, and other U.S. holdings like Puerto Rico and Guam, lack federal representation in Congress. These constituencies do not have the right to choose any political figure outside their respective areas. Each commonwealth, territory, or district can only elect a non-voting delegate to serve in the House of Representatives.

With the conquest of Italy, prepared viae were extended from Rome and its vicinity to outlying municipalities, sometimes overlying earlier roads. Building viae was a military responsibility and thus came under the jurisdiction of a consul. The process had a military name, viam munire, as though the via were a fortification. Municipalities, however, were responsible for their own roads, which the Romans called viae vicinales. The beauty and grandeur of the roads might tempt us to believe that any Roman citizen could use them for free, but this was not the case. Tolls abounded, especially at bridges. Often they were collected at the city gate. Freight costs were made heavier still by import and export taxes. These were only the charges for using the roads. Costs of services on the journey went up from there.

In Roman times, the law was that people could obtain temporary usufructuary rights for running water. These rights were independent of land ownership, and lasted as long as use continued.[15] Under Roman law, no land was "owned" by citizens, it was all owned by the "republic" and controlled by politicians.[citation needed]

Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large regular army with logistics and training. The cursus honorum, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen became familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of centurions were well-rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and leadership in battle.[16] City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level; membership of city councils involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision-making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a series of emperors who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects.[17] The cults of polytheist religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth, and their followers displayed mutual tolerance, producing a polyphonous religious harmony.[18] Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 136 (after which the devastated Judaea ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest). Heavy mortality in 165–180 from the Antonine Plague seriously impaired attempts to repel Germanic invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.[19]

Fix suggested that of the northern Italian cities, it was Florence which most closely resembled a Republic,[45] although most Italian cities were "complex oligarchies ruled by groups of rich citizens called patricians, the commercial elite."[44] While the city had thrown off control by the Holy Roman Empire in the twelfth century, it came close to being conquered by Milan in 1450, but was spared when the capable leader of Milan died unexpectedly during a siege. Florence's city leaders wondered how to protect their city in the future, and figured that civic education was crucial so that citizens and leaders could cope with future unexpected crises.[44] Politics, previously "shunned as unspiritual", came to be viewed as a "worthy and honorable vocation", and it was expected that most sectors of the public, from the richer commercial classes and patricians, to workers and the lower classes, should participate in public life.[44] A new sense of citizenship began to emerge based on an "often turbulent internal political life in the towns", according to Fix, with competition among guilds and "much political debate and confrontation".[44]

Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business,[117][118] including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes; for instance, the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma, a female member of the family honoured, and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a priestess of Venus.[119]

Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.[89] In general, it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.[89][218] The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations" or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities.[219] If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard appeals, and the emperor held final authority to render a decision.[89][220][221]


Question: Who was permitted to cast a vote in the Roman Republic?

In the Roman Republic, the right to vote was a matter of significant contention, with ongoing debates over who should be eligible. It is unclear how the Romans managed to distinguish between eligible voters and non-voters, particularly as the population grew. Historians have speculated that voters may have been identifiable within their tribes due to familiarity, but this would have become challenging as numbers increased. It has been suggested that there might have been a centralized voter list or that citizens were issued with some form of identification to verify their voting rights, but there is no surviving evidence or sources to support these theories.

The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government, the military, and provincial government.[176] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the military mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens (after 212 AD, all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire), the agricultural fields that fed them, and religious sites.[177] Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction, the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone. Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another: in the view of Plutarch, "it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self-governance".[178][179][180]

The dual-structure configuration of legions/auxilia established by Augustus remained essentially intact until the late 3rd century, with only minor modifications made during that long period. The senior officers of the army were, until the 3rd century, mainly from the Italian aristocracy. This was divided into two orders, the senatorial order (ordo senatorius), consisting of the c. 600 sitting members of the Roman Senate (plus their sons and grandsons), and the more numerous (several thousand-strong) equites equo publico or "knights granted a public horse" i.e. knights hereditary or appointed by the Emperor. Hereditary senators and knights combined military service with civilian posts, a career-path known as the cursus honorum, typically starting with a period of junior administrative posts in Rome, followed by five to ten years in the military and a final period of senior positions in either the provinces or at Rome.[45] This tiny, tightly knit ruling oligarchy of under 10,000 men monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of c. 60 million inhabitants and achieved a remarkable degree of political stability. During the first 200 years of its existence (30 BC – AD 180), the empire suffered only one major episode of civil strife (the Civil War of 68–9). Otherwise, attempts at usurpation by provincial governors were few and swiftly suppressed.

All Italian citizens older than 18 can vote. However, to vote for the senate, the voter must be at least 25 or older.

Execution, which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case,[171][172] could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered "more honourable", while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena.[173] In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they declined to fulfil the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom.[168][174]

The 1956 law allowed Coloureds to elect four people to Parliament, but a 1969 law abolished those seats and stripped Coloureds of their right to vote. Since Asians had never been allowed to vote, this resulted in whites being the sole enfranchised group.

On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour (placet), 88 against (non placet), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment (placet iuxta modum).[16] This made evident what the final outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between placet and non placet, was taken on 18 July 1870, with 433 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra.[4] The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishop Aloisio Riccio and Bishop Edward Fitzgerald.[17]

The law of the land provided that every White (European) male who had resided in the Transvaal for five years, could be naturalized and become entitled to vote for a representative in the Volksraad (house of assembly).[29] As more and more foreigners (called Uitlanders) arrived in the country to dig for gold, the government realized as early as 1890 that these Uitlanders could easily gain control of the country. The solution was to create a Second Volksraad. Uitlanders who had been naturalized for two years were granted the right to vote for candidates for the Second Volksraad.[29] The Second Volksraad only had a say in regard to specific matters relating to Johannesburg and the mines. The bills of this body only became law after ratification by the First Volksraad. The residential qualification enabling Uitlanders to vote for the First Volksraad was extended from five to fourteen years and the voting age increased to forty years. Only a small number of Uitlanders took the trouble to register as voters for the Second Volksraad.[29]

In 1906, the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, which became the republic of Finland, was the first country in the world to implement truly universal full suffrage, i.e. both active and passive suffrage, by being the first country in the world to give women full political rights, i.e. the rights both to vote and to run for office. It was the second country in the world and the first in Europe to give women the right to vote.[4][5] The world's first female members of parliament were elected in Finland the following year. In Europe, the last jurisdiction to grant women the right to vote was the Swiss canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden (AI), in 1991; AI is the smallest Swiss canton with c. 14,100 inhabitants in 1990.[6] Women in Switzerland obtained the right to vote at federal level in 1971,[7] and at local cantonal level between 1959 and 1972, except for Appenzell in 1989/1990,[8] see Women's suffrage in Switzerland. In Saudi Arabia women were first allowed to vote in December 2015 in the municipal elections.[9]

The Athenian conception was that "laws that should govern everybody," in the sense of equality under the law or the Greek term isonomia.[9] Citizens had certain rights and duties: the rights included the chance to speak and vote in the common assembly,[2] to stand for public office, to serve as jurors, to be protected by the law, to own land, and to participate in public worship; duties included an obligation to obey the law, and to serve in the armed forces which could be "costly" in terms of buying or making expensive war equipment or in risking one's own life, according to Hosking.[9]

The first use of paper ballots to conduct an election appears to have been in Rome in 139 BC, following the introduction of the lex Gabinia tabellaria.


Question: When is the next Warriors book scheduled for release?

The next book in the Warriors series, titled "River of Fire," is slated for release on April 10, 2018. This is the fifth installment in the series, eagerly awaited by fans.

The series revolves around the lives of Jaypaw, Lionpaw and Hollypaw, kits of Brambleclaw and Squirrelflight and grandchildren of the ThunderClan leader Firestar. The three slowly come to terms with their unique paths in life; Lionpaw worries about his thirst for blood on the battlefield, Hollypaw considers what it means to be truly loyal to her Clan, and Jaypaw is bitter that he was born blind. One day, Jaypaw unintentionally discovers a prophecy that he believes refers to him and his siblings. The three attempt to understand their new destinies, and realize that Lionpaw has the power to never be harmed in battle, whilst Jaypaw can walk in the dreams and read the minds of other cats. Hollypaw, on the other hand, struggles to determine what her unique power is. Hollypaw and Lionpaw are made warriors, becoming Hollyleaf and Lionblaze respectively, whilst Jaypaw becomes a medicine cat and is later given the name Jayfeather. They seek the advice of a mysterious loner named Sol, who promises to give them the answers to their destinies; however, they eventually realize him to be a deceptive liar, and he is banished from the forest. Although uncertain of their powers, the three cats are always secure in the knowledge that they are deeply loved by their parents. This safe haven is shattered when they are forced into a fire by Ashfur, another ThunderClan warrior. Ashfur wishes to murder the three cats in order to punish their mother, Squirrelflight, for rejecting his love years earlier. However, Squirrelflight admits that the three cats are not her offspring, and Ashfur lets them go. The siblings are deeply distressed by this confession, and attempt to discover who their true parents are. They eventually learn that their mother is Leafpool, the ThunderClan medicine cat, and their father is Crowfeather, a WindClan warrior. Hollyleaf is devastated by this, and murders Ashfur in revenge. Unsatisfied, she then publicly announces to the rest of the Clans the true story of her heritage. When the Clans do not praise her for her honesty, but rather react with shock and confusion, Hollyleaf runs away into a series of collapsing tunnels. Presuming her to be dead, and numb with grief for their sister, Lionblaze and Jayfeather realize that Hollyleaf never had a power in the first place. They instead turn their eyes to two kits newly born in the Clan, one of whom could fulfill the third role in the prophecy.

Volume Two, containing the next four stories, ("Ashes of Roses", "Please Don't Feed the Animals", "The Radioactive Man" and "Dance with Death") was released in July 2014. Volume Three, containing the next four stories, was released in January 2015.[6]

Five Nights at Freddy's: The Twisted Ones is the second novel written by Cawthon and Breed-Wrisley.[91] A sequel to Five Nights at Freddy's: The Silver Eyes, the book was discovered on Amazon under Cawthon's name on January 8, 2017.[92] The discovery sparked controversy on the legitimacy of the product,[93] but Cawthon confirmed that it was official shortly after.[94][95] The novel was released in some bookstores earlier than planned, but released publicly on June 27, 2017. The plot involves Charlie, the main character from The Silver Eyes, who is "drawn back into the world of her father's frightening creations" trying to move on.

The second Discovery novel, Drastic Measures, was written by Dayton Ward and is set 10 years before the show, following the characters Georgiou and Lorca as they hunt for "the man whom history will one day brand 'Kodos the Executioner'". It was released on February 6, 2018.[127] A third novel, Fear Itself, will be released on June 5, 2018. Written by veteran Star Trek author James Swallow, it will focus on Lieutenant Saru's attempts to overcome his fears as a Kelpien and become a successful Starfleet officer.[128]

The Magisterium Series is intended to be a 5-book children's fantasy. The series is co-authored by Holly Black and Cassandra Clare. It is their first collaboration.[1] The series was acquired by Scholastic in April 2012. The first book, The Iron Trial, was published in September 2014, and hit third on the New York Times Middle Grade Bestseller List.[2] The series is set in an underground school where mages train apprentices to control the elements.[3] The books are illustrated by Scott Fischer. The main characters are Callum Hunt, Tamara Rajavi, Aaron Stewart, Jasper DeWinter, Master Rufus, and Havoc, Call's pet.

The Black Company is a series of dark fantasy books written by American author Glen Cook. The series combines elements of epic fantasy and dark fantasy as it follows an elite mercenary unit, The Black Company, through roughly forty years of its approximately four-hundred-year history.

A novelization of the game written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on November 24, 2009. A majority of the character interaction in the novel is taken verbatim from the Codec conversations in the game itself.

Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules is a satirical realistic fiction novel by American author and cartoonist Jeff Kinney, based on the FunBrain.com version. It is the sequel to Diary of a Wimpy Kid, followed by The Last Straw.[2] The hardcover was released on February 1, 2008.[3] Rodrick Rules was named New York Times bestseller among awards and praise. A film of the same name was released on March 25, 2011.

The Rise of Scourge was released on 24 June 2008[59] and, unlike the other manga which form trilogies, is a standalone volume. The story details the early life of BloodClan leader Scourge, one of the antagonists in The Darkest Hour, who is bullied in his youth for being small. The book chronicles his story up to the point when he kills Tigerstar, who once attacked Scourge when he ventured into the forest as a kitten.

The first book in the series, The Red Pyramid, was released on May 4, 2010. The story is told as a transcription of a recording made by Sadie and Carter Kane, detailing the rise of the Egyptian gods in the modern world.[3]


Question: What does blood alcohol concentration refer to in terms of the ratio of alcohol to blood?

Blood alcohol content (BAC) is typically represented as the proportion of ethanol in the blood, measured in mass per volume or mass per mass, depending on the country's standards. For example, a BAC of 0.1 in North America signifies that there are 0.10 grams of alcohol present in every 100 milliliters of blood. This measurement indicates the level of alcohol in relation to the volume of blood.

Acronyms are used most often to abbreviate names of organizations and long or frequently referenced terms. The armed forces and government agencies frequently employ acronyms; some well-known examples from the United States are among the "alphabet agencies" (also jokingly referred to as "alphabet soup") created by Franklin D. Roosevelt (also of course known as FDR) under the New Deal. Business and industry also are prolific coiners of acronyms. The rapid advance of science and technology in recent centuries seems to be an underlying force driving the usage, as new inventions and concepts with multiword names create a demand for shorter, more manageable names.[citation needed] One representative example, from the U.S. Navy, is COMCRUDESPAC, which stands for commander, cruisers destroyers Pacific; it's also seen as "ComCruDesPac". "YABA-compatible" (where YABA stands for "yet another bloody acronym") is used to mean that a term's acronym can be pronounced but is not an offensive word, e.g., "When choosing a new name, be sure it is 'YABA-compatible'."[40]

Rates and ratios often vary with time, location, particular element (or subset) of a set of objects, etc. Thus they are often mathematical functions. For example, velocity v (distance traveled per unit time) of a transportation vehicle on a certain trip may be represented as a function of x (the distance traveled from the start of the trip) as v(x). Alternatively, one could express velocity as a function of time t from the start of the trip as v(t). Another representation of velocity on a trip is to partition the trip route into N segments and let vi be the constant velocity on segment i (v is a function of index i). Here each segment i, of the trip is a subset of the trip route.

The dose–response relationship, or exposure–response relationship, describes the change in effect on an organism caused by differing levels of exposure (or doses) to a stressor (usually a chemical) after a certain exposure time, or to a food.[1] This may apply to individuals (e.g.: a small amount has no significant effect, a large amount is fatal), or to populations (e.g.: how many people or organisms are affected at different levels of exposure).

Alcohol consumption is rewarding and reinforcing and can result in addiction to alcohol, which is termed alcoholism.

A study was conducted in order to find a correlation between allelic distribution and alcoholism, and the results suggest that the allelic distribution arose along with rice cultivation in the region between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago.[8] In regions where rice was cultivated, rice was also fermented into ethanol.[8] The results of increased alcohol availability led to alcoholism and abuse by those able to acquire it, resulting in lower reproductive fitness.[8] Those with the variant allele have little tolerance for alcohol, thus lowering chance of dependence and abuse.[7][8] The hypothesis posits that those individuals with the Histidine variant enzyme were sensitive enough to the effects of alcohol that differential reproductive success arose and the corresponding alleles were passed through the generations.

Tequila contains alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) and is most often made at a 38% alcohol content (76 U.S. proof) for domestic consumption, but can be produced between 31 and 55% alcohol content (62 and 110 U.S. proof). Per U.S law, tequila must contain at least 40% alcohol (80 U.S. proof) to be sold in the United States.[7]

In 1949, E. Racker defined one unit of alcohol dehydrogenase activity as the amount that causes a change in optical density of 0.001 per minute under the standard conditions of assay.[41] Recently, the international definition of enzymatic unit (E.U.) has been more common: one unit of Alcohol Dehydrogenase will convert 1.0 µmole of ethanol to acetaldehyde per minute at pH 8.8 at 25 °C.[42]

In simpler terms, osmolality is an expression of solute osmotic concentration per mass of solvent, whereas osmolarity is per volume of solution (thus the conversion by multiplying with the mass density of solvent in solution (kg solvent/kg solution).

Alcohol absorption can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach.[42] The belief that the food absorbs the alcohol is a common misconception. Alcohol absorption is slowed because the stomach sphincter closes in order to break down the food. The alcohol cannot be absorbed through the stomach, thus cannot be absorbed until the sphincter is opened and the consumed alcohol can flow to the small intestine.[43]

Ringer's lactate solution (RL), also known as sodium lactate solution and Hartmann's solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride, sodium lactate, potassium chloride, and calcium chloride in water.[1] It is used for replacing fluids and electrolytes in those who have low blood volume or low blood pressure.[2] It may also be used to treat metabolic acidosis in cases other than those caused by lactic acidosis and to wash the eye following a chemical burn.[2][3] It is given by injection into a vein or applied to the affected area.[2][3]


Question: What does blood alcohol concentration refer to in terms of the ratio of alcohol to blood?

Blood alcohol concentration, or BAC, is typically measured in terms of the mass of alcohol present in the blood. Various units are employed globally to quantify BAC, either as a mass per volume or a mass per mass ratio. In the United States, BAC is often expressed as a percentage by weight per volume (w/v), equating to 10 grams per liter or 1 gram per 100 milliliters. It's crucial not to confuse this with breath alcohol concentration, measured by devices like breathalyzers. Breath alcohol concentration is generally considered to be proportional to blood alcohol concentration at a ratio of 1:2100. For instance, a breathalyzer reading of 0.10 mg/L translates to 0.0001 * 2100 g/10 dL, which is equivalent to 0.021 g/dL of blood alcohol—the standard BAC measurement in the U.S. Various units or the lack thereof are utilized worldwide, but many countries prefer the g/L unit to avoid the confusion associated with percentages. The table below highlights common units in use.

Terminology in use varies. One text [3] has proposed the following descriptive terms:

According to IUPAC, osmolality is the quotient of the negative natural logarithm of the rational activity of water and the molar mass of water, whereas osmolarity is the product of the osmolality and the mass density of water (also known as osmotic concentration).

In simpler terms, osmolality is an expression of solute osmotic concentration per mass of solvent, whereas osmolarity is per volume of solution (thus the conversion by multiplying with the mass density of solvent in solution (kg solvent/kg solution).

Furthermore, prenatal exposure to alcohol can greatly affect a child's performance on intelligence tests, and their intellectual growth. At high doses, fetal alcohol syndrome can develop, which causes mental retardation, as well as other physical symptoms, such as head and face deformities, heart defects and slow growth.[4][39] It is estimated that 1 in 1,000 babies born in the general population are born with fetal alcohol syndrome, as a result of heavy use of alcohol during pregnancy.[26]

In yeast[25] and many bacteria, alcohol dehydrogenase plays an important part in fermentation: Pyruvate resulting from glycolysis is converted to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and the acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1. The purpose of this latter step is the regeneration of NAD+, so that the energy-generating glycolysis can continue. Humans exploit this process to produce alcoholic beverages, by letting yeast ferment various fruits or grains. It is interesting to note that yeast can produce and consume their own alcohol.

Distance is a numerical description of how far apart objects are. In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length, or an estimation based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties over"). In most cases, "distance from A to B" is interchangeable with "distance from B to A". In mathematics, a distance function or metric is a generalization of the concept of physical distance. A metric is a function that behaves according to a specific set of rules, and is a way of describing what it means for elements of some space to be "close to" or "far away from" each other.

Alcohol absorption can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach.[42] The belief that the food absorbs the alcohol is a common misconception. Alcohol absorption is slowed because the stomach sphincter closes in order to break down the food. The alcohol cannot be absorbed through the stomach, thus cannot be absorbed until the sphincter is opened and the consumed alcohol can flow to the small intestine.[43]

The FHWA has established 0.04% as the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level at or above which a CMV driver is deemed to be driving under the influence of alcohol and subject to lose his/her CDL. Additionally, an operator of a CMV that is found to have 'any detectable amount of BAC above 0.0%' will be put out of service for a minimum of 24 hours.

The contrast ratio is a property of a display system, defined as the ratio of the luminance of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the system is capable of producing. A high contrast ratio is a desired aspect of any display. It has similarities with dynamic range.

An absorption spectrum can be quantitatively related to the amount of material present using the Beer-Lambert law. Determining the absolute concentration of a compound requires knowledge of the compound's absorption coefficient. The absorption coefficient for some compounds is available from reference sources, and it can also be determined by measuring the spectrum of a calibration standard with a known concentration of the target.