Question: What is the setting in the play "A Doll's House"?

A Doll's House, a three-act play penned by Henrik Ibsen of Norway, was first staged at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark, on December 21, 1879. The setting of the play is a Norwegian town around the same time period.

The play ends abruptly with a telephone call, taken by Arthur, who reports that a young woman has died, a suspected case of suicide by disinfectant, and that the local police are on their way to question the Birlings. The true identity of Goole is never explained, but it is clear that the family's confessions over the course of the evening are true, and that they will be disgraced publicly when news of their involvement in Eva's demise is revealed.

The title refers to the fire of the house that is at the center of the story. The whole novel revolves around one event, the fire, which is visible for miles around, and happens in August.

Galileo and Scaramouche arrive, with Galileo talking about his belief that he has a destiny. He says that he has a name for the woman: "Scaramouche". Britney and Oz reveal themselves, and accuse Galileo and Scaramouche of being spies, because Galileo keeps spouting words of the "sacred text". Galileo insists that he only hears those words in his head. Britney tests Galileo, singing the first few lines of "Bohemian Rhapsody". Galileo responds correctly with the subsequent lines, and Britney realises that he is the Dreamer of the prophecy. They bring Galileo and Scaramouche to the Heartbreak Hotel, which is located at the ruins of the Tottenham Court Road tube station, where the Bohemians have made their home. ("Headlong") Of note, the original London production is staged at the Dominion Theatre, which is located above the real Tottenham Court Road tube station.

The show follows the misadventures of three Irish Roman Catholic priests who live in a parish on the fictional Craggy Island, located off the west coast of Ireland. Father Ted Crilly, Father Dougal McGuire and Father Jack Hackett live chaotically together in Craggy Island's parochial house, along with their housekeeper Mrs Doyle, who always wants to serve them tea.

The original was built for Wendy Darling in J. M. Barrie's play, Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up. Wendy was shot by the Lost Boy Tootles after arriving in Neverland, so Peter Pan and the Lost Boys built a small house around her where she had fallen. It was inspired by the wash-house behind Barrie's childhood home in Kirriemuir[1] and first appeared in story form in The Little White Bird in which fairies build a house around Mamie Mannering—the prototype for Wendy—so protecting her from the cold.[2]

As the play begins, Valentine is preparing to leave Verona for Milan so as to broaden his horizons. He begs his best friend, Proteus, to come with him, but Proteus is in love with Julia, and refuses to leave. Disappointed, Valentine bids Proteus farewell and goes on alone. Meanwhile, Julia is discussing Proteus with her maid, Lucetta, who tells Julia that she thinks Proteus is fond of her. Julia, however, acts coyly, embarrassed to admit that she likes him. Lucetta then produces a letter; she will not say who gave it to her, but teases Julia that it was Valentine's servant, Speed, who brought it from Proteus. Julia, still unwilling to reveal her love in front of Lucetta, angrily tears up the letter. She sends Lucetta away, but then, realising her own rashness, she picks up the fragments of the letter and kisses them, trying to piece them back together.

The son of Sir George Croft of Crofts Limited, a competitor of Birling and Company, he is at the Birling residence to celebrate his recent engagement to Sheila Birling. Gerald is revealed to have known Eva and installed her as his mistress, becoming "the most important person in her life", before ending the relationship. After the revelation of his affair, he is not blamed as heavily as the other characters (Sheila commends him for his honesty and for initially showing Eva compassion, even though he is shown as cowardly and thoughtless for taking advantage of a vulnerable woman). He is caused to confess as soon as he shouts out in shock at hearing the name he had known Eva by (Daisy Renton), allowing the Inspector to investigate Gerald's involvement in Eva's life. Gerald thinks that Goole is not a police inspector, that the family may not all be referring to the same woman and that there may not be a body. Initially he appears to be correct, and does not think the Birlings have anything to feel ashamed of or worry about. He seems excited at the prospect of discovering the 'fake' Inspector and seems almost desperate for others to believe him.

The Winnie-the-Pooh stories are set in Ashdown Forest, East Sussex, England. The forest is a large area of tranquil open heathland on the highest sandy ridges of the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty situated 30 miles (50 km) south of London. In 1925 Milne, a Londoner, bought a country home a mile to the north of the forest at Cotchford Farm, near Hartfield. According to Christopher Milne, while his father continued to live in London "...the four of us – he, his wife, his son and his son's nanny – would pile into a large blue, chauffeur-driven Fiat and travel down every Saturday morning and back again every Monday afternoon. And we would spend a whole glorious month there in the spring and two months in the summer."[8] From the front lawn the family had a view across a meadow to a line of alders that fringed the River Medway, beyond which the ground rose through more trees until finally "above them, in the faraway distance, crowning the view, was a bare hilltop. In the centre of this hilltop was a clump of pines." Most of his father's visits to the forest at this time were, he noted, family expeditions on foot "to make yet another attempt to count the pine trees on Gill's Lap or to search for the marsh gentian". Christopher added that, inspired by Ashdown Forest, his father had made it "the setting for two of his books, finishing the second little over three years after his arrival".[9]

Jerry and Joanna Burton, a brother and sister from London, take residence in Miss Barton's country house in the quiet town of Lymstock, for the last phase of Jerry's recovery after suffering injuries in a plane crash. Shortly after moving in and meeting their neighbours, they receive an anonymous letter that makes the false accusation that the pair are lovers, not siblings. The Burtons quickly learn that such poison pen letters have been received by many in town. Despite the letters containing false accusations, many in town are quite upset by them and fear something worse to happen. Mrs Symmington, the wife of the local solicitor, is found dead after receiving a letter, stating that her husband, Mr Dick Symmington, was not the father of their second son. Her body is discovered with the letter, a glass containing potassium cyanide, and a torn scrap of paper which reads "I can't go on". While the inquest rules that her death was suicide, the police begin a hunt for the anonymous letter writer. Her daughter, Megan Hunter, an awkward, frumpy 20-year-old, stays with the Burtons for a while after the loss of her mother.

The novel unfolds in a progressive retrospective, with Galt, the son of an Ohio garage mechanic, leaving home at age twelve and beginning college at the fictional Patrick Henry University at age sixteen. There he meets Francisco d'Anconia and Ragnar Danneskjöld, who become his two closest friends. Galt takes a double major in physics and philosophy, and after graduating, he becomes an engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he designs a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity. When the company owner dies and his heirs decide to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need", Galt refuses to work there any longer and abandons his motor.


Question: Who portrays the grandmother in Game of Thrones?

Diana Rigg played the role of Lady Olenna Tyrell, also known as the Queen of Thorns, in the HBO series Game of Thrones. She was the grandmother of regular character Margaery Tyrell. Rigg's portrayal was highly praised by both critics and viewers, earning her an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in 2013 for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. She continued to play the role in seasons four, five, and six, and her final performance in the seventh season was met with critical acclaim.

Judith Amanda "Judy" Geeson (born 10 September 1948) is an English film, stage, and television actress. She began her career primarily working on British television series, with a leading role on The Newcomers from 1965 to 1967, before making her major film debut in To Sir, with Love (1967). She later would star in a range of films throughout the 1970s, from crime pictures to thriller and horror films, including The Executioner (1970), Fear in the Night (1972), Brannigan (1975), and The Eagle Has Landed (1976).

Richard St John Harris (1 October 1930 â€“ 25 October 2002) was an Irish actor and singer. He appeared on stage and in many films, appearing as Frank Machin in This Sporting Life, for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, King Arthur in the 1967 film Camelot and the subsequent 1981 revival of the show. He played an aristocrat and prisoner in A Man Called Horse (1970), a gunfighter in Clint Eastwood's Western film Unforgiven (1992), Emperor Marcus Aurelius in Gladiator (2000), and Albus Dumbledore in the first two Harry Potter films: Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001) and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002). Harris had a number one hit in Australia and Canada and a top ten hit in the United Kingdom and United States with his 1968 recording of Jimmy Webb's song "MacArthur Park".

Fran Drescher and Michael Biehn portray Elaine and Leland Dockerty, a couple whose military daughter disappears over Thanksgiving after she comes home from a tour of duty. Leland Dockerty was the Deputy Commissioner of the NYPD. Rita Moreno also guest stars in "The War at Home" as Detective Robert Goren's mother, Frances, who has fallen ill from dealing with her cancer; she later returns in the Goren/Eames team season finale episode "Endgame," where she succumbs to her cancer shortly after Goren brings up his paternity.

Richard Madden (born 18 June 1986) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for his roles as Robb Stark in the HBO television series Game of Thrones, Prince Kit in the Disney romantic fantasy film Cinderella (2015), and Sergeant David Budd in the BBC thriller Bodyguard (2018â€“present). He has also played Cosimo de' Medici in the drama series Medici: Masters of Florence (2016) and starred in the Netflix romantic comedy Ibiza (2018).

Marceline the Vampire Queen is a character in the American animated television series Adventure Time created by Pendleton Ward. She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances, by Ava Acres as a child and by Cloris Leachman as an old woman. Marceline is a fun-loving 1,000-year-old vampire queen. The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward, with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda, former lead-character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time. Unlike a traditional vampire, Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive; rather, she eats the color red. Marceline is a musician who plays an electric bass that she made from her family's heirloom battle-axe.

Lucian Gabriel Wiina Msamati, sometimes credited as Wiina Msamati, is a British-Tanzanian film, television and theatre actor. He played Salladhor Saan in HBO series Game of Thrones and was the first black actor to play Iago at the Royal Shakespeare Company (in 2015).

Ramsay Bolton (season 3–6) portrayed by Iwan Rheon. The illegitimate son of Roose Bolton, Ramsay Snow of House Bolton is cruel, sadistic and very cunning. After the Ironborn captures Winterfell, he marches on the castle's token garrison and offers it safe passage for surrender; after the gates are opened, he captures Theon and flays the other defenders. At the Dreadfort, Theon is put through gruesome physical and psychological torture on Ramsay's instigation, though he himself watches in guise of a cleaning boy. He helps Theon Greyjoy escape from captivity, claiming to be a servant of Theon's sister, Yara, and promises to help him reach her, but ends up only leading Theon back to his original place of imprisonment to taunt him further. He tortures Theon by flaying his fingers and forces him to beg to have them cut off. He ultimately emasculates him and has his manhood sent in a box to the Iron Islands to press Balon to evacuate the North, suggesting he could dismember Theon slowly and send him home in boxes if his demands are not met. He forces Theon to become his new servant, who is now called Reek, and beats him until he accepts the name. In Season 4, Ramsay along with his now slave servant, Reek, hunt down a servant girl named Tansy. Ramsay hunts her for sport and in the end feeds her to his dogs (bastards girls). Ramsay has followed his father in pledging loyalty to the Lannisters, and remains Acting Lord of the Dreadfort until Roose and his men arrive (having been smuggled back into the North to avoid the Ironborn). Ramsay warmly greets his father, new stepmother "Fat" Walda Frey, and friend Locke, but he is chastised by his father for torturing Theon, who would have proved a valuable hostage. Roose enlists his son in his plans to reconquer the North from the invading Ironborn – his father assigns Ramsay, "Reek" and what men Ramsay has to capture Moat Cailin from the Ironborn, in exchange for Roose considering legitimizing Ramsay as a full member of his family, a prospect that delights Ramsay. When Yara and some Ironborn killers attack the Dreadfort and attempt to take Theon, Ramsay confronts her in the dungeons and sets the hounds on her, forcing her to flee without Theon, who refused to go with her believing it was another trick of Ramsay's, and too broken and frightened to take the risk. As a reward for Theon's loyalty, Ramsay gives him a bath, bathing Theon himself, and asks for his help in taking Moat Cailin. Ramsay sends Reek into Moat Cailin with a peace banner and a letter promising safe passage to the Stoney Shore. Reek pretends to be his former self, Theon Greyjoy, and convinces the ironborn to surrender. Ramsay breaks his promise and flays the Ironborn living and displays their bodies on stakes. As a reward, Ramsay is legitimized by his father and takes the name, Ramsay Bolton, discarding the surname "Snow" for good, much to Ramsay's delight. Ramsay and the rest of the Bolton forces then march on towards Winterfell, the Boltons' new home. To solidify their claim for legitimacy, he is provided Sansa Stark as a suitable bride, who he promises never to harm before Baelish, but nevertheless brutally rapes her on their wedding night. He later skins a woman alive for attempting to light a candle in the high tower of Winterfell, which would signal to Brienne (waiting in the village outside the walls) that Sansa was in need of rescue. At the battle of Winterfell between Baratheon and Bolton forces, he rides out to greet Stannis, destroying his army and killing most of his men but meanwhile, Reek rebels against his master and kills his lover, Myranda, escaping with Sansa in the process. With his position as Roose's heir in question following Sansa's disappearance and the birth of Roose's baby boy, Ramsay kills Roose, Walda and the baby and becomes the new Lord of Winterfell, securing help from House Karstark and House Umber, the latter giving him Rickon Stark as a hostage. He kills Osha and sends a letter to Jon Snow demanding Sansa's return, but Jon and Sansa decide to challenge Ramsay and retake Winterfell. Ramsay parleys with Jon and refuses his offer to a one-on-one duel. On the day of the battle, Ramsay lures Jon and his men into a trap by murdering Rickon, but his forces are smashed by the Knights of the Vale. Ramsay flees back to Winterfell, where Jon beats him severely and orders him locked up as a prisoner. That night, Ramsay is fed to his own hounds, bringing House Bolton to extinction.

Catelyn's brother Edmure Tully places Catelyn under house arrest at Riverrun, but Robb pardons her after he announces his wedding to Jeyne Westerling, invalidating his marriage proposal to House Frey. Lord Walder Frey agrees to forgive Robb if Edmure marries his daughter Roslin, and Catelyn travels to the Frey seat of the Twins to attend the wedding with Robb and other northern lords. However, Walder Frey and his men take revenge on Robb for his slight on their house by slaughtering the northern host, an act of treachery that became known as the "Red Wedding". In an attempt to save her son's life, Catelyn takes Aegon Frey hostage and kills him when Roose Bolton kills Robb regardless, but she still has her throat slashed by Raymund Frey. Three days later, Catelyn is resurrected by Lord Beric Dondarrion, who sacrifices his life force to revive her. However, the period of time she spent deceased has caused Catelyn's body to decay; furthermore, upon her reanimation, she loses most of her previous personality, except for her hatred of House Frey. Catelyn then assumes command of Dondarrion's outlaw band, the Brotherhood Without Banners, and changes their aim to exterminating House Frey. Her uncompromising brutality earns her the moniker "Lady Stoneheart".

Sansa Stark (season 1–present) portrayed by Sophie Turner. Sansa Stark of House Stark is the first daughter and second child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. She was also the future bride of Prince Joffrey, and thus the future Queen of the Seven Kingdoms as well. Her direwolf is called Lady, she is the smallest of the pack. Sansa is naive and wants to live the life of a fairy tale princess and is unwilling to see the harsh realities of the kingdom's politics and rivalries. Her fantasy begins to shatter when Lady is killed, and the situation continues to worsen when her father is arrested for treason. She becomes a hostage to the Lannisters in order for them to have a legitimate claim for the North. Her naïveté is finally shattered when King Joffrey executes her father despite promising her that he would spare him. Sansa is forced to put up an act or endure Joffrey's cruelty. Throughout Season 2, she suffers under Joffrey's abuse until Tyrion puts a stop to it. By the Season 2 finale, Joffrey breaks his engagement with Sansa to marry Margaery Tyrell. However, she is still a hostage; but Petyr Baelish promises to help her return to Winterfell. In Season 3, she is married to Tyrion to secure the Lannisters the North should Robb Stark die. The marriage is unhappy and yet to be consummated, and after Robb's death – upon which Joffrey insists to be given his head to present to Sansa, a request coldly ignored by his grandfather – she is unable to speak to him. In Season 4, Sansa has been mourning her family for weeks and is starving herself in depression. She attends Joffrey's wedding with Tyrion and witnesses Joffrey's death. Dontos Hollard immediately spirits her away from the wedding, moments ahead of Cersei's orders to have her and Tyrion arrested. Dontos brings Sansa to a ship concealed in fog, and she is greeted by Petyr Baelish. Under the guise of making payment, Petyr has the fool killed by his archers, with Petyr explaining that killing Dontos was the only way to ensure his silence – her disappearance when Joffrey died, the execution of her father, deaths of her family and years of torment at the king's hand, will all be considerable motive for Sansa helping Tyrion murder Joffrey. Currently, a thousand of the City Watch are searching for her, Cersei thirsts for vengeance, and Tyrion himself stands trial. Sansa is assured she has finally escaped King's Landing and is safe with Lord Baelish, who takes her to her Aunt Lysa for shelter. Lysa takes Sansa in warmly and has her betrothed to her son, Robin. However, Sansa realises the worst is far from over when Lysa, who is smitten with Petyr, accuses Sansa of trying to seduce him, and she discovers that Robin is a spoiled and rude child, slapping him at one point. When Petyr unexpectedly kisses Sansa, Lysa becomes enraged and nearly pushes Sansa through the castle's Moon Door, but Petyr intervenes by pacifying Lysa and then pushing her through the Moon Door to her death before Sansa's eyes, making Sansa realise that Petyr may have romantic or lustful feelings for her. Sansa speaks up for Petyr when he is questioned about his involvement in Lysa's death, but Sansa reaffirms Petyr's claim that Lysa killed herself due to her own instability and insecurities. Afterward she told Petyr that her reason to protect him in the hearing was because she knew he was the only person she could count on to protect her, demonstrated by his initiative in getting her out of King's Landing while everyone else in power there only wanted to use her as a pawn. In Season 5, she and Petyr leave the Eyrie for a place Petyr promises where Cersei will never find her. At an In, Brienne of Tarth materializes unexpectedly and declares herself for Sansa. Petyr doubts that Sansa would want a sworn shield who let both of her previous masters die, even when Brienne reveals the true, somewhat unbelievable circumstances of Renly's death. Sansa seems inclined to agree, pointing out that Brienne was present at Joffrey's wedding, to which the warrior replies that neither of them wanted to be there. Sansa rejects Brienne's offer of service and watches as she handily defeats the guards and escapes. Petyr tells her that he has arranged for her to be married to Ramsay Bolton, the son of Lord Roose Bolton. This will put her back in Winterfell, which the Boltons now occupy as a reward for their role in the deaths of Robb and Catelyn. Though Ramsay initially seems interested in Sansa, his psychopathic nature quickly shows through, and Sansa is disgusted. She is also antagonized by Myranda, the kennelmaster's daughter, who is in a sexual relationship with Ramsay. Myranda frequently makes veiled threats to Sansa, and shows her what has become of Theon Greyjoy, who was Eddard Stark's ward and whom she grew up with. Sansa is horrified to find that after Ramsay emasculated him, he has taken on a submissive, sullen persona called Reek. After Sansa and Ramsay are wed, he brutally rapes her while forcing Reek to watch. Later, Sansa attempts to talk to Reek, who is unresponsive to her attempts to make him act like his old self by repeatedly calling him Theon instead of Reek. At one point, Reek mistakenly lets slip that her younger brothers, Bran and Rickon, are alive, when she had assumed that they were dead. This realization gives Sansa hope in the midst of her unfortunate situation. As Stannis Baratheon's army sneaks up on Winterfell and is greeted by the bulk of the Bolton forces, Sansa manages to escape her chamber but is stopped by Myranda, who threatens her with a bow. Reminding Sansa that she has nothing left to live for in Ramsay's custody, she is unexpectedly saved by Reek, who breaks his spell of subjugation by throwing Myranda over the bannister. The Bolton's return to Winterfell and, knowing the dire consequences Ramsay would have in place for the both of them when he finds Myranda's body, the couple flee to the wall in terror, where they make the jump off the ledge. In season 6, Sansa makes it to the Wall with help from Brienne and Podrick and reunites with Jon, while Theon returns home. After Jon receives a threatening letter from Ramsay demanding Sansa back, Sansa and Jon decide to fight back against Ramsay and retake the North. Sansa briefly meets with Petyr Baelish, but turns him down for his role in handing her to the Boltons. Realizing that with their meager forces they are still outnumbered, Sansa writes to Baelish for help and he arrives in time with the Vale Knights to smash the Bolton army and help Jon secure victory. After Ramsay is killed, Baelish admits to Sansa that he wants her to rule alongside him as his Queen, but Sansa turns him down. When Jon is named the new King in the North, Sansa notices Baelish glaring at her. In Season 7 Sansa finds some of Jon's decisions infuriating but remains loyal to him. She maintains her support of Jon even when he leaves Winterfell against her advice and the Northern Lords' objections, and even when some of them hint that they're ready to drop their support of Jon and name her their ruler. Sansa is overjoyed to see Arya and Bran return to Winterfell, though she is unnerved by how much they have changed: Bran's loss of humanity and Arya's ruthlessness. Petyr Baelish sees Arya as a threat to his influence with Sansa and attempts to drive a wedge between the sisters. He appears at first to be succeeding but at some point the three Starks realise what Baelish is doing. Sansa pretends to believe Baelish as he insinuates that Arya is plotting her murder. Then to his surprise she accuses him of various crimes in front of the Northern Lords, before finding him guilty and allowing Arya to execute him.

In July 2006, Jones received another Emmy Award nomination for her supporting performance in the television film Hidden Places. She was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild award for the same film but lost to Helen Mirren for Elizabeth I. She also appeared in Grandma's Boy (2006) as a nymphomaniac senior citizen. On November 16, 2007, she took the stage at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the Oklahoma Centennial Spectacular concert that celebrated the state's 100th birthday. Jones sang the songs "Oklahoma!" and "People Will Say We're In Love" from the musical Oklahoma!.


Question: What is the estimated volume of a human brain?

Brain Volume
Research on brain size, primarily conducted on individuals of European ancestry, suggests that the average adult brain volume is around 1260 cubic centimeters (cm3) for males and 1130 cm3 for females. However, there is a significant degree of variation among individuals. One study involving 46 adults, aged 22–49, and predominantly of European descent, reported an average brain volume of 1273.6 cm3 for males, with a range from 1052.9 to 1498.5 cm3, and 1131.1 cm3 for females, with a range from 974.9 to 1398.1 cm3. This indicates that while there are average volumes, there is considerable variability in brain size within the population.

In an experiment, groups of adults were first assessed using standard tests for fluid intelligence.[18] Then they trained groups for four different numbers of days, for half an hour each day, using an n-back exercise that worked on improving one's working memory.[18] It supposedly does so through a few different components, involving having to ignore irrelevant items, manage tasks simultaneously, and monitor performance on exercise, while connecting related items.[18] After this training, the groups were tested again and those with training (compared against control groups who did not undergo training) showed significant increases in performance on the fluid intelligence tests.[18]

There is a broadly somatotopic representation of the different body parts in the primary motor cortex in an arrangement called a motor homunculus (Latin: little person).[3] The leg area is located close to the midline, in interior sections of the motor area folding into the medial longitudinal fissure. The lateral, convex side of the primary motor cortex is arranged from top to bottom in areas that correspond to the buttocks, torso, shoulder, elbow, wrist, fingers, thumb, eyelids, lips, and jaw. The arm and hand motor area is the largest, and occupies the part of precentral gyrus between the leg and face area.

The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume [2] — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in several subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI,[3] although not an official SI unit — the SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3). The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is "litre",[3] a spelling which is shared by almost all English-speaking countries. The spelling "liter" is predominantly used in American English.[a]

Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH, "The Brigham") is located adjacent to Harvard Medical School, of which it is the second largest teaching affiliate. It is the largest hospital of the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston, Massachusetts, US. With Massachusetts General Hospital, it is one of the two founding members of Partners HealthCare, the largest healthcare provider in Massachusetts. Brigham and Women's Hospital conducts the second largest hospital-based research program in the world, with an annual research budget of more than $630 million. Pioneering milestones include the world's first successful heart valve operation and the world's first solid organ transplant.

One litre of liquid water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram, because the kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as one cubic decimetre of water at the temperature of melting ice. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact.[4]

The surface-area-to-volume ratio, also called the surface-to-volume ratio and variously denoted sa/vol or SA:V, is the amount of surface area per unit volume of an object or collection of objects.
In chemical reactions involving a solid material, the surface area to volume ratio is an important factor for the reactivity, that is, the rate at which the chemical reaction will proceed.

Volume contraction is a decrease in body fluid volume, with or without a concomitant loss of osmolytes. The loss of the body water component of body fluid is specifically termed dehydration.[11]

Amyloid imaging is likely to be used in conjunction with other markers rather than as an alternative.[287] Volumetric MRI can detect changes in the size of brain regions. Measuring those regions that atrophy during the progress of Alzheimer's disease is showing promise as a diagnostic indicator. It may prove less expensive than other imaging methods currently under study.[288]

The human foot is a strong and complex mechanical structure containing 26 bones, 33 joints (20 of which are actively articulated), and more than a hundred muscles, tendons, and ligaments.[2] The joints of the foot are the ankle and subtalar joint and the interphalangeal articulations of the foot. An anthropometric study of 1197 North American adult Caucasian males (mean age 35.5 years) found that a man's foot length was 26.3 cm with a standard deviation of 1.2 cm.[3]

In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a cell nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin; they can be viewed as sacks of hemoglobin, with a plasma membrane as the sack. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second in human adults.[2] The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100â€“120 days in the body before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 60 seconds (one minute).[3] Approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells.[4][5] Nearly half of the blood's volume (40% to 45%) is red blood cells.


Question: Name the tissue type for the innermost layer of cells?

Epithelium is one of the four fundamental types of animal tissue, alongside connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. It covers the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in various internal organs. A prime example is the epidermis, which is the outermost layer of the skin.

The pericardial cavity (surrounding the heart), pleural cavity (surrounding the lungs) and peritoneal cavity (surrounding most organs of the abdomen) are the three serous cavities within the human body. While serous membranes have a lubricative role to play in all three cavities, in the pleural cavity it has a greater role to play in the function of breathing.

The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining has cilia departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small particles. There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions. This smooth muscle layer contains seromucous glands, which secrete musus, in its wall. Hyaline cartilage is present in the bronchi, surrounding the smooth muscle layer. In the main bronchi, hyaline cartilage forms an incomplete ring, giving a "D"-shaped appearance, while in the smaller bronchi, hyaline cartilage is present in irregularly arranged plates and islands. These plates give structural support to the bronchi and keep the airway open.

Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in layers of connective tissue membranes.  Each of the organs is covered in a double layer of fascia; these layers are separated by a thin serous membrane.

Snails (like all molluscs) also have a mantle, a specialized layer of tissue which covers all of the internal organs as they are grouped together in the visceral mass. The mantle also extends outward in flaps which reach to the edge of the shell and in some cases can cover the shell, and which are partially retractable. The mantle is attached to the shell, and creates the shell and makes shell growth possible by secretion.

Inside the capsule, the layers are as follows, from outside to inside:[citation needed]

The meninges (/məˈnɪndʒiːz/,[1][2] singular: meninx (/ˈmiːnɪŋks/ or /ˈmɛnɪŋks/[3]), from Ancient Greek: μῆνιγξ, translit. mēninx, lit. 'membrane',[4] adjectival: meningeal /məˈnɪndʒəl/) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is located in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.

Gottlieb Haberlandt first pointed out the possibilities of the culture of isolated tissues, plant tissue culture.[4] He suggested that the potentialities of individual cells via tissue culture as well as that the reciprocal influences of tissues on one another could be determined by this method. Since Haberlandt's original assertions, methods for tissue and cell culture have been realized, leading to significant discoveries in biology and medicine. His original idea, presented in 1902, was called totipotentiality: “Theoretically all plant cells are able to give rise to a complete plant.”[5][6][7]

The two types of bone marrow are "red marrow" (Latin: medulla ossium rubra), which consists mainly of hematopoietic tissue, and "yellow marrow" (Latin: medulla ossium flava), which is mainly made up of fat cells. Red blood cells, platelets, and most white blood cells arise in red marrow. Both types of bone marrow contain numerous blood vessels and capillaries. At birth, all bone marrows are red. With age, more and more of it is converted to the yellow type; only around half of adult bone marrow is red. Red marrow is found mainly in the flat bones, such as the pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and in the cancellous ("spongy") material at the epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the femur and humerus. Yellow marrow is found in the medullary cavity, the hollow interior of the middle portion of long bones. In cases of severe blood loss, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production.

Growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual rings, can be seen in a horizontal cross section cut through the trunk of a tree. Growth rings are the result of new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark that is classified as a lateral meristem; this growth in diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. If the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely to be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar.

Modified tight junctions between epithelial cells control fluid release. This release allows free exchange between CSF and nervous tissue of brain and spinal cord, which is why sampling of CSF (e.g. through a "spinal tap") provides a window to the CNS.


Question: What does it mean to be considered the most beautiful girl in the world?

"The Most Beautiful Girl in the World," a song by Prince, is a soulful ballad that pays tribute to his fiancée, Mayte Garcia, describing her as the epitome of beauty. The track was first teased during the 1994 Miss USA pageant, with promotional materials featuring Prince and Garcia. The song was officially released on February 24, 1994, and later included on the album "The Gold Experience."

In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%.[126] According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007[127] when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place.[128] In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".[129]

Belle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). Originally voiced by American actress and singer Paige O'Hara, Belle is the non-conforming daughter of an inventor. Belle yearns to abandon her predictable village life in return for adventure. When her father Maurice is imprisoned by a cold-hearted beast, Belle offers him her own freedom in exchange for her father's, and eventually learns to love the Beast despite his unsightly outward appearance.

On its release in March 1961[6] Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made".[7] In 2004, Sports Car International magazine placed the E-Type at number one on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 1960s.[8] In March 2008, the Jaguar E-Type ranked first in The Daily Telegraph online list of the world's "100 most beautiful cars" of all time.[9] Outside automotive circles, the E-type received prominent placement in Diabolik comic series, Austin Powers films and the television series Mad Men.[10]

The model, Lisa del Giocondo,[15][16] was a member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany, and the wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo.[17] The painting is thought to have been commissioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth of their second son, Andrea.[18] The Italian name for the painting, La Gioconda, means "jocund" ("happy" or "jovial") or, literally, "the jocund one", a pun on the feminine form of Lisa's married name, "Giocondo".[17][19] In French, the title La Joconde has the same meaning.

Furman has also been a pioneer in setting records in several new activities including landrowing. Using a converted indoor rower with wheels and brakes, Furman rowed 1,500 miles (2,400 km) in 16 days in Bali in 1991. Furman also developed the sport of gluggling, underwater juggling, which he did for 48 minutes at Kelly Tarlton's Antarctic Encounter and Underwater World in Auckland, New Zealand in 2002 and distance sack racing, which Furman did for a mile while racing against a yak in Mongolia in 2007. On January 30, 2008, Furman unveiled his giant pencil – 76 feet (23 m) long, 22,000 pounds (with 4,000 solid pounds of Pennsylvania graphite). The pencil was built in three weeks as a birthday gift for teacher Sri Chinmoy on 27 August 2007. Longer than the 65-foot (20 m) pencil outside the Malaysia HQ of stationers Faber-Castell, it was transported from Queens, New York, to the City Museum in St. Louis.[11] In April 2009 Furman became the first person to hold 100 Guinness World Records at once.[12]

These lines have led to conflicting interpretations among Harrison biographers regarding a supposedly superior attitude on the singer's part. Ian Inglis writes of "an increasingly familiar elitism in his apparent perception of himself", adding: "When [Harrison] sings of 'the pure of heart' and tells the Lord that 'there are just a few who bow before you,' the implied conclusion is that he counts himself among their number."[37] While acknowledging the ambiguity of this message, Leng writes: "This could be taken as Harrison's statement of his own spiritual superiority, or it might be his metaphor for a rejection of conceit. If ego-driven politicians and self-serving military leaders were able to bow before anything, even a 'concept' like God, the world would be a better place. 'The Day the World Gets 'Round' laments human nature and calls for a little humility."[27]

Kulp was once described as television's most homely girl or, as one reviewer put it, possessing the "face of a shriveled balloon, the figure of a string of spaghetti, and the voice of a bullfrog in mating season." Others described her as tall and prim and praised her comedic skills.[8]

According to producer Don Hahn, Beaumont's Belle is an "incredibly passive" character, the personality of whom he likened to those of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella, as well as American actress and animal rights activist Doris Day, describing them as women who are "capable, but filling a role that women might fill in the 1950s and 1960s.”[55] The filmmakers painstakingly reworked Belle into a more three-dimensional character by providing her with goals and aspirations beyond romance and marriage,[55] while expanding her passive role into that of a more inquisitive heroine.[56] Determined to have Belle resemble "an unusual Disney heroine," Woolverton deliberately molded her into an independent character who is not a princess, enjoys books and has little interest in marriage,[6] and worked closely with Ashman to create a proactive heroine "who was a thinker and a reader and she wasn’t about what she looked like and she wasn’t a victim."[27] Although Belle being well-read is mentioned in the original fairy tale, it is hardly important to its plot.[18] Thus, Belle's passion for reading was vastly expanded upon, borrowing from both the Little Woman character Jo March and Woolverton's own love of reading to further demonstrate the character's intelligence and open mind.[13] Both Woolverton and O'Hara encouraged the filmmakers to emphasize the intelligent and book-loving aspects of Belle's personality.[34] However, at times the animators struggled to fulfill Woolverton's vision.[57] Originally, Belle was depicted constantly crying throughout her imprisonment; Woolverton resented this, arguing that the character was much more likely to be either searching for an escape or simply "be intrigued that she was living in an enchanted castle" than crying.[26] "Once everybody realized she wasn’t going to be this typical Disney female, they would go to the extreme ... She became bitchy"; the screenwriter argued that Belle would be "too smart" to act this way.[57] A few years older than The Little Mermaid's Ariel, Belles' love of reading makes the character more worldly and mature than her predecessor.[58] Belle is believed by Henn to be "probably" the oldest of Disney's princesses,[59] at 20 years of age.[60]

She's All That is a 1999 American teen romantic comedy film directed by Robert Iscove and starring Freddie Prinze Jr., Rachael Leigh Cook, Paul Walker and Matthew Lillard. It is a modern adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion and George Cukor's 1964 film My Fair Lady. It was one of the most popular teen films of the late 1990s and reached No. 1 at the box office in its first week of release.[1] In April 2015, it was announced that the film will be remade by The Weinstein Company.[2]

Despite its title, the word "your" is not heard in the song until its reprise.[80] The track's introduction is proceeded by a spoken monologue.[81] Beginning "Look at this stuff, isn't it neat? Wouldn't you think my collection's complete? Wouldn't you think I'm the girl/The girl who has everything?",[68][82] "Part of Your World" is "a plea for a life of discovery" and "inquisitiveness" as opposed to love,[83] using "nonsensical expressions" such as "gadgets", "gizmos", "whosits" and "whatsits" in lieu of various human artifacts.[5] Lyrically, the ballad employs several "twist[s] and turns",[37] using very specific lyrics to describe both the performer's fascination with the human world and desire to walk among them,[1] including "walking around on those what-do-you-call-them?... feet"[62] and "Up where they walk, up where they run/Up where they stay all day in the sun/Wanderin' free, wish I could be/Part of that world."[32] Comprising "impeccable rhymes" while incorporating the term "thingamabobs"[72] into the line "You want thing-a-ma-bobs? I've got twenty but who cares? No big deal, I want more",[84] "Part of Your World"'s "empowering" lyrics[64] convey several messages, such as facing one's fears, believing in oneself,[48] and wishing for new life experiences.[37] The ballad concludes with a final chorus belted "When's it my turn? Wouldn't I love, love to explore that world up above? Out of the sea/Wish I could be/Part of that world".[51][54]


Question: Where did the Santa Fe Trail lead emigrants to?

The Santa Fe Trail, established in 1821 by William Becknell, was a crucial 19th-century trade route in central North America. It linked Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe, New Mexico, acting as a significant commercial artery until the arrival of the railroad in Santa Fe in 1880. Santa Fe was also close to the terminus of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, a route that facilitated trade from Mexico City.

In 1849, many Saxon residents emigrated to the United States, including Michael Machemehl. They landed in Galveston, Texas and created what became the German Texan community. In mid-century, some lived in cities, but many developed substantial farms to the west in Texas.

Those who landed at Dyea, Skagway's neighbour  town, travelled  the Chilkoot Trail and crossed its pass to reach Lake Lindeman, which fed into Lake Bennett at the head of the Yukon River.[86] The Chilkoot Pass was higher than the White Pass, but more used it: around 22,000 during the gold rush.[87] The trail passed up through camps until it reached a flat ledge, just before the main ascent, which was too steep for animals.[88][n 20] This location was known as the Scales, and was where goods were weighed before travellers officially entered Canada. The cold, the steepness and the weight of equipment made the climb extremely arduous and it could take a day to get to the top of the 1,000 feet (300 m) high slope.[90]

The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad was completed in 1905, linking Salt Lake City to southern California. U.S. Senator William Andrews Clark was the majority owner of the railroad, which was a corporation based in Utah. Among its original incorporators were Utah's U.S. Senator Thomas Kearns and his business partner David Keith. Kearns, one of the richest and most powerful men in Utah, and Keith were the owners of Utah's Silver King Coalition Mine, several mines in Nevada and The Salt Lake Tribune newspaper. Kearns and Keith helped Clark ensure the success of the new railroad across Utah and into Nevada to California. Curiously, for a time there were two towns named Las Vegas. The east-side of Las Vegas (which encompassed the modern Main Street and Las Vegas Boulevard) was owned by Clark, and the west-side Las Vegas (which encompassed the area north of modern-day Bonanza Road) was owned by J.T. McWilliams, who was hired by the Stewart family during the sale of the Las Vegas Rancho and bought available land west of the ranch. It was from their property that Las Vegas took form.

On February 14, 1719, the Marquess of San Miguel de Aguayo made a report to the king of Spain proposing that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Habana to populate the province of Texas. In June 1730, 25 families come to Cuba, and 10 families were sent to Veracruz. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland to the Presidio San Antonio de Bexar, where they arrived on March 9, 1731. The group joined the military community that had existed since 1718, forming the first government of the city and taking as headquarters building Presidio of San Antonio de BÃ©jar.

Astor continued to compete for Oregon Country furs through his American Fur Company operations in the Rockies.[17] In the 1820s, a few American explorers and traders visited this land beyond the Rocky Mountains. Long after the Lewis and Clark Expedition and also after the consolidation of the fur trade in the region by the Canadian fur companies, American "Mountain Men" such as Jedediah Smith and Jim Beckwourth came roaming into and across the Rocky Mountains, following Indian trails through the Rockies to California and Oregon. They sought beaver pelts and other furs, which were obtained by trapping. These were difficult to obtain in the Oregon Country due to the Hudson's Bay Company policy of creating a "fur desert": deliberate over-hunting of the area's frontiers, so that American trades would find nothing there.[18] The Mountain Men, like the Metis employees of the Canadian fur companies, adopted Indian ways and many of them married Native American women.[citation needed]

In June 1865, two months after Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox, General Sherman received his first postwar command, originally called the Military Division of the Mississippi, later the Military Division of the Missouri, which came to comprise the territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Sherman's efforts in that position were focused on protecting the main wagon roads, such as the Oregon, Bozeman and Santa Fe Trails.[110] Tasked with guarding a vast territory with a limited force, Sherman was wary of the multitude of requests by territories and settlements for protection.[111]

The San Franciscoâ€“Oakland Bay Bridge, known locally as the Bay Bridge or the Emperor Norton Bridge (after San Francisco personage Emperor Norton who originally advocated the bridge's construction), is a complex of bridges spanning San Francisco Bay in California. As part of Interstate 80 and the direct road between San Francisco and Oakland, it carries about 260,000 vehicles a day on its two decks.[3][4] It has one of the longest spans in the United States.

In 1853, the Elliott Cutoff was established, completing Meek's purpose by turning upstream at the Deschutes River for 30 miles and then crossing the Cascade Mountains at Willamette Pass.

Before the end of the year, the army reassigned Emerson to Fort Jesup in Louisiana, where Emerson married Eliza Irene Sanford in February, 1838. Emerson sent for Scott and Harriet, who proceeded to Louisiana to serve their master and his wife. While en route to Louisiana, Scott's daughter Eliza was born on a steamboat underway on the Mississippi River between Illinois and what would become Iowa. Because Eliza was born in free territory, she was technically born as a free person under both federal and state laws. Upon entering Louisiana, the Scotts could have sued for their freedom, but did not. Finkelman suggests that in all likelihood, the Scotts would have been granted their freedom by a Louisiana court, as it had respected laws of free states that slaveholders forfeited their right to slaves if they brought them in for extended periods. This had been the holding in Louisiana state courts for more than 20 years.[5]

The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers.


Question: Where did the Santa Fe Trail lead emigrants to?

The Santa Fe Trail was a crucial route for emigrants heading westward in search of free land and new opportunities, reflecting the era's Manifest Destiny ideology. Originating from trailhead towns like St. Joseph and Independence in Missouri, it served as a vital trade path, transporting goods and products to and from the central plains of the United States. In the earlier decades of the 19th century, the trail was intermittently used for transporting provisions and food to fur trappers and mountain men, who were exploring the Northwest, including regions such as Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana, often linking up with mule trails to reach more northern areas.

In the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the United States purchased a strip of land along the Mexico–United States border for $10 million (equivalent to $294 million in present-day terms), now in New Mexico and Arizona. The territory was also bought as Americans were passing through the land west to California. After the American Mexican War, over the dispute of border claims, American bought the land to prevent future conflict. Few historians would argue the territory was intended for a southern transcontinental railroad.

From 1812 to 1840 the British through the Hudson's Bay Company had nearly complete control of the Pacific Northwest and the western half of the Oregon Trail. In theory, the Treaty of Ghent ending the War of 1812 restored the U.S. back to its possessions in Oregon territory. "Joint occupation" of the region was formally established by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818. The British through the Hudson's Bay Company tried to discourage any U.S. trappers, traders and settlers from doing any significant trapping, trading or settling in the Pacific Northwest. American fur trappers, traders, missionaries, and later settlers all worked to break this monopoly. They were eventually successful.

Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers, emigrants and miners; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha. There, most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River, which was described by pioneers as "a mile wide and an inch deep" and "the most magnificent and useless of rivers".[185] Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full-time on the Missouri, with many more smaller vessels.[186] Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri. Side-wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability.[184]

The Spanish settlement did not reach Alta California until 1769, when explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the San Diego area via the first land route from Mexico. Accompanying him were two Franciscan Padres, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí, who recorded the expedition. As they came through today's Elysian Park, they were awed by a river that flowed from the northwest, past their point and on southward. Crespí named the river El Río de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula, meaning, in Spanish, "the River of Our Lady Queen of the Angels of Porciuncula".[2] The name derives from Santa Maria degli Angeli (Italian: "St. Mary of the Angels") which is the name of the small town in Italy housing the Porciuncula, the church where St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, carried out his religious life. The river that was called the Porciuncula is today's Los Angeles River. Because the future town's name was a take on this "Queen of Heaven" Marian title, various versions of Crespí's formula would be used for the town, including the exceedingly long El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles sobre el Río Porciúncula.[3]

For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous bison herds that once roamed through the Great Plains. The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century, and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase. The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river's entire length, they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend.

In fall of 1823, Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick led their trapping crew south from the Yellowstone River to the Sweetwater River. They were looking for a safe location to spend the winter. Smith reasoned since the Sweetwater flowed east it must eventually run into the Missouri River. Trying to transport their extensive fur collection down the Sweetwater and North Platte River, they found after a near disastrous canoe crash that the rivers were too swift and rough for water passage. On July 4, 1824, they cached their furs under a dome of rock they named Independence Rock and started their long trek on foot to the Missouri River. Upon arriving back in a settled area they bought pack horses (on credit) and retrieved their furs. They had re-discovered the route that Robert Stuart had taken in 1813â€”eleven years before. Thomas Fitzpatrick was often hired as a guide when the fur trade dwindled in 1840. Jedediah Smith was killed by Indians about 1831.

For weeks the emigrants had been finding out how unfamiliar Meek was with the area, especially as the wagons followed a serpentine route into Harney Valley. However, there was always enough grass and water to get by. But now as the train became stalled at the Lost Hollow tensions reached a boiling point. Scouts were sent out in all directions looking for water and they searched for long distances but all came back empty handed.

Congress had passed acts promising land grants to the first railroad to reach the Kansas border via the Neosho Valley. The Katy portion of the former UP Southern Branch, which had begun building from Fort Riley just north of Junction City, Kansas, was in a heated competition for the prize. On June 6, 1870, Katy workers laid the first rails across the Kansas border, winning the race. Congress' promised land grants were never made, as the courts overturned the grants because the land was in Indian Territory and was the property of the Indian tribes.

Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes. Trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company, St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, American Fur Company, Rocky Mountain Fur Company, North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia, Colorado, Arkansas, and Saskatchewan river systems. During this period, the trappers, also called mountain men, blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West. Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships, providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start.[125]

The first European intrusion into the region came from the south. In 1539, a Jesuit Franciscan named Marcos de Niza led an expedition from Mexico City which passed through eastern Arizona.[44] The following year Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, based on reports from survivors of the Narváez expedition (1528–36) who had crossed eastern Texas on their way to Mexico City, led an expedition to discover the Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola.[45] The 1582-3 expedition of Antonio de Espejo explored New Mexico and eastern Arizona;[46] and this led to Juan de Oñate's establishment of the Spanish province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in 1598, with a capital founded near Ohkay Oweenge Pueblo, which he called San Juan de los Caballeros.[47][48] Oñate's party also attempted to establish a settlement in Arizona in 1599, but were turned back by inclement weather.[46] In 1610, Santa Fe was founded, making it the oldest capital in United States.[49]


Question: What is one primary objective of the Democratic Party?

The primary goal of the Democratic Party is to promote social and economic equality through government intervention and regulation. This is achieved by advocating for the welfare state, supporting labor unions, affordable college tuitions, moves toward universal health care, equal opportunity, consumer protection, and environmental protection. The party's philosophy of modern liberalism unites it with smaller liberal regional parties across the country, such as the Farmer-Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota.

Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C.-based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current Secretary of State is Víctor Suárez Meléndez from the Popular Democratic Party and member of the Democratic Party of the United States, while the current Director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral also from the Popular Democratic and member of the Democratic Party.

Primary elections took place on June 6, 2017. Kim Guadagno, Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, won the Republican primary. Woodcliff Lake Mayor Carlos Rendo was her running mate. Phil Murphy, banker and former U.S. Ambassador to Germany, won the Democratic primary. Former State Assembly Speaker Sheila Oliver was his running mate. Seth Kaper-Dale ran as the Green Party candidate; his running mate was Lisa Durden. Pete Rohrman ran as the Libertarian Party candidate; his running mate was Karrese Laguerre. Matt Riccardi ran as the Constitution Party candidate. There were two other independent candidates on the ballot.

Sectional confrontations escalated during the 1850s, the Democratic Party split between North and South grew deeper. The conflict was papered over at the 1852 and 1856 conventions by selecting men who had little involvement in sectionalism, but they made matters worse. Historian Roy F. Nichols explains why Franklin Pierce was not up to the challenges a Democratic president had to face:

In the 2006 Democratic caucus leadership elections, Democrats chose Representative Steny Hoyer of Maryland for House Majority Leader and nominated Representative Nancy Pelosi of California for speaker. Senate Democrats chose Harry Reid of Nevada for United States Senate Majority Leader. Pelosi was elected as the first female House speaker at the commencement of the 110th Congress. The House soon passed the measures that comprised the Democrats' 100-Hour Plan.[citation needed]

The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.

The party system is currently dominated by the social democratic Forward Party (14 MPs), and the democratic socialist Inuit Community Party (11 MPs), both of which broadly argue for greater independence from Denmark. While the 2009 election saw the unionist—and largely Danish—Democrat Party (2 MPs) decline greatly, the 2013 election consolidated the power of the two main parties at the expense of the smaller groups, and saw the far-left Inuit Party (2 MPs) elected to the Parliament for the first time.

"In America the same political labels (Democratic and Republican) cover virtually all public officeholders, and therefore most voters are everywhere mobilized in the name of these two parties," says Nelson W. Polsby, professor of political science, in the book New Federalist Papers: Essays in Defense of the Constitution. "Yet Democrats and Republicans are not everywhere the same. Variations (sometimes subtle, sometimes blatant) in the 50 political cultures of the states yield considerable differences overall in what it means to be, or to vote, Democratic or Republican. These differences suggest that one may be justified in referring to the American two-party system as masking something more like a hundred-party system."

LDS Church membership was made up predominantly of liberal-leaning Democrats until the early 1900s, possibly due to anti-Mormon positions held by the Republican party during the latter half of the 19th Century. However, the church's conservative positions on social issues such as sexuality, drug use, traditional family values, and the role of religion in government caused large numbers of previously Democratic Latter-day Saints to shift to the Republican Party by the late 1970s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s the LDS church took a stand against the Equal Rights Amendment, and again increased the population's participation in the Republican party. At that time, many members who were registered Democrats were called "Jack Mormons", not as a negative term, but to distinguish them as traditional liberal Democrats. Because of the negative connotation of the term's modern context, this usage was short-lived. An alternative theory and contemporary usage holds that the term refers to a person who is a Mormon in "name only" (as in having a common Mormon surname) as though the "Mormon" label were nothing but a surname to this individual.

Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government"[2] and a "remarkably resilient institution".[3] Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view,[4] even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination".[4] One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure.[4] Several academics described Congress:

The Democratic Party was unable to compete with the Republican Party, which controlled nearly all northern states by 1860, bringing a solid majority in the Electoral College. The Republicans claimed that the Northern Democrats, including Doughfaces such as Pierce and Buchanan, as well as advocates of popular sovereignty such as Stephen A. Douglas and Lewis Cass, were all accomplices to Slave Power. The Republicans argued that slaveholders (all of them Democrats) had seized control of the federal government and were blocking the progress of liberty.[23]


Question: What are the applications of amorphous calcium phosphate in dentistry?

Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), when combined with casein phosphopeptide, serves as a dental treatment for early tooth decay. Primarily, ACP functions as a blocking agent to alleviate tooth sensitivity. Research indicates that it can regenerate hydroxyapatite, a component similar to natural tooth enamel. Moreover, clinical trials have demonstrated that individuals who have undergone teeth whitening experience less sensitivity following ACP treatment. The theory suggests that ACP undergoes hydrolysis under normal body conditions, transforming into octacalcium phosphate as an intermediate step before eventually forming surface apatite.

Cyanoacrylates include methyl 2-cyanoacrylate, ethyl-2-cyanoacrylate (commonly sold under trade names such as "Super Glue" and "Krazy Glue"), n-butyl cyanoacrylate and 2-octyl cyanoacrylate (used in medical, veterinary and first aid applications). Octyl cyanoacrylate was developed to address toxicity concerns and to reduce skin irritation and allergic response. Cyanoacrylate adhesives are sometimes known generically as instant glues, power glues or superglues (although "Super Glue" is a trade name).[1] The abbreviation "CA" is commonly used for industrial grades.

Invasive environmental factors potentially affect tooth development and positioning leading to hypodontia and impaction. Examples include jaw fractures, surgical procedures and extraction of the preceding deciduous tooth.[32] Treatment such as irradiation has been shown to have severe effects on developing teeth. In a smaller capacity, Chemotherapy was also found to have a similar effect. Thalidomide (N-phthaloylglutamine) was also discovered to have a causative effect on mothers who took the drug during pregnancy, resulting in congenitally missing teeth in their children. A link was found between systemic diseases, endocrine disruption (i.e. idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and pseudohypoparathyroidism).[33] and ectodermal dysplasia. However, a definite etiological relationship has yet to be established.[32] Examples of infections include rubella[34] and candida.[35] Exposure to PCBs (ex.dioxin),[36][37][38] allergy [39] and toxic epidermal necrolysis after drug.[40] may also be contributing factors.

Nitrous oxide (N2O), better known as laughing gas, is made by thermal decomposition of molten ammonium nitrate at 250 °C. This is a redox reaction and thus nitric oxide and nitrogen are also produced as byproducts. It is mostly used as a propellant and aerating agent for sprayed canned whipped cream, and was formerly commonly used as an anaesthetic. Despite appearances, it cannot be considered to be the anhydride of hyponitrous acid (H2N2O2) because that acid is not produced by the dissolution of nitrous oxide in water. It is rather unreactive (not reacting with the halogens, the alkali metals, or ozone at room temperature, although reactivity increases upon heating) and has the unsymmetrical structure N–N–O (N≡N+O−↔−N=N+=O): above 600 °C it dissociates by breaking the weaker N–O bond.[54]

Calcium channels are also present in the smooth muscle lining blood vessels. By relaxing the tone of this smooth muscle, calcium channel blockers dilate the blood vessels. This has led to their use in treating high blood pressure and angina pectoris. The pain of angina is caused by a deficit in oxygen supply to the heart. Calcium channel blockers like verapamil dilate blood vessels, which increases the supply of blood and oxygen to the heart.[22] This controls chest pain, but only when used regularly. It does not stop chest pain once it starts. A more powerful vasodilator such as nitroglycerin may be needed to control pain once it starts.

Like dry ice, the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant. Among other things, it is used in the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological samples and materials. It is used in the clinical setting in cryotherapy to remove cysts and warts on the skin.[85] It is used in cold traps for certain laboratory equipment and to cool infrared detectors or X-ray detectors. It has also been used to cool central processing units and other devices in computers that are overclocked, and that produce more heat than during normal operation.[86] Other uses include freeze-grinding and machining materials that are soft or rubbery at room temperature, shrink-fitting and assembling engineering components, and more generally to attain very low temperatures whenever necessary (around −200 °C). Because of its low cost, liquid nitrogen is also often used when such low temperatures are not strictly necessary, such as refrigeration of food, freeze-branding livestock, freezing pipes to halt flow when valves are not present, and consolidating unstable soil by freezing whenever excavation is going on underneath.[67]

Amperometry uses a carbon electrode to record changes in the chemical composition of the oxidized components of a biological solution. Oxidation and reduction is accomplished by changing the voltage at the active surface of the recording electrode in a process known as "scanning". Because certain brain chemicals lose or gain electrons at characteristic voltages, individual species can be identified. Amperometry has been used for studying exocytosis in the nervous and endocrine systems. Many monoamine neurotransmitters; e.g., norepinephrine (noradrenalin), dopamine, and serotonin (5-HT) are oxidizable. The method can also be used with cells that do not secrete oxidizable neurotransmitters by "loading" them with 5-HT or dopamine.

Nitric acid (HNO3) is by far the most important and the most stable of the nitrogen oxoacids. It is one of the three most used acids (the other two being sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid) and was first discovered by the alchemists in the 13th century. It is made by catalytic oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide, which is oxidised to nitrogen dioxide, and then dissolved in water to give concentrated nitric acid. In the United States of America, over seven million tonnes of nitric acid are produced every year, most of which is used for nitrate production for fertilisers and explosives, among other uses. Anhydrous nitric acid may be made by distilling concentrated nitric acid with phosphorus pentoxide at low pressure in glass apparatus in the dark. It can only be made in the solid state, because upon melting it spontaneously decomposes to nitrogen dioxide, and liquid nitric acid undergoes self-ionisation to a larger extent than any other covalent liquid as follows:[58]

The bioelectric recognition assay (BERA) is a novel method for determination of various chemical and biological molecules by measuring changes in the membrane potential of cells immobilized in a gel matrix. Apart from the increased stability of the electrode-cell interface, immobilization preserves the viability and physiological functions of the cells. BERA is used primarily in biosensor applications in order to assay analytes that can interact with the immobilized cells by changing the cell membrane potential. In this way, when a positive sample is added to the sensor, a characteristic, "signature-like" change in electrical potential occurs. BERA is the core technology behind the recently launched pan-European FOODSCAN project, about pesticide and food risk assessment in Europe.[8] BERA has been used for the detection of human viruses (hepatitis B and C viruses and herpes viruses),[9] veterinary disease agents (foot and mouth disease virus, prions, and blue tongue virus), and plant viruses (tobacco and cucumber viruses)[10] in a specific, rapid (1â€“2 minutes), reproducible, and cost-efficient fashion. The method has also been used for the detection of environmental toxins, such as pesticides[11][12][13] and mycotoxins[14] in food, and 2,4,6-trichloroanisole in cork and wine,[15][16] as well as the determination of very low concentrations of the superoxide anion in clinical samples.[17][18]

Phosphorus pentachloride is the chemical compound with the formula PCl5. It is one of the most important phosphorus chlorides, others being PCl3 and POCl3. PCl5 finds use as a chlorinating reagent. It is a colourless, water-sensitive and moisture-sensitive solid, although commercial samples can be yellowish and contaminated with hydrogen chloride.

The calcitonin receptor, found on osteoclasts,[16] and in the kidney and regions of the brain, is a G protein-coupled receptor, which is coupled by Gs to adenylate cyclase and thereby to the generation of cAMP in target cells. It may also affect the ovaries in women and the testes in men.


Question: What is Novichok and what effects does it have?

Novichok agents, a class of nerve agents, were developed by the Soviet Union and Russia from 1971 to 1993. According to the Russian scientists who created them, these agents are considered the most lethal nerve agents ever produced. Some variants are reportedly five to eight times more potent than VX nerve agent, while others are up to ten times more powerful than soman.

Nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is a dense, volatile, and explosive liquid whose physical properties are similar to those of carbon tetrachloride, although one difference is that NCl3 is easily hydrolysed by water while CCl4 is not. It was first synthesised in 1811 by Pierre Louis Dulong, who lost three fingers and an eye to its explosive tendencies. As a dilute gas it is less dangerous and is thus used industrially to bleach and sterilise flour. Nitrogen tribromide (NBr3), first prepared in 1975, is a deep red, temperature-sensitive, volatile solid that is explosive even at −100 °C. Nitrogen triiodide (NI3) is still more unstable and was only prepared in 1990. Its adduct with ammonia, which was known earlier, is very shock-sensitive: it can be set off by the touch of a feather, shifting air currents, or even alpha particles.[49][50] For this reason, small amounts of nitrogen triiodide are sometimes synthesised as a demonstration to high school chemistry students or as an act of "chemical magic".[51] Chlorine azide (ClN3) and bromine azide (BrN3) are extremely sensitive and explosive.[52][53]

Alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of a neurotransmitter called γ-aminobutyric acid, or GABA.[20] This is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and by facilitating its actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the central nervous system.[20] The substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin.[21][22] The pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain.[23][24] Alcohol also has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde.[25]

All species are venomous, but only blue-ringed octopuses have venom that is lethal to humans.[136] Bites are reported each year across the animals' range from Australia to the eastern Indo-Pacific Ocean. They bite only when provoked or accidentally stepped upon; bites are small and usually painless. The venom appears to be able to penetrate the skin without a puncture, given prolonged contact. It contains tetrodotoxin, which causes paralysis by blocking the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles. This causes death by respiratory failure leading to cerebral anoxia. No antidote is known, but if breathing can be kept going artificially, patients recover within 24 hours.[137][138] Bites have been recorded from captive octopuses of other species; they leave swellings which disappear in a day or two.[139]

Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric and cyanoacrylate used in superglue. Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many drugs are mimics or prodrugs of natural nitrogen-containing signal molecules: for example, the organic nitrates nitroglycerin and nitroprusside control blood pressure by metabolizing into nitric oxide. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the natural caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines, act on receptors of animal neurotransmitters.

The symptoms in anthrax depend on the type of infection and can take anywhere from 1 day to more than 2 months to appear. All types of anthrax have the potential, if untreated, to spread throughout the body and cause severe illness and even death.[21]

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons. In World War II, between 1939 and 1945, 60 million amphetamine pills were made for use by soldiers.[citation needed] Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its War on Terror. In July 2012, Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice.[32][33] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives' release.[34][35] In May 2003, recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.

Such persons have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe hangovers and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia. Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not use alcoholic beverages have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus "sober up" very slowly, but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder hangovers. Rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably aspirin, furfural (which may be found in fusel alcohol), fumes of certain solvents, many heavy metals, and some pyrazole compounds. Also suspected of having this effect are cimetidine (Tagamet), ranitidine (Zantac), and acetaminophen (Tylenol) (paracetamol).

Colchicine can be toxic when ingested, inhaled, or absorbed in the eyes.[2] Colchicine can cause a temporary clouding of the cornea and be absorbed into the body, causing systemic toxicity. Symptoms of colchicine overdose start 2 to 24 hours after the toxic dose has been ingested and include burning in the mouth and throat, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.[6] This can cause hypovolemic shock due to extreme vascular damage and fluid loss through the gastrointestinal tract, which can be fatal.[19][20]

In 2000, it was confirmed that although relativistic effects are important, bohrium behaves like a typical group 7 element.[27] A team at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) conducted a chemistry reaction using six atoms of 267Bh produced in the reaction between 249Bk and 22Ne ions. The resulting atoms were thermalised and reacted with a HCl/O2 mixture to form a volatile oxychloride. The reaction also produced isotopes of its lighter homologues, technetium (as 108Tc) and rhenium (as 169Re). The isothermal adsorption curves were measured and gave strong evidence for the formation of a volatile oxychloride with properties similar to that of rhenium oxychloride. This placed bohrium as a typical member of group 7.[28] The adsorption enthalpies of the oxychlorides of technetium, rhenium, and bohrium were measured in this experiment, agreeing very well with the theoretical predictions and implying a sequence of decreasing oxychloride volatility down group 7 of TcO3Cl > ReO3Cl > BhO3Cl.[2]

Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. It also has reinforcement-related adverse effects, including addiction, dependence, and withdrawal.


Question: What is Novichok and what effects does it have?

As a type of nerve agent, Novichok agents function by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, by blocking the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This results in an accumulation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions, leading to uncontrolled muscle contractions and a cholinergic crisis. The consequence is a failure of respiratory and cardiac functions due to the inability of the heart and diaphragm muscles to operate normally, causing death from heart failure or asphyxiation due to excessive fluid buildup in the lungs.

The mechanisms include the chemical toxicity or physical irritating ability of:

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons. In World War II, between 1939 and 1945, 60 million amphetamine pills were made for use by soldiers.[citation needed] Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its War on Terror. In July 2012, Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing practice.[32][33] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives' release.[34][35] In May 2003, recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.

Curare is a crude extract from certain South American plants in the genera Strychnos and Chondrodendron, originally brought to Europe by explorers such as Walter Raleigh[25] It was known in the 19th century to have a paralysing effect, due in part to the studies of scientists like Claude Bernard.[26] D-tubocurarine a mono-quaternary alkaloid was isolated from Chondrodendron tomentosum in 1942, and it was shown to be the major constituent in curare responsible for producing the paralysing effect. At that time, it was known that curare and, therefore, d-tubocurarine worked at the neuromuscular junction. The isolation of tubocurarine and its marketing as the drug Intocostrin led to more research in the field of neuromuscular-blocking drugs. Scientists figured out that the potency of tubocurarine was related to the separation distance between the two quaternary ammonium heads.[2][27]

In recent years much research has been devoted to new types of quaternary ammonium muscle relaxants. These are asymmetrical diester isoquinolinium compounds and bis-benzyltropinium compounds that are bistropinium salts of various diacids. These classes have been developed to create muscle relaxants that are faster and shorter acting. Both the asymmetric structure of diester isoquinolinium compounds and the acyloxylated benzyl groups on the bisbenzyltropiniums destabilizes them and can lead to spontaneous breakdown and therefore possibly a shorter duration of action.[4]

High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.

Synthetic pesticides such as 'Malathion', 'Rogor', 'Kelthane' and 'confidor' are the most widespread method of controlling pests in agriculture. Pesticides can leach through the soil and enter the groundwater, as well as linger in food products and result in death in humans. Pesticides can also kill non-target plants, birds, fish and other wildlife.[8] A wide range of agricultural chemicals are used and some become pollutants through use, misuse, or ignorance. Pollutants from agriculture have a huge effect on water quality. Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) solution impacts lakes, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and groundwater. Agricultural NPS can be caused by poorly managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, plowing, fertilizer, and improper, excessive, or badly timed use of Pesticides. Pollutants from farming include sediments, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides, metals, and salts.[9]

Poisoning by benzalkonium chloride is recognised in the literature.[25] A 2014 case study detailing the fatal ingestion of up to 8.1 oz (240ml) of 10% benzalkonium chloride in a 78-year-old male also includes a summary of the currently published case reports of benzalkonium chloride ingestion. While the majority of cases were caused by confusion about the contents of containers, one case cites incorrect pharmacy dilution of benzalkonium chloride as the cause of poisoning of two infants.[26]

Although not mentioned as dim mak, the ability to kill with a mere touch is attributed to Chiun, the mentor of Remo Williams, who is the protagonist in the series of fiction novels known as The Destroyer. The style of martial art practiced by Chuin is called Sinanju, which incorporates distinct knowledge of the body's energy channels, known in western culture as acupuncture meridians. In the 1985 film Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins, Chiun uses this knowledge to render a female Army major helpless, bringing her to over-heightened levels of sexual arousal and pleasure by simply tapping her wrist.

In other cases, topical is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect.[4][5] By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution.

The German Army first used chlorine-gas cylinders in April 1915 against the French Army at Ypres,[b] when yellow-green clouds drifted towards the Allied trenches. The gas had a distinctive odour, resembling pineapple and pepper. The French officers, assuming at first that the German infantry were advancing behind a smoke screen, alerted the troops. When the gas reached the front Allied trenches, soldiers began to complain of chest pains and a burning sensation in the throat.