Question: Which state was given back to Spain after the Revolutionary War?

During the American Revolutionary War, Spain's involvement helped to boost its prestige, which had been diminished by losses to Britain in the Seven Years' War. Although Spain was unable to regain its most desired territory, Gibraltar, it successfully recovered Menorca and diminished the British threat to its colonies in and around the Caribbean, areas critical to Spanish interests. However, the specific state or territory returned to Spain after the war is not mentioned in this context; it was Florida that was ceded back to Spain by the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

As the American diplomat Benjamin Franklin reported from Paris to the Congressional Committee of Secret Correspondence in March 1777, the Spanish court quietly granted the rebels direct admission to the rich, previously restricted port of Havana under most favored nation status. Franklin also noted in the same report that three thousand barrels of gunpowder were waiting in New Orleans, and that the merchants in Bilbao "had orders to ship for us such necessaries as we might want."[5]

Louis XV saw no value in Louisiana, and in order to bring about an end to the Seven Years' War, he transferred Louisiana to his cousin Charles III of Spain in 1763. Louisiana remained under the control of Spain until it was demanded to be turned over to France by Napoleon. Although Louisiana was property of France by the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800, Louisiana continued to be administered by Spain until the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Following the Louisiana purchase, the population of the subsequently divided territory that contained most of present-day Louisiana tripled between 1803 and Louisiana statehood in 1812.

The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana") was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km²) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000/€9,100,000) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a total of sixty-eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to $300 million in 2016). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.[1]

Fearing that the cutoffs could occur again, President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $10 million. Instead, faced with a debt crisis, Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana, including the Missouri River, for $15 million – amounting to less than 3¢ per acre. The deal was signed in 1803, doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory.[112] In 1803, Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean. By then, it had been discovered that the Columbia River system, which drains into the Pacific, had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two.[113] However, Spain balked at the takeover, citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French. Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri, although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it.[114][115]

Philip IV's father passed on a kingdom in decline already.[4][5] Philip IV was not competent enough to give the kind of clear direction that Spain needed. Responsibility passed to aristocratic advisers. Gaspar de GuzmÃ¡n, count-duke of Olivares,[6] attempted and failed to establish the centralized administration that his famous contemporary, Cardinal Richelieu, had introduced in France.[7] In reaction to Olivares's bureaucratic absolutism and attempt to extract further taxes via the Union of Arms, Catalonia revolted and was virtually annexed by France.[8] Portugal reasserted its independence in 1640, with the Restoration War sparked by a Braganza claimant to the Spanish throne; and an attempt was made to separate Andalusia from Spain. In 1648, at the Peace of Westphalia, Spain assented to the emperor's accommodation with the German Protestants, and in 1654 it recognized the independence of the northern Netherlands.

One positive outcome of the Haitian Revolution for the US was the Louisiana Purchase. Having lost his control of the Caribbean landholding, Napoleon saw no further use for Louisiana. The US was only interested in the New Orleans area; however, the revolution enabled the sale of the entire territory west of the Mississippi River for around $15 million. This purchase more than doubled US territory.[1][2][3][4][5]

West Florida was declared to be a U.S. possession in 1810 by President James Madison after the territory had declared its independence from Spain.[3] Madison ordered the U.S. Army to take control. Six weeks later, the army entered and occupied the capital, St. Francisville, putting an end to the republic after 74 days of independence. Spain did not relinquish its claim to sovereignty (see West Florida controversy) until ratification of the Adams-Onís Treaty. General Andrew Jackson personally accepted the delivery of West Florida from its Spanish governor on July 17, 1821.[4]

The war gave a boost to the kingdom's prestige, which had suffered from the losses to Britain in the Seven Years' War. Even though Spain's single most coveted target, Gibraltar, remained out of its grasp, Spain had more than compensated by recovering Menorca and by reducing the British threat to its colonies in and around the Caribbean, all of which were seen as vital to Spanish interests.

Many of the papers, however, which were kept alive or brought to life during the war could not adapt themselves to the new conditions of peace. Perhaps only a dozen of the survivors held their own in the new time, notably the Boston Gazette, which declined rapidly in the following decade, The Connecticut Courant of Hartford, The Providence Gazette, and The Pennsylvania Packet of Philadelphia, to which may be added such representative papers as the Massachusetts Spy, Boston's Independent Chronicle, the New York Journal and Packet, the Newport Mercury, the Maryland Gazette of Annapolis, the Pennsylvania Gazette and The Pennsylvania Journal, both of Philadelphia. Practically all were of four small pages, each of three or four columns, issued weekly. In 1783, the Pennsylvania Evening Post became the first American daily.[17] The next year, the Pennsylvania Packet was published three times a week, and the New York Journal twice a week, as were several of the papers begun in that year. There was a notable extension to new fields. In Vermont, where the first paper, established in 1781, had soon died, another arose in 1783; in Maine, two were started in 1785. In 1786, the first one west of the Alleghenies appeared at Pittsburgh, and following the westward tide of immigration the Kentucky Gazette was begun at Lexington in 1787.

Results of the War of 1812 the war of 1812 happened between Great Britain and the United States in 1812. It caused no geographical changes. The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain.  All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest. American fears of the Native Americans ended, as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state. The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied. The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an "Era of good feelings" with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the war, concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America, contrary to many American politicians'n land from Spain.[1]


Question: When did we discover that the Smoking Man was Mulder's father?

In the later seasons of "The X-Files," it is revealed that the Cigarette Smoking Man, also known as C.G.B. Spender, is a member of the Syndicate, a secretive group within the U.S. government. In the episode "Two Fathers," it is revealed that he was married to Cassandra Spender and had a son, Jeffrey Spender. The Smoking Man enlists FBI Special Agent Diana Fowley as his subordinate due to her close relationship with Mulder. In "One Son," Jeffrey learns that his father, the Smoking Man, caused his mother's mental breakdowns by forcing her to undergo medical treatments during his childhood. When the Smoking Man discovers this, he seemingly kills Jeffrey. The Alien rebels, aware of the colonization plan, return to Earth to convince the Syndicate to join them against the Colonists. However, the Syndicate members are killed by the rebels at El Rico Air Base, with the Smoking Man and Fowley escaping. In the sixth season, evidence suggests that the Smoking Man is Mulder's biological father. In "The Sixth Extinction II: Amor Fati," Fowley disagrees with the Smoking Man's plans to kill Mulder and helps Scully find him, leading to her death. After the Syndicate's destruction, the Smoking Man operates independently but is confined to a wheelchair and has a tracheotomy due to his cancer. In the episode "Requiem," Alex Krycek and Marita Covarrubias betray him, presuming him dead after throwing him down a flight of stairs. However, the exact episode or point in the series when it is confirmed that the Smoking Man is Mulder's father is not explicitly mentioned.

"Tony" makes a shocking return from the dead in the summer of 2002 when he crashes John and Marlena's anniversary celebration, having survived getting shot and still suffering his blood disease—which turns out to be a lie that Stefano convinced him. Having become obsessed with Marlena, "Tony" is ecstatic to discover that twins Rex (Eric Winter) and Cassie (Alexis Thorpe) are his children with Marlena and uses them to ingratiate himself to her.[7] "Tony" and John are later shocked when they are led to believe that they are half brothers, through Daphne. Despite the familial revelation, they can never trust each other. "Tony" is later devastated to learn that he is not the twins father after all and is furious with Stefano for keeping the truth from him. In 2003, "Tony" becomes the prime suspect in the Salem Stalker murders but Mickey Horton (John Clarke) agrees to defend him.[8] As he plans to reveal the killer during the Horton Circus, "Tony" is attacked by a tiger and becomes the next victim of the killer—who turns out to be Marlena.[9] "Tony" and the other victims are eventually revealed to be alive and being held captive on the island of Melaswen. "Tony" later reveals himself as the mastermind behind it all looking for revenge on everyone that has wronged him—specifically John for stealing Kristen from him.[10] "Tony" fakes his death again after a confrontation with John only to continue to wreak havoc from the beyond the grave as he causes an explosion that nearly kills some of the captives as they try to escape the island. He even recaptures some of them and holds them prisoner in Europe at the DiMera Castle. "Tony" assists Sami Brady (Alison Sweeney) in her schemes to punish her enemies and satisfy his own thirst for revenge. Sami gets John hooked on painkillers only to have a change of heart when "Tony" takes some of her loved ones hostage. He tries to blackmail her into breaking him out of jail, but she refuses.

Bagwell has his hand reattached by a veterinary surgeon named Dr. Marvin Gudat, whom he murders afterwards. Bagwell then bleaches his hair to change his appearance, and begins his four episode long journey to Utah, to locate the money Charles Westmoreland had hidden there. In the fifth, sixth and seventh episodes, he rejoins part of the main cast as the group of five fugitives dig for Westmoreland's five million dollars under a garage. Bagwell tricks the other fugitives, stealing all the money, and sets out to find Susan Hollander, the woman who betrayed him. From the eighth episode onwards, Bagwell's storyline separates from the main plot, which concerns the protagonists escaping and later deciding to solve the conspiracy. In the following episode, "Unearthed", Bagwell arrives at Hollander's house, which has been vacated and is for sale. He is captured at the house by Brad Bellick (Wade Williams) and Roy Geary (Matt DeCaro) after hiding the five million dollars in a locker at a bus station. The next episode follows Bellick and Geary's torture of Bagwell as they try to discover where he has hidden the money. During the torture, the key to the locker that Bagwell had hidden in his sock falls out. The three men scuffle to retrieve it. Bagwell grabs the key and swallows it. Bellick and Geary tie Bagwell to a toilet in the house and shove Copenhagen tobacco in his mouth, along with laxatives. Bagwell passes the key, which has the location information on it. They clean it up, and use plastic handcuffs to attach his wrist to a radiator. Bagwell escapes from the cuff in "Bolshoi Booze" by re-severing his hand. Geary betrays Bellick and takes the money to an upscale hotel. Bagwell, having placed a tracking device in the bag, tracks it down and kills Geary by smashing his head with a champagne bottle. Before leaving with the money, Bagwell frames Bellick for Geary's murder, by placing Bellick's credit card receipt in Geary's dead, bloody hand. In the "fall finale" episode "The Killing Box" the last episode to air for 2006 in the United States, Bagwell sees a Vietnam war vet in a bar, who has a prosthetic hand. It's implied that Bagwell killed the man, as in his next scene of the episode, Bagwell is in possession of the prosthetic hand. He then takes advantage of a postal worker with his wily charms to gain access to Susan Hollander's new address. The postal worker genuinely likes Bagwell, until she recognizes him from a Wanted poster on the wall. Ever the survivalist, Bagwell eliminates her.

Cooper examines the remains of Laura's secret diary at the police station, finding repeated references to BOB, and a description of sexual abuse since childhood. Laura wrote that BOB was a friend of her father, and in another entry wrote, "Someday I'm going to tell the world about Ben Horne." Audrey then enters and tells Cooper about Ben and Laura's affair. After she leaves, Cooper reminds Sheriff Truman of The Giant's message, "Without chemicals, he points".[5] Cooper states that MIKE manifests when his human host, Philip Gerard, is not medicated,[7] and that MIKE fainted that morning just as a certain person approached him. Cooper exclaims to Truman, "Harry, we need a warrant...a warrant for the arrest of Benjamin Horne!"

In a 1997 episode of NYPD Blue titled "The Truth Is Out There", detective Andy Sipowicz is bothered by the fact that he sang "Pop Goes the Weasel" to his child but had no idea what it meant. Throughout the remainder of the episode, the detectives ask various suspects and witnesses what the song means but are unable to arrive at a clear answer.[24]

At the hospital, Cooper awakes and learns of Jacques Renault's murder, Leo Johnson's attempted murder and the Packard Sawmill fire. He recovers and brings Sheriff Truman, Deputy Brennan and Hawk to Leo's house to search for clues. Hawk finds a blanket doused in gasoline and Truman concludes Leo started the Packard Sawmill fire. FBI Special Agent Albert Rosenfield (Miguel Ferrer) arrives at the scene and Deputy Brennan, while alerting Cooper, steps on a loose plank, revealing an abundance of cocaine.

Bagwell appears in every episode of the first season except the series pilot, episode 4 "Cute Poison" and episode 5 "English, Fitz or Percy". He does not appear in three episodes of the second season: "Scan", "Disconnect" and "The Message". Bagwell appears in every episode in seasons three and four.

In the following episodes, T-Bag appears mainly in scenes at Gate, where he continues to play a salesman. It is established that, together with Gretchen, he is planning on double crossing Michael and his team after they steal Scylla, in order to sell it to a Chinese crime syndicate for 125 million dollars. By the episode “Quiet Riot”, it becomes apparent that Gretchen is clearly the more ruthless and devoted to the plan, while T-Bag begins to grow increasingly attached to his new life and his dialogue shows that he wishes that he actually was Cole Pffeifer rather than Theodore Bagwell. Because of this, the character often shows a softer side in this part of the season. For instance after he learns about the death of Bellick, T-Bag seems to be somewhat upset,[4] despite the nature of their relationship in past seasons. However, he is still shown as intent on exacting revenge on Michael. T-Bag and Gretchen are waiting in T-Bag’s office with machine guns in “Selfless” prepared to ambush the Scylla team when they return. When T-Bag’s boss Mr. White spots Gretchen’s gun under the table, she takes the entire company hostage. Seeing his chance at a new life at Gate being destroyed forever, T-Bag reluctantly helps her take the GATE employees hostage, but in the same episode T-Bag is arrested by Trishanne (who is actually an under-cover federal agent sent by Homeland Security agent Don Self). At the end of the episode, Michael’s team is successful in getting Scylla and hands it over to Self who, in the episode’s twist ending, betrays everyone and steals Scylla. After Self murders Trishanne, he forces T-Bag to help him track down Gretchen by giving him the home address of her sister Rita and daughter Emily, whom T-Bag holds hostage while Gretchen and Self find a new buyer for Scylla. In the episode "Just Business", T-Bag continues to mourn the loss of his new life. When a bible salesman asks to come in, T-Bag believes him to be a Company agent and takes him hostage. After saying he wanted to be Cole Pffeifer and not Theodore Bagwell, he is about to kill the man when Rita tells him not to, saying that he has a chance for a new life. So he lets Rita and Emily go and unties the man, only to be knocked unconscious, proving that the man was a Company agent.

Silveri and Goldberg-Meehan deliberately intended to keep Monica and Chandler's union "low-key" in order to further differentiate it from Ross and Rachel's, which had been very public.[9] In order to get an idea how audiences would react to Monica and Chandler hooking up at Ross and Emily's wedding in London, the scene in which a clearly nude Monica suddenly emerges from under the sheets of Chandler's hotel bed was filmed in front of three separate test audiences, each of whom responded very enthusiastically to the surprise, several months before the episode was actually taped.[9] Despite the warm reception received from the audience, Silveri and Goldberg-Meehan were at first uncertain as to whether or not they should continue expanding upon their relationship even further, and proceeded with caution by having Monica and Chandler initially keep their relationship hidden from their peers.[9] Protective of their characters, Cox and Perry shared similar hesitations at first, but ultimately grew to accept Monica and Chandler as a couple.[9] The characters' relationship is eventually revealed to their friends in the episode "The One Where Everybody Finds Out".[32] While each character very much approves of their union, Monica's parents initially resent their daughter's feelings for Chandler due to an age-old misunderstanding involving Chandler.[33]

In television, Astin guest-starred as Lynn McGill throughout the fifth season of the Fox drama 24. He also appeared in the made-for-TV films Hercules and The Colour of Magic and in episodes of Monk, Las Vegas, My Name is Earl (in which he parodied his 1993 film Rudy with co-stars Charles S. Dutton and Chelcie Ross), and Law & Order, among other shows. He directed a 2003 episode of the TV series Angel, titled "Soulless". He played the enigmatic Mr. Smith on the second season of the Showtime series Jeremiah.[citation needed]

Gus's parents, Bill and Winnie Guster, are shown to be overly protective of their son and still regard him as a child who needs looking after. They long disapproved of his friendship with Shawn, whom they regarded as a bad influence. After Shawn and Gus solve a murder for which Bill and Winnie had been wrongfully arrested, they mellow towards Shawn and admit that perhaps they do not need to baby Gus so much. (However, immediately after Gus leaves, they offer Shawn cash with a stern order to look after their son).[8] A brother has been referenced in Gus' blog on the official USA Network website, but received no mention in the show.[9] In the deleted scenes for "Gus' Dad May Have Killed an Old Guy" on the Season 2 DVD, Gus's mom mentions a brother who lives in Connecticut. In the episode "Christmas Joy", Gus' family comes to town for the holidays, including Gus' sister Joy, who shares a mutual attraction with Shawn.


Question: How many seasons has Grey's Anatomy been on television?

Grey's Anatomy, the popular medical drama series, has been on TV for numerous seasons. As of February 10, 2017, it was renewed for its fourteenth season, which started airing on September 28, 2017. The show's success has made its long-standing cast members, including Pompeo, Dempsey, and Oh, globally recognized figures in the entertainment industry, ranking them among the top five highest-paid TV actors in 2013.

On May 8, 2014, the CW renewed the show for its fourth season.[4] On July 18, 2014, CW president Mark Pedowitz announced that Hart of Dixie would have ten episodes for its fourth season, which premiered on December 15, 2014.[5] On March 14, 2015, Leila Gerstein revealed that season four of Hart of Dixie would be its last.[6][7] The CW officially cancelled the show on May 7, 2015.[8]

Project Runway Season 15 is the fifteenth season of the television show Project Runway, appearing on Lifetime. The season began on September 15, 2016, and attracted 1.72 million total viewers.[1] There are 16 designers competing to become "the next great American designer." Supermodel Heidi Klum, Marie Claire creative director Nina Garcia, and fashion designer Zac Posen are all returning as judges this season. Tim Gunn maintains his role as the workroom mentor.

Grey's Anatomy has been considered an impact on culture by Entertainment Weekly's executive editor, Lori Majewski, with her writing: "Grey's Anatomy isn't just a show, it's a phenomenon. When [the] final shows air, every place in New York City is empty. You could get a table at the best restaurants."[229] The Daily Beast's Jace Lacob also considered the show an impact, comparing its success to that of Friends, and calling it a "cultural phenomenon".[230] Steve Sternberg, a media analyst with Magna Global USA explained that the show appeals to a broad audience, writing: "Roughly 80 percent of households during prime time only have one TV set on. People are looking for shows they can watch with other household members."[7] Grey's Anatomy introduced a "mc-labeling" surge, ever since it dubbed Dempsey's character "McDreamy". Canadian newspaper the National Post considers this trend a "phenomenon".[231]

The first season, which premiered on AMC on February 8, 2015,[5] consists of 10 episodes. The show's 10-episode second season premiered on February 15, 2016.[6] The series was renewed for a 10-episode third season,[7] which premiered April 10, 2017.[8] On June 27, 2017, the series was renewed by AMC for a 10-episode fourth season that is planned to premiere in September 2018.[9][10]

The most-watched episode of the series is "It's the End of the World", with 37.88 million viewers, aided by a lead-in from Super Bowl XL.[243] Grey's Anatomy was the most expensive program on television in the 2007-08 season measured by advertising revenue, with earnings of US$400,000 per thirty seconds.[244] The show was named the fourth (behind Desperate Housewives, Two and a Half Men, and American Idol),[245] and the fifth-highest (behind Glee, Two and a Half Men, The X Factor (U.S.) and American Idol) revenue earning show, with the earnings of US$2.67 million and US$2.75 million per half hour in 2011 and 2012 respectively.[246] While Grey's Anatomy is no longer ranked in the top numbers for overall ratings, the show's ranking in the key 18â€“49 demographic has remained high. As of season eight, the series is the highest-rated drama on television in the target demographic.[247] In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Grey's Anatomy was "most popular in a swath of the middle of the country, particularly in areas with a lower percentage of college graduates".[248]

Drew was cast in late September 2009 and first appeared on the show in the fifth episode of the sixth season as one of the residents from the Mercy West Hospital after its merger with Seattle Grace.[2] Drew was brought aboard Grey's Anatomy after former collaborations with the Series' producer and creator Shonda Rhimes;[3] she was formally featured as a guest in two episodes of Private Practice in 2008 and was one of the main cast in Rhimes television pilot Inside the Box (2009) which was eventually not picked up by ABC.[3] Her casting came after the absence of some of the central cast members, notably Katherine Heigl departure after her maternity leave and Ellen Pompeo's absence due to pregnancy.[2][3]

The Vampire Diaries, an American supernatural drama, was renewed for an eighth season by The CW on March 11, 2016.[1] On July 23, 2016, the CW announced that the upcoming season would be the series' last and would consist of 16 episodes.[2] The season premiered on October 21, 2016 and concluded on March 10, 2017.[3]

The Affair is an American television drama series created by Sarah Treem and Hagai Levi.[1] The series premiered on Showtime on October 12, 2014. Its second season premiered on October 4, 2015.[2] On December 9, 2015, the series was renewed for a third season,[3] which debuted on November 20, 2016.[4] On January 9, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a fourth season,[5] which premiered on June 17, 2018.[6] The series has been renewed for a fifth and final season to debut in 2019.[7]

The finals were broadcast in prime time from CBS Television City in Los Angeles, in front of a live studio audience. The finals lasted eight weeks in season one. From seasons two to nine and fourteen, the finals lasted eleven weeks. Seasons ten and eleven lasted for twelve weeks, while season twelve lasted for ten weeks. In season season thirteen, the finals lasted thirteen weeks. The finals lasted seven weeks in season fifteen. Each finalist performs songs based on a weekly theme which may be a musical genre such as Motown, disco, or big band, songs by artists such as Michael Jackson, Elvis Presley or The Beatles, or more general themes such as Billboard number-one hits or songs from the contestant's year of birth. Contestants usually worked with a celebrity mentor related to the theme. In season ten, Jimmy Iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season. Initially the contestants sang one song each week, but this was increased to two songs from top four or five onwards, then three songs for the top two or three.

This is a summary of the seven seasons of Melrose Place, an American prime-time soap opera which was broadcast on Fox from 1992 to 1999. In 2004, Soapnet began repeating the series, and all episodes have been released on DVD.


Question: Which technology is utilized in creating a document on Google Drive?

Google Drive is a cloud-based storage and synchronization platform created by Google. It was introduced on April 24, 2012, and enables users to store and synchronize files across various devices, as well as share them with others. Google Drive is accessible via a web application and offers offline functionality through dedicated apps for Windows, macOS, Android, and iOS devices. The service includes Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides, a suite of collaborative editing tools for documents, spreadsheets, presentations, and other file types, all of which are automatically saved in Google Drive.

On December 14, 2010, Microsoft announced its intent to backport the Office File Validation feature to Office 2003 and Office 2007.[105][106] On April 12, 2011, Office File Validation was backported as an add-in for Office 2003 SP3 and Office 2007 SP2, and was later made available through Microsoft Update on June 28, 2011.[107] Office File Validation in Office 2003 and Office 2007 differs from the version in Office 2010 as these two releases do not include the Protected View feature. When users attempt to open a document that fails validation, they must first agree to a warning prompt before it can be opened.[107] Additionally, the configuration options in these two releases are only made available through the Windows Registry,[108] whereas Office 2010 also provides Group Policy options.[102]

User documentation can be produced in a variety of online and print formats.[1] However, there are three broad ways in which user documentation can be organized.

Software is written in one or more programming languages; there are many programming languages in existence, and each has at least one implementation, each of which consists of its own set of programming tools. These tools may be relatively self-contained programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task; or they may form an integrated development environment (IDE), which combines much or all of the functionality of such self-contained tools. IDEs may do this by either invoking the relevant individual tools or by re-implementing their functionality in a new way. An IDE can make it easier to do specific tasks, such as searching in files in a particular project. Many programming language implementations provide the option of using both individual tools or an IDE.

Excel, PowerPoint, and Word support text effects such as bevels, gradient fills, glows, reflections, and shadows. Publisher and Word support OpenType features such as kerning, ligatures, stylistic sets, and text figures with fonts such as Calibri, Cambria, Corbel, and Gabriola.[114]

Edge integrates with Microsoft's online platforms: it integrates with the Cortana digital assistant, available in some countries, to provide voice control, search functionality, and dynamic, personalized information related to searches within the address bar. Users can make annotations to web pages that can be stored to and shared with OneDrive,[18] but can't save HTML pages to their own computers. It also integrates with the "Reading List" function and provides a "Reading Mode" that strips unnecessary formatting from pages to improve their legibility.[18]

The only way of accomplishing the verification task was to set up a specialized mechanism equipped with the best of IT-based work flow management system to send the documents to the respective backend authorities (offices from where the document was issued) through the development of specialized and sophisticated software named as “DOCSMEN – Document Segregation and Meta-Data Entry”. The DOCSMEN software is used for feeding information about documents such as destination, document code, metadata and then slicing as per document details for electronic sending to various destinations inside and outside Assam. It may be added that during Application receipt, the same Application Form and its supporting documents were scanned in a single PDF and the PDF was then sliced in Application Forms, supporting documents based on their page numbers. This software is installed in over 6000 standalone laptops deployed in NSKs and circles and the data is then uploaded into a central database for further processing. A special utility is used at central Data Centre for generation of documents in lots (a set of 50 documents) of the same category from same issuing authority but received from varied sources/across the state. This enables systematic sending of documents to issuing offices for backend checking. For example, for the State Board of Education, any lot would contain only the document of a particular year and examination centre irrespective of the location where such documents were submitted. As such, each of the 6.65 crore documents is packed into lots of 79534 issuing authorities for sending electronically to such issuing authority. This bespoke software handled robust data and enabled processing of crores of documents in a systematic format that enabled completion of verification of 4.52 crores of documents in a span of 8 months. Without a state of the art Document Management System, it would have taken years to achieve such kind of progress.

One design goal of Java is portability, which means that programs written for the Java platform must run similarly on any combination of hardware and operating system with adequate runtime support. This is achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation called Java bytecode, instead of directly to architecture-specific machine code. Java bytecode instructions are analogous to machine code, but they are intended to be executed by a virtual machine (VM) written specifically for the host hardware. End users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) installed on their own machine for standalone Java applications, or in a web browser for Java applets.

Open source note taking software in Linux includes applications such as Xournal (which supports PDF file annotation), Gournal (a Gnome-based note taking application), and the Java-based Jarnal (which supports handwriting recognition as a built-in function). Before the advent of the aforementioned software, many users had to rely on on-screen keyboards and alternative text input methods like Dasher. There is a stand-alone handwriting recognition program available, CellWriter, in which users must write letters separately in a grid.

Plain text exclusively consists of character representation. Each character is represented by one, two or four bytes, in accordance to character encoding conventions, such as ASCII or Unicode. These conventions define many printable characters but also non-printing characters that control the flow of the text, such space, line break and page break but plain text contains no other information about the text itself, not even the character encoding convention employed. Plain text is stored in text files, although text files do not exclusively store plain text. In the early days of computers, plain text was displayed using a monospace font, so horizontal alignment and columnar formatting were sometimes done using whitespace characters. For compatibility reason, this tradition did not change.

A new background removal feature based on Microsoft Research technology is included in Excel, Outlook, PowerPoint, and Word to remove the backgrounds of images inserted into documents. It is exposed as a Remove Background command that appears on the Picture Tools contextual tab on the ribbon when an image is selected. When activated this command displays a separate Background Removal contextual tab and places a selection rectangle and magenta color over portions of the selected image. The selection rectangle determines, based on an algorithm, which area of the selected image will be retained once the background removal process is complete, whereas the magenta color indicates the areas that will be removed. Users can manually adjust the position and size of the selection rectangle and also mark individual areas of an image to keep or remove;[115] it is also possible to delete a mark after an inadvertent selection or if it produces an undesired result. After the background has been removed, users can apply various visual effects to the result image or wrap text in a document around it; users can also crop the image since removing the background does not reduce its original size.[116]


Question: How did Leo Dalton die in the series Silent Witness?

In the television series Silent Witness, Dr. Leo Dalton, portrayed by William Gaminara, meets his demise in an explosion during the sixteenth series. Following his tragic death, Dr. Thomas Chamberlain, played by Richard Lintern, takes over his role as a pathologist at the beginning of the seventeenth series.

They head into the rocky, mountainous wilderness of the Sierra Nevadas with Shadow leading by instinct. After a night spent in fear of the woodland noises, the group stops to catch breakfast at a river.  However, two black bear cubs bother Chance and a large brown bear causes the group to flee.  At another river, Sassy refuses to swim across to follow the dogs and instead tries to via a wooden path further downstream; halfway across, the wood breaks and she falls into the river.  Shadow tries to save her, but she goes over a waterfall to her apparent death.  Devastated, Shadow and Chance go on without her.  Unknown to them, Sassy survives and is later found on the riverbank by an old man named Quentin (William Edward Phipps), who nurses her back to health.

They target the wealthy Frank Griga (Michael Rispoli), who owns a phone sex operation. After a promising discussion at Griga's mansion, the gang invites Griga and his wife Krisztina Furton (Keili Lefkovitz) to Doorbal's home to propose an investment scheme. Griga insists on meeting with someone more senior and questions Lugo's amateurish business savvy. This angers Lugo, who attacks Griga and accidentally kills him. Krisztina discovers this and tries to shoot Lugo, but Doorbal injects her with a potent horse tranquilizer. Lugo and Doyle try to use the combination obtained from a heavily sedated Krisztina to open a safe at her and Griga's home, but the combination does not work. When Krisztina rouses and tries to escape, Doorbal gives her a second injection, accidentally causing her to fatally overdose.

A couple sits at a booth in a diner, while the woman (Friday Night Lights star Aasha Davis) breaks up with her boyfriend (Saturday Night Live writer and The Lonely Island band member Jorma Taccone). After receiving the plate he requested from the waitress, the man stabs himself in the chest, and pulls out his heart, places it on the plate and gives it to the woman. He explains that his heart "is actually [hers] now," that he will never be able to get over her, and says "from now on every girl that I meet will be meticulously compared to the false memory of what you and I once 'had.'" The woman offers to return it after keeping it temporarily for a "shitty day" or when she needs to move something heavy, but the man insists that he is now "heartless" and thus will passively/aggressively ruin all his future relationships. The heart then comes to life, growing arms, legs and a mouth, and begins to sing the lyrics to the song on the counters of the diner using a piece of broccoli as a microphone before finally stabbing itself with a knife and pulling the man's head out of its body. The head looks around, staring off into space. The scene cuts back to the man staring out the window as the woman speaks. The woman finally asks, "Are you even listening to me?" The man simply replies "No." Cee-Lo and Danger Mouse also made cameos as chefs in the diner.

One of the Silence calls Rory "the man who dies and dies again", a reference to the many times he appears to die.[4] The episode's main plot centres around the damage caused by River when she tries to re-write a fixed point in time. The concept of "fixed points" in history which may not be altered, even by the Doctor or his companions, was introduced in The Aztecs (1964) and was named and explored in the new series with episodes such as "The Fires of Pompeii" and "The Waters of Mars".[4][5] When River meets Amy for a bottle of wine, she is wearing military fatigues and says that she "just climbed out of the Byzanthium", and that she saw Amy there. This refers to events in "Time of Angels" and "Flesh and Stone" (the "crash of the Byzanthium" first being mentioned in "Silence in the Library".)[6]

Callum's troubled elder sister, Lynette, commits suicide by throwing herself in front of a bus. Only Callum knows that it was suicide, as Lynette had left him a secret note that talks of her depression after an attack on her and her cross boyfriend. Everyone else thinks that it was a tragic accident, despite all of her previous suicide attempts.

Dale Cooper lies on the floor of his hotel room after being shot in the stomach. In the background, Deputy Andy Brennan calls out for Cooper from the telephone and The Waiter (Hank Worden) enters Cooper's room. He places a glass of warm milk on the table, hangs up the telephone and cannot understand Cooper's request to call a doctor. He leaves the room and re-enters twice, giving Cooper a thumbs up. A mysterious, semi-transparent figure enters the room and The Giant (Carel Struycken) appears above Cooper. The Giant tells Cooper three things: "there is a man in a smiling bag", "the owls are not what they seem" and "without chemicals, he points."[6] He asks Cooper for his ring and tells him he will return it to him when he discovers the meaning of his clues. He vanishes after giving a fourth clue: "Leo locked inside a hungry horse, there is a clue at Leo's house."[6] After The Giant vanishes, Cooper begins recording a message into his tape recorder for Diane, revealing his dying wishes. During his speech, Sheriff Truman (Michael Ontkean), Deputy Hawk (Michael Horse) and Deputy Brennan enter Cooper's room with weapons drawn and bring him to the hospital.

After only three years in the series, the character of Martha Longhurst was axed by a new producer, who assumed that Carol would be likely to find other acting jobs. Carol was deeply shocked to read in the newspaper that the days of her character were now numbered[citation needed]. Martha died quietly of a heart attack in the snug (one of the three bars in the Rovers, the others being the public and the select) of the public house in May 1964. The subsequent burial took place in the Manchester General Cemetery where a special grave had been prepared. Carol remained bitter about Martha's death, and believed to the end that a terrible mistake had been made, as her character was so popular. Viewers responded by complaining in their thousands and, later, the writers acknowledged that they had made a mistake.

The rivalry between Cole and Rowdy intensifies throughout the season until tragedy strikes. At the Firecracker 400 in Daytona, both drivers are seriously injured after their cars are destroyed in a multi-car wreck. While recovering from his injuries in Daytona Beach, Cole develops a romantic relationship with Dr. Claire Lewicki, a neurosurgeon at Halifax Hospital who was senior doctor on duty when he was brought in after his crash and who was attending to his health. At the same time, NASCAR president Big John, brings Rowdy and Cole together in a meeting and warns them that he and his sport will no longer tolerate any hanky-panky from the two rivals. Afterwards, Cole and Rowdy go out to lunch together by Big John's persuasion, and settle their differences by banging rental cars on the beach. Cole and Rowdy change from bitter rivals to close friends.

Soon after sobering up, Stewie stretches and takes out a Jenny Craig Anytime Bar from his shopping bag. Brian loses his temper with Stewie for not revealing that he had been storing food the entire time. After Brian calms down, Stewie asks him why he had the gun in the first place, eventually coaxing Brian into revealing that he keeps the gun in case he ever wants to commit suicide. Brian confesses that he cannot find his purpose in life, and finds comfort in knowing he has the option of killing himself. He admits that the Scotch was to be a last drink. Stunned, Stewie admits that he would be lost without Brian, claiming he is the only person in the world that he really cares about, and he eventually confesses that he loves him as an irreplaceable friend, and that he gives his life meaning. Brian tells Stewie he loves him back. In addition, Stewie reminds Brian that maybe making someone else happy is enough, because it is the best gift one person can give, for which Brian thanks him. Stewie falls asleep as Brian reads the beginning of David Copperfield to him. The following morning, the vault door opens, and Brian carries a sleeping Stewie and their belongings out of the room in silence. The credits also roll in silence.

Paramedic Leslie Shay (season 1â€“2) was Gabby Dawson's partner at Ambulance 61 and the designated driver. An experienced paramedic, she was well-liked by the mostly male crew of 51 and was frequently seen joking and horseplaying with them in the lounge during downtime. She and Kelly Severide share an apartment as roommates and are best friends.  Shay is openly gay, often cracking self-deprecating jokes about it, and is entangled in a relationship with her ex-lover Clarice who was most recently married to and impregnated by a man.  She is fiercely loyal to her friends, particularly to Kelly, for whom she has risked her job for several times. Towards the end of season 1 and season 2 she tries to have a baby through artificial insemination with Kelly but the process fails. She is also close with Dawson, but a rift comes between them when Dawson fails to be there for her during her downward spiral of guilt over a man's suicide. She then gets mixed up with a girl she met, Devon, who she really liked, but that all ended when Devon robbed Shay and her roommates, Severide and Otis. Shay disappears and Severide tries to look for her. He asks for Dawson's help and when Dawson finds her they rekindle their friendship and Shay goes back to Firehouse 51. An accident in the cliffhanger season finale of season two leaves Shay critically injured in the explosion of a building and she dies in the third-season premiere "Always". Her death affected the entire firehouse as she was popular with everyone and well-liked by the mostly-male crew. The subsequent investigation and Severide's own observations reveal that Shay had been murdered. Chicago PD detectives later linked the fire with a string of unsolved arson cases dating back several decades. The investigation proved that the arsonist and murderer of Shay was Trenton Lamont under the aliases of Adrian Gish and Ross Mcgowan. Shay was avenged for good when Lamont was later shot and killed by Chicago PD detective Antonio Dawson.


Question: Public companies are considered part of which economic sector?

The public sector, also referred to as the state sector, encompasses the segment of the economy that includes both public services and public enterprises, typically associated with government ownership or control. Public companies, while often for-profit entities, can be considered part of this sector when they are majority-owned or controlled by the government. However, it's important to note that the term "public companies" generally refers to companies whose shares are traded on a stock exchange, which can be in any economic sector and are not necessarily part of the public sector.

The Scottish Government is also responsible for a large number of non-departmental public bodies. These include executive NDPBs (e.g. Scottish Enterprise); advisory NDPBs (e.g. the Scottish Law Commission); tribunals (e.g. the Children's Panel and Additional Support Needs Tribunals for Scotland); and nationalised industries (e.g. Scottish Water).  These are staffed by public servants, rather than civil servants.

About half of the electricity sector in Honduras is privately owned. The remaining generation capacity is run by ENEE (Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica). Key challenges in the sector are:

Financial institutions in most countries operate in a heavily regulated environment because they are critical parts of countries' economies, due to economies' dependence on them to grow the money supply via fractional reserve lending. Regulatory structures differ in each country, but typically involve prudential regulation as well as consumer protection and market stability. Some countries have one consolidated agency that regulates all financial institutions while others have separate agencies for different types of institutions such as banks, insurance companies and brokers.

Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with the City of London being the largest. The European financial sector is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money on banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.

The East Asian model of capitalism involves a strong role for state investment, and in some instances involves state-owned enterprises. The state takes an active role in promoting economic development through subsidies, the facilitation of "national champions", and an export-based model of growth. The actual practice of this model varies by country. This designation has been applied to the economies of Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and the People's Republic of China.

Community services are a wide range of community institutions, governmental and non-governmental services, voluntary, third sector organizations, and grassroots and neighborhood efforts in local communities, towns, cities, and suburban-exurban areas. In line with governmental and community thinking, volunteering and unpaid services are often preferred (e.g., altruism, beneficence) to large and continued investments in infrastructure and community services personnel, with private-public partnerships often common.

Market economies can range from free market systems to regulated markets and various forms of interventionist variants. In reality, free markets do not exist in pure form, since societies and governments all regulate them to varying degrees.[4][5] Different perspectives exist as to how strong a role the government should have in both guiding and regulating market economies and addressing the inequalities the market naturally produces. Most existing market economies include a degree of state-directed activity or economic planning, and are thus classified as mixed economies. The term free-market economy is sometimes used synonymously with market economy.[6]

The First World War period saw change of emphasis in economic theory away from industry-level analysis which mainly included analyzing markets to analysis at the level of the firm, as it became increasingly clear that perfect competition was no longer an adequate model of how firms behaved. Economic theory until then had focused on trying to understand markets alone and there had been little study on understanding why firms or organisations exist. Markets are guided by prices and quality as illustrated by vegetable markets where a buyer is free to switch sellers in an exchange.

Public schools are often overcrowded, lacking in textbooks and other instructional resources. The buildings themselves often have broken light fixtures, cracked walls, and other damage to the physical building. Polytechnic schools are considered public, however, they are also aided by another organization, usually a religious group. Polytechnic schools generally have higher quality facilities than public schools not linked to a secondary organization. Many schools in rural areas lack more infrastructure than public schools. Additionally, many schools in rural areas do not teach grades past the 6th grade. Private schools in general are of higher quality than public schools and often have resources and advantages that are not available to public schools. Private schools are able to pay their teachers a higher salary and provide higher quality learning resources such as textbooks for the students. These private schools generally serve students with parents from the upper middle class.[3]

Capitalism generally refers to an economic system where the means of production are largely or entirely privately owned and operated for a profit, structured on the process of capital accumulation. In general, in capitalist systems investment, distribution, income, and prices are determined by markets, whether regulated or unregulated.


Question: Who portrayed young Clark Kent in the 1978 Superman film?

Jeff East, an American actor born on October 27, 1957, started his acting career at the age of fourteen. He is recognized for his role as Huckleberry Finn in the United Artists feature films Tom Sawyer (1973) and Huckleberry Finn (1974). Additionally, East is known for his depiction of a young Clark Kent in Alexander Salkind's Superman: The Movie (1978).

In January 2003, Warner Bros. hired Memento director Christopher Nolan to direct an untitled Batman film,[30] and David S. Goyer signed on to write the script two months later.[31] Nolan stated his intention to reinvent the film franchise of Batman by "doing the origins story of the character, which is a story that's never been told before". Nolan said that humanity and realism would be the basis of the origin film, and that "the world of Batman is that of grounded reality. [It] will be a recognizable, contemporary reality against which an extraordinary heroic figure arises." Goyer said that the goal of the film was to get the audience to care for both Batman and Bruce Wayne.[32] Nolan felt the previous films were exercises in style rather than drama, and described his inspiration as being Richard Donner's 1978 film Superman, in its focus on depicting the character's growth.[5] Also similar to Superman, Nolan wanted an all-star supporting cast for Batman Begins to lend a more epic feel and credibility to the story.[12]

A major film role came in 1998 with the fantasy comedy Pleasantville, in which she portrayed Margaret, the love interest of Tobey Maguire's character.[22] The movie did not find a wide audience in theaters, but received an extremely positive reaction from critics.[23][24] This role was followed by a number of other appearances in films aimed at a teenage audience, including her role as a member of a snobby high school clique in 1999's sleeper hit Never Been Kissed,[25] a romantic comedy co-starring Drew Barrymore and David Arquette.[26][27]

Having become famous as Chester, he was next cast in an offbeat supporting role in the 1958 Orson Welles film Touch of Evil,[7] in which he played a face-twisting, body-contorting eccentric employee of a remote motel who nervously repeated, "I'm the night man." In 1960, he appeared in an episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents titled "Insomnia," in which his character suffers from sleeplessness due to the tragic death of his wife. He also co-starred in a 1961 episode of The Twilight Zone titled "Shadow Play". In that episode Weaver's character is trapped inside his own revolving nightmare, repeatedly being tried, sentenced, and then executed in the electric chair.[8] Later, from 1964 to 1965, he portrayed a friendly veterinary physician in NBC's comedy-drama Kentucky Jones. His next substantial role was as Tom Wedloe on the CBS family series Gentle Ben, with co-star Clint Howard, from 1967 to 1969.

Hart began his screen career in 1937 with a bit part in Daughter of Shanghai. He continued in a variety of B pictures such as Prison Farm and King of Alcatraz before appearing in two of Cecil B. DeMille's films The Buccaneer (1938) and North West Mounted Police (1940). In 1941, Hart's acting career was interrupted when he was drafted into the United States Army. He rose to the rank of first sergeant in the Coast Artillery and eventually served in the Philippines.[2] Following his military service, Hart worked frequently for Sam Katzman; he was given the lead role in the Jack Armstrong (1947) film serial. Hart did stunt work and acted in numerous Westerns

His first screen performance was in The Shaggy D.A. in 1976. He played President Grover Cleveland in Robert Altman's Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson in the same year. In 1977, he appeared in Smokey and the Bandit and appeared in the sequels in both 1980 and 1983, alongside Paul Williams as wealthy con men Big and Little Enos Burdette respectively. Pat appeared in the 1982 TV movie Rooster, which also starred Williams. He appeared as the Ghost of Christmas Present in a TV production in the Bill Murray comedy Scrooged in 1988, with his final appearance being in Ted & Venus.[7]

Batman & Robin is a 1997 American superhero film based on the DC Comics characters Batman and Robin. It is the fourth and final installment of Warner Bros.' initial Batman film series. The film was directed by Joel Schumacher and written by Akiva Goldsman. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger, George Clooney, Chris O'Donnell, Alicia Silverstone, and Uma Thurman. Batman & Robin tells the story of Batman and Robin as they attempt to prevent Mr. Freeze and Poison Ivy from freezing all mankind to death and repopulating the earth with mutant plants, while at the same time struggling to keep their partnership together. It is also to date the only live-action film appearance of Batgirl, who helps the title characters fight the villains.

As a child, he made numerous appearances on The Andy Griffith Show, between 1962 and 1966, as Opie's friend "Johnny Paul Jason". He also accepted small roles on other popular television shows.

Summer of the Monkeys is a 1998 American family adventure-drama film directed by Michael Anderson and stars Corey Sevier as Jay Berry Lee, a young boy who discovers circus monkeys living in the forest near his home. The movie also stars Michael Ontkean and Leslie Hope as Jay Berry's parents, as well as Katie Stuart, Don Francks, and Wilford Brimley.

Jim references both Michael J. Fox and the 1985 film Back to the Future during his "nonsense" conference room meeting. Dwight realizes that Phillip is his son after the child looks at a small-scale replica of the Battlestar Galactica, fictional ship from the science fiction series of the same name, in the same way that Dwight does.[9] Dwight's test to see if Phillip is his son has been compared to a similar scene in the 1997 film Kundun, in which Tibetan monks practice a similar ritual.[10] To win over Kevin, Angela and Oscar pretend that baby Phillip presented him with an iTunes gift card.[9] Darryl and the rest of the office dance to the song "Boogie Wonderland" by Earth, Wind, and Fire.[6] The show Andy auditions for America's Next A Cappella Sensation, is a parody of popular singing shows like American Idol, The Voice, and The Sing-Off. The fictional show is hosted by Mark McGrath, the lead singer from the rock band Sugar Ray.[11] The judges for the show include Aaron Rodgers, Clay Aiken, and Santigold. Rodgers is an American football quarterback for the Green Bay Packers, Aiken is a singer who gained prominence following the second season of American Idol in 2003, and Santigold is an American singer, songwriter, and producer.[6][7] Andy sings both the Cornell University alma mater ("Far Above Cayuga's Waters"), as well as "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" from the musical Annie. The woman auditioning that he interrupts is Rachel Crow, who achieved fame after competing in season one of The X-Factor.[9]

After filming of Full Metal Jacket was completed, having lost nearly all the weight gained for the movie in just nine months, D'Onofrio went on to play Dawson, the owner of Dawson's Garage in Adventures in Babysitting (1987). He appears in only one scene near the end of the film. In 1988, he was cast in another supporting role in the film Mystic Pizza, playing the fiancÃ© of Lili Taylor's character. In the movie, which was Julia Roberts' breakout film, he was billed under his full name Vincent Phillip D'Onofrio.


Question: Who established the Indian Society of Oriental Art?

Abanindranath Tagore, a prominent artist and advocate for Swadeshi values in Indian art, established the Indian Society of Oriental Art. As a key figure in the development of modern Indian painting, Tagore also made significant contributions to Bengali literature, particularly in children's books like Rajkahini, Budo Angla, Nalak, and Khirer Putul.

A comprehensive introductory book Assamese Language-Literature & Sahityarathi Lakshminath Bezbaroa originally authored by leading Assamese littÃ©rateur of Awahon-Ramdhenu Era and pioneer Assam economist Bhabananda Deka together with his three deputies, Parikshit Hazarika, Upendra Nath Goswami and Prabhat Chandra Sarma, was published in 1968. This book was officially released in New Delhi on 24 Nov 1968 by then President of India Dr Zakir Hussain in commemoration of the birth centenary celebration of doyen of Assamese literature Lakshminath Bezbaroa. After almost half a century, this historic book has been recovered and re-edited by Assamese award-winning short-story writer & novelist Arnab Jan Deka, which was published by Assam Foundation-India in 2014.[7] This second enlarged edition was officially released on 4 December 2014 on the occasion of 150th birth anniversary of Lakshminath Bezbaroa and 8th Death Anniversary of Bhabananda Deka by Great Britain-based bilingual magazine Luit to Thames (Luitor Pora Thamsoloi) editor Dr Karuna Sagar Das.

In the ending years of the 1970s, the seven inner South Asian nations that included Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka agreed upon the creation of a trade bloc and to provide a platform for the people of South Asia to work together in a spirit of friendship, trust, and understanding. President Ziaur Rahman later addressed official letters to the leaders of the countries of the South Asia, presenting his vision for the future of the region and the compelling arguments for region.[8] During his visit to India in December 1977, Rahman discussed the issue of regional cooperation with the Indian Prime Minister, Morarji Desai. In the inaugural speech to the Colombo Plan Consultative Committee which met in Kathmandu also in 1977, King Birendra of Nepal gave a call for close regional cooperation among South Asian countries in sharing river waters.[9] After the USSR's intervention in Afghanistan, the efforts to establish the union was accelerated in 1979 and the resulting rapid deterioration of South Asian security situation.[9] Responding to Rahman and Birendra's convention, the officials of the foreign ministries of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981.[9] The Bangladeshi proposal was promptly endorsed by Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and the Maldives but India and Pakistan were sceptical initially.[9] The Indian concern was the proposal’s reference to the security matters in South Asia and feared that Rahman's proposal for a regional organisation might provide an opportunity for new smaller neighbours to renationalise all bilateral issues and to join with each other to form an opposition against India. Pakistan assumed that it might be an Indian strategy to organise the other South Asian countries against Pakistan and ensure a regional market for Indian products, thereby consolidating and further strengthening India’s economic dominance in the region.[9]

Mehta was born on 4 August 1845 in Bombay (now Mumbai) to a Parsi business family. Graduating from the Elphinstone College in 1864, he obtained his Master of Arts degree, with honors, six months later, becoming the first such Parsi, from the University of Mumbai. Scholar and then principal of the university, Sir Alexander Grant nominated him a Fellow of the University and tried to procure him a scholarship founded by Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy to study in Europe. However, Mehta did not avail the scholarship.[2]

In 1955 the Bollywood group Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association (CCMAA) created a rule that did not allow women to obtain memberships as makeup artists.[10] However, in 2014 the Supreme Court of India ruled that this rule was in violation of the Indian constitutional guarantees granted under Article 14 (right to equality), 19(1)(g) (freedom to carry out any profession) and Article 21 (right to liberty).[10] The judges of the Supreme Court of India stated that the ban on women makeup artist members had no "rationale nexus" to the cause sought to be achieved and was "unacceptable, impermissible and inconsistent" with the constitutional rights guaranteed to the citizens.[10] The Court also found illegal the rule which mandated that for any artist, female or male, to work in the industry, they must have domicile status of five years in the state where they intend to work.[10] In 2015 it was announced that Charu Khurana had become the first woman to be registered by the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association.[11]

Sokatsu Shaku, one of Shaku's senior students, arrived in late 1906, founding a Zen meditation center called Ryomokyo-kai. One of his disciples, Shigetsu Sasaki, better known under his monastic name Sokei-an, came to New York to teach. In 1931, his small group incorporated as the Buddhist Society of America, later renamed the First Zen Institute of America. By the late 1930s, one of his most active supporters was Ruth Fuller Everett, an American socialite and the mother-in-law of Alan Watts. Shortly before Sokei-an's death in 1945, he and Everett would wed, at which point she took the name Ruth Fuller Sasaki.

Influenced by Galton's Finger Prints, the men corresponded regularly in 1894; and in January 1896, Sir Henry ordered the Bengali Police to collect prisonersâ€™ fingerprints in addition to their anthropometric measurements. Expanding on Galton's classification system, Sir Henry developed the Henry Classification System between the years 1896 and 1925. He was primarily assisted by Azizul Haque who developed a mathematical formula to supplement Henry's idea of sorting in 1024 pigeon holes based on fingerprint patterns, and Hem Chandra Bose, another Henry's assistant also helped refine the system, and both, on the recommendation of Henry received recognition years later by the British Government for their contribution.[1][2][3] The Henry Classification System was to find worldwide acceptance in 1899. In 1897 a commission was established to compare Anthropometry to the Henry Classification System. As the results were overwhelmingly in favor of fingerprints, fingerprinting was introduced to British India by the Governor General, and in 1900, replaced Anthropometry. Also in 1900, Henry was sent to Natal, South Africa to assist in the reorganization of the local police force and establish a fingerprint bureau. His efforts in South Africa were highly successful; and in 1901 Sir Henry returned to Britain and was appointed Assistant Commissioner of Scotland Yard, head of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID). In the same year, the first UK fingerprint bureau was established at Scotland Yard. (Harling 1996) (Met) (Early)

The growth of the Indian middle class during the 18th century, amidst competition among regional powers and the ascendancy of the British East India Company, led to a growing sense of "Indian" identity.[1] The refinement of this perspective fed a rising tide of nationalism in India in the last decades of the 1800s.[2] Its speed was abetted by the creation of the Indian National Congress in India in 1885 by A.O. Hume. The Congress developed into a major platform for the demands of political liberalisation, increased autonomy and social reform.[3] However, the nationalist movement became particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and, later, in Punjab. Notable, if smaller, movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas in the South.[3] The movement in Maharshtra, especially Bombay and Poona preceded most revolutionary movements in the country. This movement, further, had the ideological, and by some suggestion covert but active, support of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. 1876 saw the foundation of The Indian Association in Calcutta under the leadership of Surendranath Banerjea. This organisation successfully drew into its folds students and the urban middleâ€“class, for which it served as a mouthpiece. The Association became the mouthpiece of an informal constituency of students and middle-class gentlemen. It sponsored the Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885, which later merged with the Indian National Congress.[4] Calcutta was at the time the most prominent centre for organised politics, and some of the same students who attended the political meetings began at the time to organise "secret societies" which cultivated a cultural of physical strength and nationalist feelings.

After the Maratha defeat in the Third Maratha War, the East India Company had exiled Peshwa Baji Rao II to Bithoor near Cawnpore (now Kanpur), where he maintained a large establishment paid for in part out of a British pension. Nana 's father, a well-educated Deccani Brahmin, had travelled with his family from the Western Ghats to become a court official of the former Peshwa at Bithoor. Lacking sons, Baji Rao adopted Nana Sahib and his younger brother in 1827. The mother of both children was a sister of one of the Peshwa's wives.[3] Nana Sahib's childhood associates included Tantya Tope, Azimullah Khan and Manikarnika Tambe who later became famous as Rani Lakshmibai. Tantya Tope was the son of Pandurang Rao Tope, an important noble at the court of the Peshwa Baji Rao II. After Baji Rao II was exiled to Bithoor, Pandurang Rao and his family also shifted there. Tantya Tope was the fencing master to Nana Sahib. Azimullah Khan joined the court of Nana Sahib as Secretary, after the death of Baji Rao II in 1851. He later became the dewan in Nana Sahib's court.

In 1858, left his home in Coolootola and took refuge in the Jorasanko House of the Tagore family[18] when the patriarch of the family was then away. In 1862 Sen helped found the Albert College and wrote articles for the Indian Mirror, a weekly journal of the Calcutta Brahmo Samaj in which social and moral subjects were debated.[14]

James Popplewell, writing in 1995, noted that the Raj perceived the Samiti in its early days as a serious threat to its rule.[56] Its activities and ideologies found tacit support from within Bengali populace, even if not overt support. However historian Sumit Sarkar noted that the Samiti never mustered enough support to offer an urban rebellion or a guerrilla campaign. Both Peter Heehs and Sumit Sarkar noted that the Samiti called for complete independence a good twenty years before the Congress adopted this as its aim. A number of landmark events early in the Indian independence movement, including the revolutionary conspiracies of World War I, involved the Samiti intricately as noted in the Rowlatt report. In later years, the ascendant left-wing of the Congress, particularly Subhas Chandra Bose was suspected of having links with the Samiti.[citation needed] Heehs argued the actions of the revolutionary nationalists exemplified by the Samiti, forced the government to parley more seriously with the leaders of the legitimate movement. Gandhi was always aware of this. "At the Round Table Conference of 1931, the apostle of non-violence declared that he held 'no brief for the terrorists', but added that if the government refused to work with him, it would have the terrorists to deal with. The only way to 'say good-bye to terrorism' was 'to work the Congress for all it is worth'".[57]


Question: Where is "The Ranch" filmed for Netflix?

The Ranch, a popular American comedy series on Netflix featuring Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Debra Winger, and Sam Elliott, is set on the fictional Iron River Ranch in Colorado. The show revolves around the lives of the Bennett family, who are portrayed as a dysfunctional unit with two brothers, a rancher father, and a separated wife who owns a local bar. Although the series showcases scenic views of Ouray, Colorado, and its surroundings in the opening credits, the actual filming takes place on a sound stage in Burbank, California, in front of a live audience. The series is structured with each season comprising 20 episodes, which are divided into two parts of 10 episodes each.

Born in Tenafly, New Jersey,[1] Hamer was the youngest of three sons of Arthur Walter John, Sr., a men's shirt salesman and Dorothy Hamer (nÃ©e Chretin), a former silent film actress.[2] He had two elder brothers, John and Walter.[3] As a child, Hamer was nicknamed "Rusty" because of his red hair and freckles.[4] Due to his parents' involvement in community theatre productions, Hamer and his brothers also began performing in stage productions. As a toddler, Hamer memorized and recited stories and performed skits for service club luncheons, women's clubs and church groups.[5] In 1951, the Hamers moved to Los Angeles where Arthur Hamer worked as representative for a manufacturer of men's sport shirts (Arthur Hamer died eight months after his son was cast in The Danny Thomas Show).[2][6][7] Shortly after arriving, Hamer's elder brother John was discovered by an agent while performing in a local stage production in which Hamer was also performing. The agent signed both boys to a film contract.[3] The following year, Hamer won his first acting role in the 3-D Western Fort Ti, starring George Montgomery and Joan Vohs.[8]

Filming locations included Arizona's Old Tucson Studios, and Mescal, Arizona.[1] Scenes involving Willie Nelson were filmed inside a saloon in Mescal on September 21, 1987.[2] Locomotive Number 40, located at the Nevada Northern Railway Museum in Ely, Nevada, was used as the film's train.[3]

The season featured a total of fourteen people, consisting of seven original roommates and seven additional permanent roommates who lived in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Seattle, Washington. This season follows a twist from the past three seasons. It is the tenth season to take place in a city that had hosted a previous season, as the show's seventh season was set in Seattle in 1998. Seattle was first reported as the location for the thirty-second season by the website Vevmo on May 22, 2016. Production began on June 30, and concluded on August 27, 2016 totaling up to 58 days of filming.[2]

On July 18, 2016, production crews had arrived in Riverdale, Toronto,[166][167][168] with filming beginning at 450 Pape Ave, which is home to a circa 1902 heritage-designated building called Cranfield House, up until August 19, 2016.[169][170] It was reported on September 4 that filming had wrapped in Oshawa, which included the haunted house location, as well as on Court and Fisher streets.[171] Principal photography was confirmed to have ended in Toronto on September 21, 2016,[172][173] with an altered shooting schedule occurring from June 27 to September 21, 2016, and post-production initially beginning on September 14, 2016.[174][175]

The film was made at the Bavaria Film Studio in the Munich suburb of Geiselgasteig in rural Bavaria, where sets for the barrack interiors and tunnels were constructed. The camp was built in a clearing of the Perlacher forest near the studio.[22][23] The German town near the real camp was Sagan (now Żagań, Poland); it was renamed Neustadt in the film.[23] Many scenes were filmed in and around the town of Füssen in Bavaria, including its railway station. The nearby district of Pfronten[24] with its distinctive St. Nikolaus Church and scenic background also features often in the film.[23] Many scenes involving the railway were filmed near Deisenhofen station and on the Großhesselohe - Holzkirchen line.[25] The castle Hendley and Blythe fly by while attempting to escape is Neuschwanstein Castle.[26]

Season 3 was filmed in two parts. Part 1 (or Season 3A) was filmed from December 3, 2012[27] and wrapped up on May 5, 2013. Part 2 (Season 3B) began filming on July 29, 2013, and wrapped up on December 19, 2013.[28] Unlike the previous two seasons, which were shot in Atlanta, Georgia, this season will be shot in Los Angeles, California.[29]

In Spain, a ranch owned by Moreno (Raúl Esparza) that trains bulls for bullfighting called Casa del Toro harbours a bull calf named Ferdinand (Colin H. Murphy). He is ridiculed by his fellow calves Bones (Nile Diaz), Guapo (Jet Jurgensmeyer), and Valiente (Jack Gore) for being non-confrontational and his tendency to smell and protect flowers. A saddened Ferdinand runs away from Casa del Toro after his father Raf (Jeremy Sisto) does not return from the bull fight he was picked for and a flower he was fond of was flattened by Valiente after his own father was defeated by Raf. He eventually awakens at a florist's farm, and is adopted by the owner Juan (Juanes), his dog Paco (Jerrod Carmichael), and his daughter Nina (Julia Saldanha) with whom he shares a bond.

The pilot episode was filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, but the rest of the episodes have been filmed in Covington, Georgia (which doubles as the show's fictional small town of Mystic Falls, Virginia) and various other communities around Greater Atlanta[27] to take advantage of local tax incentives. On the morning of May 10, 2012, a fire broke out in the building on Clark Street in Covington that was used as the setting for Mystic Grill on the show.[28]

In 2015, Full House creator Jeff Franklin, along with Miller and Boyett, were all underway in launching the long-rumored revival series to Full House, entitled Fuller House. It marked the first time since the late 1990s that Jeff Franklin Productions and Miller-Boyett Productions were active in TV series producing, and ultimately, that Frederick and Salvay were working on music compositions for episodic television. As Fuller House moved into production, the producers were successful in courting Frederick and Salvay back to compose the score and theme music for the show; the pair oversaw all music arrangement for the entire 13-episode first season, which premiered on Netflix on February 26, 2016. While Frederick and Salvay worked on the incidental scene change music together, they formed a partnership with singer Carly Rae Jepsen and songwriter/producer Butch Walker to remix "Everywhere You Look" in new vocal and instrumental forms, those of which would serve as the opening and closing themes to Fuller House. Jepsen performed the opening vocals to "Everywhere You Look", and the official commercial release of the song features never-before released verses that Frederick, Salvay and Jeff Franklin wrote for the track back in 1987, but of which were never included in broadcasts of Full House.

The series is set in the Tipton Hotel in Boston and centers on Zack Martin and Cody Martin (Dylan and Cole Sprouse), troublesome twins who live at the Tipton Hotel.[1] The series' other main characters include the Tipton hotel's ditzy heiress London Tipton (Brenda Song), the hotel's candy counter girl Maddie Fitzpatrick (Ashley Tisdale), the manager, Mr. Marion Moseby (Phill Lewis), and the boys' single mother who is also the Hotel's lounge singer, Carey Martin (Kim Rhodes).[1] The series is the third Disney Channel Original to have more than 65 episodes, after That's So Raven and Kim Possible.[2] Reruns aired on Disney XD and on the Watch Disney XD app. Reruns of the show aired on Disney Channel until April 14, 2017.[citation needed]


Question: Who discovered that plants are composed of cells?

The discovery of plant cells is attributed to Robert Hooke, an English scientist who, in 1665, observed a thin slice of cork under a microscope and noticed small, box-like structures, which he termed "cells." This groundbreaking observation laid the foundation for the development of cell theory and the understanding that plants, as well as animals, are composed of cells. Hooke's discovery was a pivotal moment in the history of botany, leading to further advancements in the study of plant physiology and classification.

The study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the "father of medicine."[9] Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour: black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.[10] Claudius Galenus (c. ~130–200 AD), known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.[11] His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates idea that emotions were also tied to the humours, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth.[11] Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.[12] And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.[11]

Andreas Vesalius (/vɪˈseɪliəs/;[1] 31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.

The work of Justus von Liebig and August Wilhelm von Hofmann laid the groundwork for modern industrial chemistry. Liebig is considered the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient and went on to establish Liebig's Extract of Meat Company which produced the Oxo meat extract. Hofmann headed a school of practical chemistry in London, under the style of the Royal College of Chemistry, introduced modern conventions for molecular modeling and taught Perkin who discovered the first synthetic dye.

Some time later the German academic and natural historian Joseph Kölreuter (1733–1806) extended this work by noting the function of nectar in attracting pollinators and the role of wind and insects in pollination. He also produced deliberate hybrids, observed the microscopic structure of pollen grains and how the transfer of matter from the pollen to the ovary inducing the formation of the embryo.[85]

One hundred years after Camerarius, in 1793, Christian Sprengel (1750â€“1816) broadened the understanding of flowers by describing the role of nectar guides in pollination, the adaptive floral mechanisms used for pollination, and the prevalence of cross-pollination, even though male and female parts are usually together on the same flower.[86]

Prior to Leonard Hayflick's discovery, it was believed that vertebrate cells had an unlimited potential to replicate. Alexis Carrel, a Nobel prize-winning surgeon, had stated "that all cells explanted in culture are immortal, and that the lack of continuous cell replication was due to ignorance on how best to cultivate the cells".[3] He supported this hypothesis by claiming to have cultivated fibroblasts from chicken hearts and to have kept the culture growing for 34 years.[4] This indicated that cells of vertebrates could continue to divide indefinitely in culture. However, other scientists have been unable to replicate Carrel's results.[3]

The study of human bones probably started in ancient Greece under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,[13] as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.[14] According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices are taboo and thus completely banned.[15] The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim.[16] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seem to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performs surgery, there must be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.

Selective breeding of domesticated plants was once the main way early farmers shaped organisms to suit their needs. Charles Darwin described three types of selection: methodical selection, wherein humans deliberately select for particular characteristics; unconscious selection, wherein a characteristic is selected simply because it is desirable; and natural selection, wherein a trait that helps an organism survive better is passed on.[11]:25 Early breeding relied on unconscious and natural selection. The introduction of methodical selection is unknown.[11]:25 Common characteristics that were bred into domesticated plants include grains that did not shatter to allow easier harvesting, uniform ripening, shorter lifespans that translate to faster growing, loss of toxic compounds, and productivity.[11]:27â€“30 Some plants, like the Banana, were able to be propagated by vegetative cloning. Offspring often did not contain seeds, and therefore sterile. However, these offspring were usually juicier and larger. Propagation through cloning allows these mutant varieties to be cultivated despite their lack of seeds.[11]:31

While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus's system of sexual classification. Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These were pre-evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of "phylogenetic systems" based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone.[18][19][20]

Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he demonstrated that air is composed of two parts, one of which combines with metals to form calxes. In Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides (1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. The next year, he named this portion oxygen (Greek for acid-former), and the other azote (Greek for no life). Lavoisier thus has a claim to the discovery of oxygen along with Priestley and Scheele. He also discovered that the "inflammable air" discovered by Cavendish - which he termed hydrogen (Greek for water-former) - combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as Priestley had reported, which appeared to be water. In Reflexions sur le Phlogistique (1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory of combustion to be inconsistent. Mikhail Lomonosov independently established a tradition of chemistry in Russia in the 18th century. Lomonosov also rejected the phlogiston theory, and anticipated the kinetic theory of gases. Lomonosov regarded heat as a form of motion, and stated the idea of conservation of matter.


Question: Who discovered that plants are comprised of cells?

The discovery of the cellular composition of plants is credited to botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann in the early 19th century. Although Robert Brown discovered the cell nucleus in 1831, it was Schleiden and Schwann who demonstrated that all organisms, including plants, are composed of cells, each possessing its own wall and the continuity of protoplasm between cell walls, as previously shown by Julius von Sachs.

By the 18th century the physic gardens had been transformed into "order beds" that demonstrated the classification systems that were being devised by botanists of the day â€” but they also had to accommodate the influx of curious, beautiful and new plants pouring in from voyages of exploration that were associated with European colonial expansion.

There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic cells are usually found in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane so DNA is unbound within the cell; eukaryotic cells have nuclear membranes.

In Europe the Renaissance of the 14thâ€“17th centuries heralded a scientific revival during which botany gradually emerged from natural history as an independent science, distinct from medicine and agriculture. Herbals were replaced by floras: books that described the native plants of local regions. The invention of the microscope stimulated the study of plant anatomy, and the first carefully designed experiments in plant physiology were performed. With the expansion of trade and exploration beyond Europe, the many new plants being discovered were subjected to an increasingly rigorous process of naming, description, and classification.

The Greek botanist Theophrastus (ca. 371 – ca. 287 BC) first mentioned that the wood of trees has rings.[3][4] In his Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da Vinci was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that their thickness is determined by the conditions under which they grew.[5] In 1737, French investigators Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon examined the effect of growing conditions on the shape of tree rings.[6] They found that in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree ring, which served as a reference for subsequent European naturalists.[7] In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining (1801–1884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronologies of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past climates across entire regions.[8] The English polymath Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geological strata (1835, 1838).[9]

The origin of the concept was pieces of ivory or bone, containing specimens held between disks of transparent mica, that would slide into the gap between the stage and the objective.[1] These "sliders" were popular in Victorian England until the Royal Microscopical Society introduced the standardized glass microscope slide.[2]

The study of human bones probably started in ancient Greece under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,[13] as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.[14] According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices are taboo and thus completely banned.[15] The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim.[16] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seem to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performs surgery, there must be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.

In the European Middle Ages of the 15th and 16th centuries the lives of European citizens were based around agriculture but when printing arrived, with movable type and woodcut illustrations, it was not treatises on agriculture that were published, but lists of medicinal plants with descriptions of their properties or "virtues". These first plant books, known as herbals showed that botany was still a part of medicine, as it had been for most of ancient history.[31] Authors of herbals were often curators of university gardens,[36] and most herbals were derivative compilations of classic texts, especially De Materia Medica. However, the need for accurate and detailed plant descriptions meant that some herbals were more botanical than medicinal. German Otto Brunfels's (1464–1534) Herbarum Vivae Icones (1530) contained descriptions of about 47 species new to science combined with accurate illustrations. His fellow countryman Hieronymus Bock's (1498–1554) Kreutterbuch of 1539 described plants he found in nearby woods and fields and these were illustrated in the 1546 edition.[37] However, it was Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) who pioneered the formal botanical description that detailed both flowers and fruits, some anatomy including the number of chambers in the ovary, and the type of ovule placentation. He also made observations on pollen and distinguished between inflorescence types.[37] His five-volume Historia Plantarum was published about 18 years after his early death aged 29 in 1561-1563. In Holland Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), in Stirpium Historiae (1583), included descriptions of many new species from the Netherlands in a scientific arrangement[38] and in England William Turner (1515–1568) in his Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (1538) published names, descriptions and localities of many native British plants.[39]

Progressively more sophisticated scientific technology has aided the development of contemporary botanical offshoots in the plant sciences, ranging from the applied fields of economic botany (notably agriculture, horticulture and forestry), to the detailed examination of the structure and function of plants and their interaction with the environment over many scales from the large-scale global significance of vegetation and plant communities (biogeography and ecology) through to the small scale of subjects like cell theory, molecular biology and plant biochemistry.

In 1674, in a letter to the Royal Society, the Dutch pioneer of microscopy Antoni van Leeuwenhoek wrote that he had collected water samples from an inland lake, in which he found "animalcules" that were "green in the middle, and before and behind white." Clifford Dobell regards it as "almost certain" that these were Euglena viridis, whose "peculiar arrangement of chromatophores...gives the flagellate this appearance at low magnification."[21]

Mendel discovered that, when he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants (the parental or P generation), the result was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring (known as the F1 generation) was purple-flowered. When Mendel self-fertilized the F1 generation pea plants, he obtained a purple flower to white flower ratio in the F2 generation of 3 to 1. The results of this cross are tabulated in the Punnett square to the right.