Question: What is the present population of Bora Bora?

As of the latest update in 2017, the permanent population residing in the Bora Bora group is recorded at 10,605 individuals.

The City of London area has a resident population of around 9000.[2] There is a daily influx of approximately 400,000 commuters into the City, along with thousands of tourists.[3]

As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a population of 208.[3] The capital of the Havasupai Indian Reservation, Supai is the only place in the United States where mail is still carried out by mules.[4]

Greenland is the world's largest island (Australia, although larger, is generally considered to be a continental landmass rather than an island).[10] Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480[6] (2013), it is the least densely populated country in the world.[11] About a third of the population live in Nuuk, the capital and largest city. The Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements.

Ocean City is a city in Cape May County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 11,701,[11] reflecting a decline of 3,677 (-23.9%) from the 15,378 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn declined by 134 (-0.9%) from the 15,512 counted in the 1990 Census.[21] In summer months, with an influx of tourists and second homeowners, there are estimated to be 115,000 to 130,000 within the city's borders.[22][23]

Before the 19th century, the Jarawa homelands were located in the southeast part of South Andaman Island and nearby islets. With the establishment of the initial British settlement, these are suspected to have been largely depopulated by disease shortly after 1789.[6] The Great Andamanese tribes were similarly depopulated by the introduction of alcohol and opium, leaving open the western areas which the Jarawa gradually made their new homeland. The spreading of opium and alcohol was to some extent sponsored by the colonial authorities in order to depopulate the Jarawa.[7] The immigration of mainland Indian and Karen (Burmese) settlers, beginning about two centuries ago, accelerated this process. Prior to their initiating contact with settled populations in 1997, the Jarawa were noted for vigorously maintaining their independence and distance from external groups, actively discouraging most incursions and attempts at contact. Since 1998, they have been in increasing contact with the outside world and have increasingly been the initiators of such contact. All contact, especially with tourists, remains extremely dangerous to the Jarawa due to the risk of disease.[8] Of the remaining Andamanese peoples, only the Sentinelese have been able to maintain a more isolated situation, and their society and traditions persist with little variance from their practices they observed before the first significant contacts were made.[citation needed] Today the Jarawa are in regular contact with the outside world through settlements on the fringes of their Reserve, through daily contact with outsiders along the Andaman Trunk Road and at jetties, marketplaces and hospitals near the road and at settlements near the reserve, with some children even showing up at mainstream schools and asking to be educated along with settler children.[9]

During the 1960s and 1970s Port Douglas functioned mainly as a fishing and holiday town, retaining much of its historic character, but in the 1980s it emerged as a booming tourist resort, creating strong development pressures. St Mary's Church was by then in poor condition and could no longer meet the needs of the parish. In 1987 the Catholic Church gave the church building to the local community with the stipulation that it continue to be used for Christian purposes. As a Bicentennial Project, the church was relocated to parkland on the foreshore in November 1988. The Port Hill site was sold by the Church to finance construction of a new church on land elsewhere. Once relocated, the former St Mary's Church was restored and renamed St Mary's by the Sea. It is used as a non-denominational community church for religious and civil weddings, carol services and other special services and events.[1]

There were 17,132 households out of which 43.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.1% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.3% are nonfamilies. 11.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 2.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.47, and the average family size was 3.72.

According to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, Tel Aviv had a population of 15,185 inhabitants, consisting of 15,065 Jews, 78 Muslims and 42 Christians.[36] Increasing in the 1931 census to 46,101, in 12,545 houses.[37] With increasing Jewish immigration during the British administration, friction between Arabs and Jews in Palestine increased. On 1 May 1921, the Jaffa Riots resulted in the deaths of 48 Arabs and 47 Jews and injuries to 146 Jews and 73 Arabs.[38] In the wake of this violence, many Jews left Jaffa for Tel Aviv, increasing the population of Tel Aviv from 2,000 in 1920 to around 34,000 by 1925.[16][39]

As of 2014[update], Oman's population is over 4 million, with 2.23 million Omani nationals and 1.76 million expatriates.[112] The total fertility rate in 2011 was estimated at 3.70.[113] Oman has a very young population, with 43 percent of its inhabitants under the age of 15. Nearly 50 percent of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital. Omani people are predominantly of Arab, Baluchi and African origins.[82]

Because of the rocky terrain in the Faroe Islands, its road transport system was not[when?] as extensive as in other places of the world. This situation has now changed, and the infrastructure has been developed extensively. Some 80 percent of the population of the islands is connected by tunnels through the mountains and between the islands, bridges and causeways that link the three largest islands and three other larger and smaller islands to the northeast together. While the other two large islands to the south of the main area, Sandoy and Suðuroy, are connected to the main area with ferries, the small islands Koltur and Stóra Dímun have no ferry connection, only helicopter service. Other small islands—Mykines in the west, Kalsoy, Svínoy and Fugloy in the north, Hestur west of Streymoy, and Nólsoy east of Tórshavn—have smaller ferries and some of these islands even have helicopter service. In February 2014 all the political parties of the Løgting agreed on making two subsea tunnels, one between Streymoy and Eysturoy (the Eysturoyartunnilin) and one between Streymoy and Sandoy (Sandoyartunnilin). The plan is that both tunnels should open in 2021 and they will not be private.[77] The work to dig the Eysturoy-tunnel started on 1 March 2016 above the village of Hvítanes near Tórshavn.[78]


Question: What was the population of the Roman Empire at its peak?

The Roman Empire, following the period of the Roman Republic, was characterized by an imperial government and extensive territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa, and Asia. At its peak, around AD 100 to 400, Rome was the world's largest city, and by AD 500, Constantinople (also known as New Rome) had become the largest. The Empire's population grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million people, which was approximately 20% of the global population at the time. This period followed a series of civil wars and political unrest that led to the appointment and subsequent assassination of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC. Further civil wars and political upheaval ensued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavian's power became unchallenged, and in 27 BC, the Roman Senate formally granted him supreme authority and the title of Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic.

Hydraulic mining, which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ("ruin of the mountains"), allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[251] The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes.[252][253][254] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[251][255] and lead at 80,000 t,[251][256][257] both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution;[255][256][257][258] Hispania alone had a 40% share in world lead production.[256] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum. At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[257][259] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era, and dropped again thereafter.[260]

The army of the late Republic that Augustus took over on becoming sole ruler of the Empire in 30 BC consisted of a number of large (5,000-strong) formations called legions, which were composed exclusively of heavy infantry. The legion's light infantry (velites) which had been deployed in earlier times (see Roman army of the mid-Republic), had been phased out as had its contingent of cavalry. Legions were recruited from Roman citizens only (i.e.: from Italians and inhabitants of Roman colonies outside Italy), by regular conscription, although by 88 BC, a substantial proportion of recruits were volunteers.

In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celtic peoples. Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous.[89] The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.[222]

Gratian governed the Western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. Gratian lost favor with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex Maximus. The senior Augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances.

Contraceptives fell out of use in Europe after the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century; the use of contraceptive pessaries, for example, is not documented again until the 15th century. If condoms were used during the Roman Empire, knowledge of them may have been lost during its decline.[2]:33,42 In the writings of Muslims and Jews during the Middle Ages, there are some references to attempts at male-controlled contraception, including suggestions to cover the penis in tar or soak it in onion juice. Some of these writings might describe condom use, but they are "oblique", "veiled", and "vague".[2]:38â€“41

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

In 14Â AD Augustus died at the age of seventy-five, having ruled the empire for forty years, and was succeeded as emperor by Tiberius.

Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onwards, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of this era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian. Antony and Octavian's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian's forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ("first citizen") with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the Principate (the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284), and gave him the name "Augustus" ("the venerated"). Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it. Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome.[20] Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure. During the years of his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in part organically and in part by design), so that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor. The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). During this period, the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent, but put down "mercilessly and swiftly" when they occurred.[21] The sixty years of Jewish–Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence.[22]

The high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo and its outskirts played a critical role in the centralization of Kongo. The capital was a densely settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region where rural population densities probably did not exceed 5 persons per km2. Early Portuguese travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a large city, the size of the Portuguese town of Évora as it was in 1491. By the end of the sixteenth century, Kongo's population was probably close to half a million people in a core region of some 130,000 square kilometers. By the early seventeenth century the city and its hinterland had a population of around 100,000, or one out of every five inhabitants in the Kingdom (according to baptismal statistics compiled by Jesuit priests). This concentration allowed resources, soldiers and surplus foodstuffs to be readily available at the request of the king. This made the king overwhelmingly powerful and caused the kingdom to become highly centralized.

Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate.[284] In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40[285] to 66%[286] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland.


Question: What was the population of the Roman Empire at its peak?

At its peak during the reign of Emperor Trajan, the Roman Empire encompassed a vast territory of 5 million square kilometers and was home to an estimated 70 million people, constituting 21% of the global population at the time. This extensive dominion, coupled with its enduring legacy in areas such as language, culture, religion, technology, architecture, philosophy, law, and governance, solidified its influence on subsequent European societies and the modern world through the dissemination of Greco-Roman and Judaeo-Christian values via European colonialism post-Renaissance.

Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine–Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—'our sea'.[47]

The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders.[citation needed] The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila,[citation needed] though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself.[citation needed] Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[29][better source needed] By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor, rather than naming himself Emperor (as other Germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors), Odoacer ended the Western Empire by ending the line of Western emperors.[citation needed]

From an ethnic point of view, Roman authors associated blond and red hair with the Gauls and the Germans: e.g., Virgil describes the hair of the Gauls as "golden" (aurea caesaries),[100] Tacitus wrote that "the Germans have fierce blue eyes, red-blond hair (rutilae comae), huge (tall) frames";[101] in accordance with Ammianus, almost all the Gauls were "of tall stature, fair and ruddy".[102] Celtic and Germanic peoples of the provinces, among the free subjects called peregrini, served in Rome's armies as auxilia, such as the cavalry contingents in the army of Julius Caesar.[103] Some became Roman citizens as far back as the 1st century BC, following a policy of Romanization of Gaul and Lesser Germania.[104] For instance, Gaius Julius Civilis, a prince of the Batavii, was a Roman citizen either by birth or naturalization (as indicated by his name).[105] Before the Constitutio Antoniniana, which granted citizenship to all free men of the empire in 212 AD, entire auxiliary cohorts were occasionally granted citizenship for their performance in battle.[106] Sometimes entire Celtic and Germanic tribes were granted citizenship, such as when emperor Otho granted citizenship to all of the Lingones in 69 AD.[107] By the 1st century BC, the Roman Republic had expanded its control into parts of western Germany, and by 85 AD the provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior were formally established there.[108] Yet as late as the 4th century AD, Ausonius, a poet and tutor from Burdigala, wrote a poem about an Alemanni slave girl named Bissula, who he had recently freed after she'd been taken as a prisoner of war in the campaigns of Valentinian I, noting that her adopted Latin language marked her as a woman of Latium yet her blond-haired, blue-eyed appearance ultimately signified her true origins from the Rhine.[109]

For the most part, crime was viewed as a private matter in Ancient Greece and Rome. Even with offenses as serious as murder, justice was the prerogative of the victim's family and private war or vendetta the means of protection against criminality. Publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police in Ancient Greece. In Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, manhandling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves.[2] The Roman Empire had a reasonably effective law enforcement system until the decline of the empire, though there was never an actual police force in the city of Rome. When under the reign of Augustus the capital had grown to almost one million inhabitants, he created 14 wards, which were protected by seven squads of 1,000 men.[3] If necessary, they might have called on the Praetorian Guard for assistance. Beginning in the 5th century, policing became a function of clan chiefs and heads of state.[citation needed]

The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity" to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time.[86] The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".[87]

Augustus' ambitious expansion plans for the Empire (which included advancing the European border to the lines of the Elbe and Danube rivers) soon proved that 28 legions were not sufficient. Starting with the Cantabrian Wars, which aimed to annex the mineral-rich mountains of north-western Spain, Augustus' 44-year sole rule saw an almost uninterrupted series of major wars that frequently stretched the army's manpower to the limit.

The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after 476, the traditional date for the "fall of the Western Roman Empire" and for the beginning of the Early Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire survived the fall of the West, and protected Roman legal and cultural traditions, combining them with Greek and Christian elements, for another thousand years. The name Byzantine Empire was used after the Byzantine Empire ended, the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire continued to call themselves Romans.

The Western Roman Empire provinces eventually were replaced by Germanic ruled kingdoms in the 5th century AD due to civil wars, corruption, and devastating Germanic invasions from such tribes as the Goths, the Franks and the Vandals.

Intense, authoritarian efforts to maintain cohesion by Domitian and Constantine the Great only led to an ever greater strain on the population. The empire was split into two halves, of which the western soon fragmented into smaller units. The eastern half, being wealthier, was able to survive longer, and did not collapse but instead succumbed slowly and piecemeal, because unlike the western empire it had powerful neighbors able to take advantage of its weakness.

The Byzantine economy was the economy of the Byzantine Empire which lasted from Constantine's foundation of Nova Roma (Constantinople) as the capital of a Hellenized, truly 'Graeco-Roman' Empire in 330 to 1453. Throughout its history it employed vast numbers of people in huge industries, particularly in the Capital and Thessaloniki (the second city of the empire), in all manner of trades, such as the silk industry.[14]


Question: What was the population of the Roman Empire at its peak?

At the height of its power under Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD), the Roman Empire spanned an area of 5 million square kilometers. Historians estimate the empire's population to have been between 55 and 60 million, constituting one-sixth to one-fourth of the global population at the time. This made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. However, recent demographic studies suggest the population could have been as high as 70 to over 100 million. The three largest cities in the empire—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—were each twice the size of any European city at the start of the 17th century.

Jews lived in at least forty-three Jewish communities in Palestine: twelve towns on the coast, in the Negev, and east of the Jordan, and thirty-one villages in Galilee and in the Jordan valley. The persecuted Jews of Palestine revolted twice against their Christian rulers. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire collapsed leading to Christian migration into Palestine and development of a Christian majority. Jews numbered 10â€“15% of the population. Judaism was the only non-Christian religion tolerated, but there were bans on Jews building new places of worship, holding public office or owning slaves. There were also two Samaritan revolts during this period.[71]

The Mexica-Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (while Yaquis, Coras and Apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica[citation needed] presided over a wealthy tribute-empire variously estimated at 5–8 million people in total a population of 8–12 millions. The actual population is never more than an estimate. The modern name "Mexico" comes from their name.

Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included the Roman–Parthian War (a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63) ), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and the improvement of cultural ties with Greece. However, he was egotistical and had severe troubles with his mother, who he felt was controlling and over-bearing. After several attempts to kill her, he finally had her stabbed to death. He believed himself a god and decided to build an opulent palace for himself. The so-called Domus Aurea, meaning golden house in Latin, was constructed atop the burnt remains of Rome after the Great Fire of Rome (64). Because of the convenience of this many believe that Nero was ultimately responsible for the fire, spawning the legend of him fiddling while Rome burned which is almost certainly untrue. The Domus Aurea was a colossal feat of construction that covered a huge space and demanded new methods of construction in order to hold up the gold, jewel encrusted ceilings. By this time Nero was hugely unpopular despite his attempts to blame the Christians for most of his regime's problems.

Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperor, the Tetrarchy.[27] Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an eastâ€“west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire.[28]

The most important non-military activity of the Roman army was construction. The army was a large workforce of fit, disciplined men which also comprised hundreds of skilled craftsmen. Troops were on regular salaries anyway, so it was cheaper for the government to use them for building projects, if the security situation in the province allowed, than to hire private contractors. In fact, soldiers spent far more of their working lives on building-sites than on campaign and it would not be a huge exaggeration to describe an imperial legion as an armed construction-gang.

From an ethnic point of view, Roman authors associated blond and red hair with the Gauls and the Germans: e.g., Virgil describes the hair of the Gauls as "golden" (aurea caesaries),[100] Tacitus wrote that "the Germans have fierce blue eyes, red-blond hair (rutilae comae), huge (tall) frames";[101] in accordance with Ammianus, almost all the Gauls were "of tall stature, fair and ruddy".[102] Celtic and Germanic peoples of the provinces, among the free subjects called peregrini, served in Rome's armies as auxilia, such as the cavalry contingents in the army of Julius Caesar.[103] Some became Roman citizens as far back as the 1st century BC, following a policy of Romanization of Gaul and Lesser Germania.[104] For instance, Gaius Julius Civilis, a prince of the Batavii, was a Roman citizen either by birth or naturalization (as indicated by his name).[105] Before the Constitutio Antoniniana, which granted citizenship to all free men of the empire in 212 AD, entire auxiliary cohorts were occasionally granted citizenship for their performance in battle.[106] Sometimes entire Celtic and Germanic tribes were granted citizenship, such as when emperor Otho granted citizenship to all of the Lingones in 69 AD.[107] By the 1st century BC, the Roman Republic had expanded its control into parts of western Germany, and by 85 AD the provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior were formally established there.[108] Yet as late as the 4th century AD, Ausonius, a poet and tutor from Burdigala, wrote a poem about an Alemanni slave girl named Bissula, who he had recently freed after she'd been taken as a prisoner of war in the campaigns of Valentinian I, noting that her adopted Latin language marked her as a woman of Latium yet her blond-haired, blue-eyed appearance ultimately signified her true origins from the Rhine.[109]

Titus Livius (Classical Latin: [ˈtɪ.tʊs ˈliː.wi.ʊs]; 64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17) – often rendered as Livy /ˈlɪvi/ in English language sources – was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people – Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books from the Foundation of the City) – covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on familiar terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, advising Augustus's grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, as a young man not long before 14 AD in a letter to take up the writing of history.[2] Livy and Augustus's wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations, although not related by blood.[citation needed]

Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled.[43] The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.[15] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.[52][53][54]

One of the imperial communication channels, called the "Royal Road" traversed the Assyrian Empire and served as a key source of its power.[51] The Roman Empire maintained a vast network of roads, known as cursus publicus, for similar purposes.[52]

The Imperial Roman army are the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the Roman Empire from about 30 BC to 476 AD.[1] This period is sometimes split into the Principate (30 BC – 284 AD) and Dominate (285–476) periods.


Question: What does SIP stand for in the NGN/IMS context?

In the context of Next Generation Network (NGN) and IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), SIP stands for Session Initiation Protocol. It is an IETF protocol utilized by IMS to facilitate integration with the Internet. The primary goal of IMS, as defined by the 3GPP, is not to standardize applications, but to enable seamless access to multimedia and voice applications from both wireless and wireline devices, promoting fixed-mobile convergence (FMC). This is achieved through a horizontal control layer that decouples the access network from the service layer, theoretically streamlining service control and potentially reducing costs and complexity, although implementation may not always reflect this ideal.

At the European Telecommunications Standards Institute a catalog of Information security indicators have been standardized by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.

Examples of digital communication technologies are all modern cellphones plus TETRA considered to be the best standard in digital radio and being the baseline infrastructure for whole of country networks, including manufacturers such as DAMM, Rohill, Cassidian, Sepura and others, APCO Project 25, a standard for digital public safety radios, and finally other systems such as Motorola's MotoTRBO, HQT's DMR, Nextel's iDEN, Hytera's DMR, EMC's DMR, and NXDN implemented by Icom as IDAS and by Kenwood as NEXEDGE. Only NXDN and Mototrbo are proprietary DMR is an ETSI open standard.

When network access is granted to the user by the NAS, an Accounting Start (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value "start") is sent by the NAS to the RADIUS server to signal the start of the user's network access. "Start" records typically contain the user's identification, network address, point of attachment and a unique session identifier.[6]

The S III's Li-ion 2,100 mAh battery is said to have a 790-hour standby time or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 900 hours in standby and 21 hours of talk time on 2G.[59] Built into the battery is near field communication (NFC) connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using Wi-Fi Direct (through Android Beam), and perform non-touch payments at shops that employ specially equipped NFC cash registers.[60] The battery can be wirelessly charged using a special charging pad (sold separately) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a magnetic field through which electricity could be transferred.[61]

In telecommunication, the front can be considered a device or service, while the back is the infrastructure that supports provision of service.

Beyond the basic capabilities, is a step towards Unified Messaging, in bringing together the management of related media like faxes, emails, digital documents, etc.[4]

In VoIP, for example, latency and jitter are the primary concerns.  The use of TCP would cause jitter if any packets were lost as TCP does not provide subsequent data to the application while it is requesting re-sending of the missing data. If using UDP the end user applications must provide any necessary handshaking such as real time confirmation that the message has been received.

Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) is a networking protocol that provides centralized Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA or Triple A) management for users who connect and use a network service. RADIUS was developed by Livingston Enterprises, Inc. in 1991 as an access server authentication and accounting protocol and later brought into the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standards.[1]

Soka Gakkai International (SGI) is perhaps the most successful of Japan's new religious movements that grew around the world after the end of World War II.[6] Soka Gakkai, which means "Value Creation Society," is one of three sects of Nichiren Buddhism that came to the United States during the 20th century.[5] The SGI expanded rapidly in the US, attracting non-Asian minority converts,[7] chiefly African Americans and Latino, as well as the support of celebrities, such as Tina Turner, Herbie Hancock, and Orlando Bloom.[8] Because of a rift with Nichiren Shōshū in 1991, the SGI has no priests of its own.[9] Its main religious practice is chanting the mantra Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō and sections of the Lotus Sutra. Unlike trends such as Zen, Vipassanā, and Tibetan Buddhism, Soka Gakkai Buddhists do not practice meditative techniques other than chanting.[citation needed] An SGI YouTube series called "Buddhist in America" has over a quarter million views in total as of 2015.[10]

A subset of VPLS, the CE devices must have Layer 3 capabilities; the IPLS presents packets rather than frames. It may support IPv4 or IPv6.


Question: When was penicillin first made available to the public?

Penicillin, a groundbreaking antibiotic, was initially discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. Its use for treating infections in humans started in 1942. Over time, various enhanced forms of penicillin have been developed to combat a wider range of bacteria, including antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins, and antipseudomonal penicillins, all of which are derived from Penicillium fungi.

On 24 August 1939, a week before the invasion of Poland which started the war, Germany announced rationing of food, coal, textiles and soap, and Shirer noted that it was this action above all which made the German people wake up to the reality that war was imminent.[18] They were allowed one bar of soap per month, and men had to make one tube of shaving foam last five months. Housewives soon spent hours standing in line for supplies; shopkeepers sometimes opened otherwise non-perishable goods such as tinned sardines in front of customers when they were bought to prevent hoarding. The clothing allowance was so meagre that for all practical purposes people had to make do with whatever clothing they already possessed until the war was over. Men were allowed one overcoat and two suits, four shirts and six pairs of socks, and had to prove that the old ones were worn out to get new. Some items shown on the coupons, such as bed sheets, blankets and table linen could in reality only be obtained on production of a special licence.

Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity.[2] Ampicillin is able to penetrate Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. That amino group, present on both ampicillin and amoxicillin, helps them enter the pores of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enterica, and Shigella).[14][31]

During World War II condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members, but enlisted men were also subject to significant contraception propaganda in the form of films, posters, and lectures.[2]:236–8,259 A number of slogans were coined by the military, with one film exhorting "Don't forget — put it on before you put it in."[10] African-American soldiers, who served in segregated units, were exposed to less of the condom promotion programs, had lower rates of condom usage, and much higher rates of STDs.[2]:246 America's female military units, the WACs and WAACs, were still engaged with abstinence programs.[2]:240 European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war, even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941.[2]:252–4,257–8 Despite the rubber shortages that occurred during this period, condom manufacturing was never restricted.[2]:231–3 In part because condoms were readily available, soldiers found a number of non-sexual uses for the devices, many of which continue to be utilized to this day.

The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers, beginning in the second half of the 19th century.[2]:169,181 Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases.[2]:180–3 During World War I, the United States and (at the beginning of the war only) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use.[2]:187–90 By the end of the war, the American military had diagnosed almost 400,000 cases of syphilis and gonorrhea, a historic high.[2]:191

The Penny Black was the world's first adhesive postage stamp used in a public postal system. It was first issued in Great Britain on 1 May 1840, but not valid for use until 6 May. It features a profile of Queen Victoria.

Within the first year of operations, the service flew approximately 20,000 miles in 50 flights, becoming the first comprehensive air ambulance service in the world.[6] The service persisted through some very tough first few years, dealing with postwar Australia and the Great Depression of the 1930s. During its first few decades the service relied heavily on community fundraising, volunteer support and donations. Nowadays, the service is supported by the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments, but still relies heavily on fundraising and donations from the community to purchase and medically equip its aircraft, and to finance other major capital initiatives. Until the 1960s the service predominantly hired aircraft, pilots and service technicians from contractors. After this point, the service moved on to purchasing its own equipment and employing its own pilots and mechanics.

Among the company's more recent pharmaceutical developments are cephalosporin, erythromycin, and Prozac (fluoxetine), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) for the treatment of clinical depression. Ceclor, introduced in the 1970s, was an oral cephalosporin antibiotic. Prozac, introduced in the 1980s, quickly became the company's best-selling product for treatment of depression, but Lilly lost its U.S. patent protection for this product in 2001. Among other distinctions, Lilly is the world's largest manufacturer and distributor of medications used in a broad range of psychiatric and mental health-related conditions, including clinical depression, generalized anxiety disorder, narcotic addiction, insomnia, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and others.[citation needed]

Paracelsus (1493–1541) developed the concept, writing that "Nature marks each growth ... according to its curative benefit",[1] and it was followed by Giambattista della Porta in his Phytognomonica (1588).

According to a 1997 post by Walter Felscher to the "Memories of the 1940s" electronic mailing list:

In 1932, Margaret Sanger arranged for a shipment of diaphragms to be mailed from Japan to a sympathetic doctor in New York City. When U.S. customs confiscated the package as illegal contraceptive devices, Sanger helped file a lawsuit. In 1936, a federal appeals court ruled in United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries that the federal government could not interfere with doctors providing contraception to their patients.[9] In 1938, over three hundred birth control clinics opened in America, supplying reproductive care (including condoms) to poor women all over the country.[2]:216,226 Programs led by U.S. Surgeon General Thoman Parran included heavy promotion of condoms. These programs are credited with a steep drop in the U.S. STD rate by 1940.[2]:234


Question: When was penicillin initially made available to the public?

The first public introduction of penicillin occurred on March 14, 1942, when a patient was treated for streptococcal septicemia with US-manufactured penicillin by Merck & Co. At the time, the amount of penicillin produced was so limited that half of the total supply was used on that single patient. By June 1942, enough penicillin was available to treat ten patients. The mass production of penicillin was a significant challenge, but fermentation research at the Northern Regional Research Laboratory in Peoria, Illinois, using corn steep liquor as a nutrient, allowed the US to produce 2.3 million doses by the spring of 1944, in time for the invasion of Normandy. A breakthrough in production came when a mouldy cantaloupe in a Peoria market was found to contain the best strain of mould for penicillin production using the corn steep liquor process. Pfizer scientist Jasper H. Kane suggested using a deep-tank fermentation method to produce large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin. The development of a deep-tank fermentation plant by chemical engineer Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau led to large-scale production. As a result of the war and the efforts of the War Production Board, by June 1945, over 646 billion units of penicillin per year were being produced.

The study initially involved 600 black men—399 with syphilis, 201 who did not have the disease.  The study was conducted without the benefit of patients' informed consent.  Researchers told the men they were being treated for "bad blood," a local term referring to several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue.  In truth, they did not receive the proper treatment needed to cure their illness. In exchange for taking part in the study, the men received free medical exams, free meals, and burial insurance.  Although originally projected to last 6 months, the study actually went on for 40 years.  Penicillin - which can be used to treat syphilis—was discovered in the 1940s.  However, the study continued and treatment was never given to the subjects.  Because of this, it has been called "arguably the most 'infamous' biomedical research study in U.S. history".[17]

RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is one of the first public-key cryptosystems and is widely used for secure data transmission. In such a cryptosystem, the encryption key is public and it is different from the decryption key which is kept secret (private). In RSA, this asymmetry is based on the practical difficulty of the factorization of the product of two large prime numbers, the "factoring problem". The acronym RSA is made of the initial letters of the surnames of Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman, who first publicly described the algorithm in 1978. Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician working for the British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), had developed an equivalent system in 1973, but this was not declassified until 1997.[1]

Ampicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion.[2] The oral form, available as capsules or oral suspensions, is not given as an initial treatment for severe infections, but rather as a follow-up to an IM or IV injection.[2] For IV and IM injections, ampicillin is kept as a powder that must be reconstituted.[18]

The Weights and Measures Act 1897 made the provision that metric units could be used in addition to the traditional imperial units for purposes of trade.[5][6] In practice, the actual choice of units was restricted by price marking orders which listed packaging sizes and pricing structures that might be used in specific circumstances. For example, as of April 2012, wine for consumption on premises may only be sold in 125, 175, and 250 mL glasses while draught beer may only be sold in 1⁄3, 1⁄2, 2⁄3 and one pint glasses. Prior to 1973, when the United Kingdom joined the EEC, such specifications were almost all in imperial units.

Available without a prescription since 1959,[136] it has since become a common household drug.[137] Patents on paracetamol have long expired, and generic versions of the drug are widely available.[2][138]

The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of 100 km (62 mi). On November 10, George Mandel, Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937 from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of 455 lines VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places.

Acetanilide was the first aniline derivative serendipitously found to possess analgesic as well as antipyretic properties, and was quickly introduced into medical practice under the name of Antifebrin by A. Cahn and P. Hepp in 1886.[121] But its unacceptable toxic effects, the most alarming being cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia, prompted the search for less toxic aniline derivatives.[109] Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesized paracetamol at Johns Hopkins University via the reduction of p-nitrophenol with tin in glacial acetic acid in 1877,[122][123] but it was not until 1887 that clinical pharmacologist Joseph von Mering tried paracetamol on humans.[109] In 1893, von Mering published a paper reporting on the clinical results of paracetamol with phenacetin, another aniline derivative.[124] Von Mering claimed that, unlike phenacetin, paracetamol had a slight tendency to produce methemoglobinemia. Paracetamol was then quickly discarded in favor of phenacetin. The sales of phenacetin established Bayer as a leading pharmaceutical company.[125] Overshadowed in part by aspirin, introduced into medicine by Heinrich Dreser in 1899, phenacetin was popular for many decades, particularly in widely advertised over-the-counter "headache mixtures", usually containing phenacetin, an aminopyrine derivative of aspirin, caffeine, and sometimes a barbiturate.[109]

It was not until June 17, 1950, when a successful transplant could be performed on Ruth Tucker, a 44-year-old woman with polycystic kidney disease, at Little Company of Mary Hospital in Evergreen Park, Illinois. Although the donated kidney was rejected ten months later because no immunosuppressive therapy was available at the time—the development of effective antirejection drugs was years away—the intervening time gave Tucker's remaining kidney time to recover and she lived another five years.[5]

The British Medical Research Council officially recognized the importance of clinical trials from the 1930s. The Council established the Therapeutic Trials Committee to advise and assist in the arrangement of properly controlled clinical trials on new products that seem likely on experimental grounds to have value in the treatment of disease.[15]

In 1851, Seacole travelled to Cruces to visit her brother. Shortly after her arrival, the town was struck by cholera, a disease which had reached Panama in 1849.[45][46] Seacole was on hand to treat the first victim, who survived, which established Seacole's reputation and brought her a succession of patients as the infection spread. The rich paid, but she treated the poor for free.[47] Many, both rich and poor, succumbed. She eschewed opium, preferring mustard rubs and poultices, the laxative calomel (mercuric chloride), sugars of lead (lead(II) acetate), and rehydration with water boiled with cinnamon.[45][48] While her preparations had moderate success, she faced little competition, the only other treatments coming from a "timid little dentist",[45] who was an inexperienced doctor sent by the Panamanian government, and the Roman Catholic Church.


Question: When was penicillin first made available to the public?

Following World War II, penicillin was initially introduced to the public in Australia, before becoming available for civilian use in the United States on March 15, 1945.

Healthcare gained recognition as a citizen's right in the early 1900s and Sydney's public hospitals came under the oversight of the Government of New South Wales.[332] The administration of healthcare across Sydney is handled by eight local health districts: Central Coast, Illawarra Shoalhaven, Sydney, Nepean Blue Mountains, Northern Sydney, South Eastern Sydney, South Western Sydney, and Western Sydney.[334] The Prince of Wales Hospital was established in 1852 and became the first of several major hospitals to be opened in the coming decades.[335] St Vincent's Hospital was founded in 1857,[117] followed by Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children in 1880,[336] the Prince Henry Hospital in 1881,[337] the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in 1882,[338] the Royal North Shore Hospital in 1885,[339] the St George Hospital in 1894,[340] and the Nepean Hospital in 1895.[341] Westmead Hospital in 1978 was the last major facility to open.[342]

As the understanding of first aid and lifesaving measures has advanced, and the nature of public health risks has changed, the contents of first aid kits have changed to reflect prevailing understandings and conditions. For example, earlier US Federal specifications [8] [9] for first aid kits included incision/suction-type snakebite kits and mercurochrome antiseptic. There are many historic components no longer used today, of course; some notable examples follow. As explained in the article on snakebite, the historic snakebite kit is no longer recommended. Mercurochrome was removed in 1998 by the US FDA from the generally recognized as safe category due to concerns over its mercury content. Another common item in early 20th century first aid kits, picric acid gauze for treating burns, is today considered a hazardous material due to its forming unstable and potentially explosive picrates when in contact with metal. Examples of modern additions include the CPR face shields and specific body-fluid barriers included in modern kits, to assist in CPR and to help prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens such as HIV.

Advertising was one area that continued to have legal restrictions. In the late 1950s, the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television. This policy remained in place until 1979, when the U.S. Justice department had it overturned in court.[2]:273–4,285 In the U.S., advertisements for condoms were mostly limited to men's magazines such as Penthouse.[2]:285–6 The first television ad, on the California station KNTV, aired in 1975: it was quickly pulled after it attracted national attention.[2]:274 And in over 30 states, advertising condoms as birth control devices was still illegal.[2]:266

In the U.S., condom advertising was legally restricted to their use as disease preventatives. They could be openly marketed as birth control devices in Britain, but purchasing condoms in Britain was socially awkward compared to the U.S. They were generally requested with the euphemism "a little something for the weekend." Boots, the largest pharmacy chain in Britain, stopped selling condoms altogether in the 1920s, a policy that was not reversed until the 1960s.[2]:208–10 In post-World War I France, the government was concerned about falling birth rates. In response, it outlawed all contraceptives, including condoms. Contraception was also illegal in Spain. European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection, even in countries where they were illegal for the general population.[2]:213–4

Calloway again advises Martins to leave Vienna, but Martins refuses and demands that Lime's death be investigated. Calloway reluctantly reveals that Lime had been stealing penicillin from military hospitals, and selling it on the black market diluted so much that many patients died. In postwar Vienna, antibiotics were new and scarce outside military hospitals and commanded a very high price. Calloway's evidence convinces Martins. Disillusioned, he agrees to leave Vienna.

Eli Lilly and Company has a long history of collaboration with research scientists. In 1886 Ernest G. Eberhardt, a chemist, joined the company as its first full-time research scientist.[99] Lilly also hired two botanists, Walter H. Evans and John S. Wright, to join its early research efforts.[17][100] After World War I the company’s expanded production facilities and introduction of new management methods set the stage for Lilly's next crucial phase—its "aggressive entry into scientific research and development."[13] The first big step came in 1919 when Josiah Lilly hired biochemist George Henry Alexander Clowes as director of biochemical research.[101] Clowes had extensive medical research expertise and links to the scientific research community, which led to the company's collaborations with researchers in the U.S. and elsewhere.[102] Clowes's first major collaboration with researchers who developed insulin at the University of Toronto significantly impacted the company’s future.[102] Lilly’s success with insulin production secured the company's position as a leading research-based pharmaceutical manufacturer, allowing it to attract and hire more research scientists and to collaborate with other universities in additional medical research.[103] In 1934 the company built a new research laboratory in Indianapolis.[38] As part of its research and product development process Lilly also conducted clinical studies at Indianapolis City Hospital (Wishard Memorial Hospital). Lilly continues to conduct clinical studies to test medications before their introduction to the market.[104] In 1949 Eli Lilly actually went into partnership with the United States Army Reserve setting up a local Strategic Intelligence Research and Analysis (SIRA)Unit to allow employees to research company data for the Scientific Logistics and Eurasian fields of study (source: declassified Defense Intelligence Agency document MDR -0191-2008 dated 17 Sep 2012). In 1998 the company dedicated new laboratories for clinical research at the Indiana University Medical Center in Indianapolis.

In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978.[74] In 1980 the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented.[75] The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.[76]

It was not until June 17, 1950, when a successful transplant could be performed on Ruth Tucker, a 44-year-old woman with polycystic kidney disease, at Little Company of Mary Hospital in Evergreen Park, Illinois. Although the donated kidney was rejected ten months later because no immunosuppressive therapy was available at the time—the development of effective antirejection drugs was years away—the intervening time gave Tucker's remaining kidney time to recover and she lived another five years.[5]

In 1918, just before the end of the war, an American court overturned a conviction against Margaret Sanger. In this case, the judge ruled that condoms could be legally advertised and sold for the prevention of disease.[9][dubious – discuss] There were still a few state laws against buying and selling contraceptives, and advertising condoms as birth control devices remained illegal in over thirty states.[2]:266 But condoms began to be publicly, legally sold to Americans for the first time in forty-five years.[2]:192–3 Through the 1920s, catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items, including condoms and cigarettes.[2]:197 Quality testing became more common, involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure. Several American companies sold their rejects under cheaper brand names rather than discarding them.[2]:204,206,221–2 Consumers were advised to perform similar tests themselves before use, although few actually did so.[2]:223 Worldwide, condoms sales doubled in the 1920s.[2]:210

Post-war American troops in Germany continued to receive condoms and materials promoting their use. Nevertheless, rates of STDs in this population began to rise, reaching the highest levels since World War I. One explanation is that the success of newer penicillin treatments led soldiers to take syphilis and gonorrhea much less seriously. A similar casual attitude toward STDs appeared in the general American population; one historian states that condoms "were almost obsolete as prophylaxis by 1960".[2]:234,259–61 By 1947, the U.S. military was again promoting abstinence as the only method of disease control for its members, a policy that continued through the Vietnam War.[2]:261–2,281–4


Question: What channel shows Celebrity Big Brother in the USA?

Celebrity Big Brother, or Big Brother: Celebrity Edition, is a spin-off of the popular reality TV series Big Brother in the United States. This special season aired during the winter of the 2017-18 network television season on CBS, marking the second time a Big Brother season aired outside the typical summer schedule, with the first being Big Brother 9 in 2008. Julie Chen reprised her role as host, while Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan served as executive producers. The season was a production of Fly on the Wall Entertainment in collaboration with Endemol Shine North America. The series made its debut on CBS on February 7, 2018.

Cops (stylized as COPS) is an American half-hour documentary/reality legal series that follows police officers, constables, sheriff's deputies, federal agents, and state troopers during patrols and other police activities including prostitution and narcotics stings. It is one of the longest-running television programs in the United States and in May 2011 became the longest-running show on Fox with the announcement that America's Most Wanted was being canceled after 23 years (that show's host, John Walsh also appeared many times on Cops).[4][5] In 2013, the program moved from Fox to the cable network Spike, now known as Paramount Network.[6]

Launched on August 1, 1981,[2] the channel originally aired music videos as guided by television personalities known as "video jockeys" (VJs).[3] At first, MTV's main target demographic was young adults, but today it is primarily teenagers, particularly high school and college students. MTV has toned down its music video programming significantly in recent years, and its programming now consists mainly of original reality, comedy and drama programming and some off-network syndicated programs and films, with limited music video programming in off-peak time periods. It has also become involved in promoting left-wing political issues and progressive social causes. The network received criticism towards this change of focus, both by certain segments of its audience and musicians. MTV's influence on its audience, including issues involving censorship and social activism, has also been a subject of debate for several years.

The lifeline first appeared in the UK program in a number of celebrity editions, and most recently in its 300th episode in 2002. It was also used the US version from 2004â€“2008. The idea was taken from the UK show The People Versus.

After being broadcast on WWJ, later WDIV, for over 20 years, local coverage switched to WXYZ for several years in the 1980s before returning to NBC-affiliate WDIV in the mid-1990s.[10] It is televised on other stations around Michigan and across the U.S., as well as through Internet television. The coverage of the parade typically includes a preshow featuring a variety of musical acts, often with celebrity performers. The coverage concludes with the Mayor of Detroit giving Santa Claus the key to the city.

Since the network was launched in April 1977, it has undergone various changes to its on-air identity – having changed its name seven different times, the most of any American television network – and programming over the course of its history. The network was founded as the CBN Satellite Service, an extension of televangelist Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network; it evolved into a family-focused entertainment network in 1981, eventually becoming known as The Family Channel by 1990—after the network was spun out of CBN into the for-profit International Family Entertainment. As a condition of this spin-off, the network has historically and contractually been required to broadcast certain religious programs produced by CBN, including The 700 Club and an annual telethon.

WWE Raw, also known as Monday Night Raw or simply Raw, is a professional wrestling television program that currently airs live on Monday evenings at 8 pm EST on the USA Network in the United States. The show's name is also used to refer to the Raw brand, in which WWE employees are assigned to work and perform on that program; the other programs and brands currently being SmackDown and NXT. The show debuted on January 11, 1993 and has since been considered as the flagship program of WWE.[1]

In Asia Pacific, this channel was the first channel to support 1080i HD and 5.1-channel surround sound. The channel was commercially available in Singapore via StarHub TV channel 457 on January 18, 2007, followed by Vietnam via Vietnam Multimedia Corporation (VTC). It was also available exclusively on now TV channel 218 on December 19, 2007 in Hong Kong. Two years later, it became available as part of the initial bouquet of HD channels on Astro B.yond in Malaysia. In India, this channel has been available since February 2010. It is carried on Videocon d2h, Dish TV, Airtel Digital TV, Reliance Digital TV, Sun Direct HD, Hathway HD and TataSky+HD featuring multilingual support (English, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu and Bengali), 1080i (full HD) and 5.1 surround sound.

In India, the show began airing in February 2007 on Zee Café. The channel started with episodes from 2004.

In Turkey, this channel is available since 2008 on digital television provider Digiturk.

In the United States, the National Geographic Channel, launched on January 12, 2001, is a joint venture of National Geographic Television & Film and Fox Cable Networks. National Geographic provides programming expertise and the Fox Networks Group provides its expertise on distribution, marketing, and advertising sales. In the same year a Latin American version of the channel was released.[3]


Question: What channel is "Celebrity Big Brother" on in the U.S.?

Celebrity Big Brother in the USA was broadcast on CBS during the winter of the 2017-18 network television season. The series aired on Sundays, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, with two special episodes on Thursday, February 8, and Saturday, February 24. All episodes were one hour long, except for the Friday episodes and the season finale, which ran for two hours. The live internet feeds were available on CBS All Access, and the companion series Big Brother: After Dark, renamed Celebrity Big Brother: After Dark, aired on Pop, providing live coverage from inside the house nightly.

Even though Willis presents the main Big Brother and celebrity series, she still continued to host the spin-off show Bit on the Side, sharing the presenting duties with Rylan Clark. On 2 February 2015, it was announced that Willis was to present her final edition of Bit on the Side that night, and Clark would take over as the main presenter of the spin off show.[23]

The celebrities to feature in the inaugural season included Amanda Keller, Jimmy Barnes, Magda Szubanski, Craig McLachlan and Anthony Mundine.[2] The program was renewed for a second season of 10 episodes which aired from 12 April 2017, with singer Jessica Mauboy featured in the first episode.[3] The series 2 finale, featuring Samuel Johnson, was filmed after the initial 10 episodes had been completed and therefore not included in the series 2 DVD set.[4]

During her stay on Celebrity Big Brother 5, Shetty was the target of racism and bullying by other housemates, chiefly by Jade Goody, Jo O'Meara and Danielle Lloyd.[38] After correcting Goody's mother, who mispronounced Shetty's name as 'Shiwpa', Shetty was mocked for her Indian accent and was branded "The Indian" and was referred to as a "dog" by Lloyd. Referring to Shetty, O'Meara generalised that all Indians were thin because they were "sick all the time" as a result of undercooking their food, following their belief that Shetty had undercooked a chicken,[39] which gave O'Meara diarrhoea.[40] Lloyd also mentioned that she disliked Shetty touching her food because she did not "know where her hands have been".[41] Lloyd, O'Meara and Goody repeatedly maintained a belief that Shetty was "fake", and "a mole".[42] After Shetty attempted to dispose of the left-over chicken soup down the toilet and caused a blockage, housemate Jack Tweed suggested that she should pick the bones out with her teeth[40] and allegedly referred to her as a "fucking Paki",[43] although show producers denied this and stated that the word used was "cunt".[44][45] During a fierce argument, Goody told Shetty that she needed to "spend a day in the slums", although the media falsely reported this as "go back to the slums".[46] Claiming that she did not know Shilpa's surname, Goody referred to her as "Shilpa Fuckawallah", "Shilpa Daroopa", and "Shilpa Poppadom", later claiming that they were non-racist references to Indian food.[47][48] Lloyd had opined that Shetty's English-speaking skills were lacking and said she should "fuck off home".[49]

Prior to its debut in France on 19 October 2015 on TF1,[12] the series was first shown in South Korea on 1 September 2015 on EBS1.[13] In the United States, the series debuted on Nickelodeon on 6 December. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on 30 January 2016 on Disney Channel.[14] A Christmas special was released in 2016 and the second season premiered in French on TF1 and in English on Disney Channel UK in 2017. Netflix acquired the U.S. video-on-demand streaming rights and further seasons are in production.

On 13 March 2013, it was reported that Brian Dowling would be axed from Big Brother[21] and be replaced by Willis with a source saying, 'Brian has been a great host but Emma is seen by channel chiefs as a true successor to Davina. They're talking to her now about taking over the role from the summer.'[2] It was later confirmed, on 2 April 2013 by Channel 5 that Willis would be replacing Dowling as the new host of Big Brother.[4][22] On 13 June 2013, she began presenting the fourteenth series of Big Brother.

It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky One.

In December 2000, Shaw Communications announced it intended to purchase Moffat.[7] The deal was later closed in early 2001. Shaw announced in March 2001 that it would sell WTN to Corus Entertainment, a company that it spun off in 1999, for $205 million CAD (Shaw had primarily acquired Moffat for its cable television systems).[8] Once Corus took ownership of the channel, it moved operations from Winnipeg to Toronto in mid-January 2002, laying off 50 employees in the process.[9] Subsequently, Corus relaunched the network as "W" on April 15, 2002 with a more entertainment-oriented mix of recent dramas and movies. On the same date, Corus launched the west coast feed.[10]

In the United Kingdom all channels have their own variations in which way closing credits are presented. The five main networks rarely promote other shows and show the full original credits supplied with the show. In the early 2000s ITV adopted a practice similar to that of NBC 2000, generic credits to the right hand side of the screen with a promo running on the left. This then changed in 2007 when generic credits where flashed in a letterbox format using 1/4 of the lower half of the screen whilst promos ran across the top. Again similar to NBC. When the channel revamped years later they dropped this and have now gone back to a more 'old fashioned' presentation. Only some specific cable and satellite channels use a more American style credits/promo presentation but this varies greatly even on the same channel. This leads to viewers switching channels as the networks waste time airing full closing credits with no incentive to stay tuned. Some networks like the BBC also use a double-box format for the closing credits; the BBC has even laid out guidelines as to how the credits must be shown on its networks;[5] closing credits must be shown at the center of the screen and be either separate cards or scroll vertically (percentage reduction testing in an editing suite is required in post-production to ensure readability), the BBC networks and other unrelated broadcast, cable and satellite channels in the United Kingdom such as Nickelodeon UK will squeeze and reduce the credits to 60% of their original size and crop them, returning them to full screen in time for the production company credits, in a manner similar to many of the aforementioned American cable channels.

Since its founding, Fox has surpassed ABC and NBC in the ratings during the early primetime hours in which it competes against the longer established networks, becoming the second most-watched network behind CBS during the 2000s. During the 2007-08 season, Fox was the highest-rated of the major broadcast networks (as well as the first non-Big Three network to reach first place), but lost the spot in the 2008-09 season and dropped to a close second. From 2004 to 2012, Fox also dominated U.S. television in the lucrative and viewer-rich 18-49 demographics, in large part due to the success of its NFL coverage and its top rated prime time program, American Idol. Given the network's success in its prime time and sports offerings, it has been occasionally included with the Big Three, in which case the phrase "Big Four" is used.

On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00Â am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year.


Question: When is the deadline for completing the census?

In the United States, the most recent censuses have designated Census Day as April 1st. Historically, however, Census Day was observed on the first Monday in August, as detailed in instructions to U.S. Marshals, which stated that all family members, including those deceased, were to be counted as of the first Monday in August, while infants born after that date were not to be included.

The October 2004 Lancet study[197] done by public health experts from Johns Hopkins University and published on October 29, 2004, in The Lancet medical journal, estimated that 100,000 "excess" Iraqi deaths from all causes had occurred since the U.S. invasion began. The study did not attempt to measure how many of these were civilian, but the study's authors have said they believe that the "vast majority" were non-combatants, based on 7% of the casualties being women and 46% being children under the age of 15 (including Falluja data). To arrive at these excess death figures, a survey was taken from 988 Iraqi households in 33 clusters throughout Iraq, in which the residents were asked how many people lived there and how many births and deaths there had been since the war began. They then compared the death rate with the average from the 15 months before the war. Iraqis were found to be 1.5 times more likely to die from all causes after the invasion (rising from 0.5% to 0.79% per year) than in the 15 months preceding the war, producing an estimate of 98,000 excess deaths. This figure excluded data from one cluster in Falluja, which was deemed too much of an outlier for inclusion in the national estimate. If it included data from Falluja, which showed a higher rate of violent deaths than the other 32 clusters combined, the increased death rate would be raised from 1.5 to 2.5 fold, violent deaths would be 58 times more likely with most of them due to air-strikes by coalition forces, and an additional 200,000 fatalities would be estimated.[198]

Under the new census figures released on 27 June 2017, the Parliamentary Library calculated that under the new numbers, the next election will be held to elect 151 MPs, with one lost in South Australia, and one gain each in Victoria and the ACT.[149]

The process of office verification focuses on establishing the authenticity of the documents submitted by validating the same with issuing authority. As per Citizenship Rules, verification is a multistage process involving house to house verification and document verification that involves comparing documents submitted (to trace particulars or linkage up to the aforementioned cut-off date) with the backend available with issuing authorities of such documents. Each of 6.6 crore documents such as Electoral rolls, land records, birth certificates, university certificates, bank documents, post office documents, passports etc. belonging to about 3344 different categories of issuing offices,Â  in addition to over 71,710 schools, had to be sent to its issuing offices to check authenticity of such documents.

Decennial U.S. Census figures are based on actual counts of persons dwelling in U.S. residential structures. They include citizens, non-citizen legal residents, non-citizen long-term visitors and undocumented residents. The Census Bureau bases its decision about whom to count on the concept of usual residence. Usual residence, a principle established by the Census Act of 1790, is defined as the place a person lives and sleeps most of the time. The Census Bureau uses special procedures to ensure that those without conventional housing are counted; however, data from these operations are not considered as accurate as data obtained from traditional procedures.[5]

The Census Bureau estimates that in 1970 over six percent of blacks went uncounted, whereas only around two percent of whites went uncounted. Democrats often argue that modern sampling techniques should be used so that more accurate and complete data can be inferred. Republicans often argue against such sampling techniques, stating the U.S. Constitution requires an "actual enumeration" for apportionment of House seats, and that political appointees would be tempted to manipulate the sampling formulas.[10]

A double dissolution cannot take place within six months before the date of the expiry of the House of Representatives.[142] That means any double dissolution must be granted by 28Â February 2019. Allowing for the same stages indicated above, the last possible date for a double dissolution election would be 4 May 2019.[136] This could only occur if a bill that had passed the House of Representatives was rejected by the Senate twice, at least three months apart.

Updating the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in the state of Assam is the most extensive citizen engaging exercise. A highly structured plan was put in place to carry out the process of NRC update.

United States census data are valuable for the country's political parties; Democrats and Republicans are highly interested in knowing accurate number of persons in their respective districts.[24] These insights are often linked to financial and economic strategies that are central to federal, state and city investments for locations of particular populations.[25] Such apportionments are designed to distribute political power across neutral spatial allocations; however, "because so much is at stake, the census also runs the risk of being politicized."[26]

As there is no formal procedure for any community to record acceptance, the primary method of determining Indigenous population is from self-identification on census forms.

The terms which were included in the ultimatum delivered to the representatives of King Cetshwayo on the banks of the Thukela river at the Ultimatum Tree on 11 December 1878. No time was specified for compliance with item 4, twenty days were allowed for compliance with items 1–3, that is, until 31 December inclusive; ten days more were allowed for compliance with the remaining demands, items 4–13. The earlier time limits were subsequently altered so that all expired on 10 January 1879.


Question: Who toppled the Mongols and founded the Ming Dynasty?

The Yuan dynasty, led by the Mongols, was succeeded by the Ming dynasty. The Yuan's downfall can be attributed to several factors, including institutionalized discrimination against the Han Chinese, leading to resentment and rebellion, the overtaxation of regions suffering from inflation, and the catastrophic flooding of the Yellow River due to the neglect of irrigation systems. These issues left the economy and agriculture in ruins, sparking uprisings among the peasant population who were forced to repair the Yellow River's embankments. Among the rebellious groups was the Red Turbans, a faction associated with the White Lotus, a secretive Buddhist society. Zhu Yuanzhang, a destitute peasant and Buddhist monk, joined the Red Turbans in 1352 and quickly rose to prominence after marrying the adopted daughter of a rebel leader. By 1356, Zhu's forces had seized the city of Nanjing, which he would later declare as the capital of the newly established Ming dynasty.

A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylonia became restive and increasingly disaffected under Nabonidus. He excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the polytheistic religion of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party also despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his kingdom to his son Belshazzar (a capable soldier but poor diplomat who alienated the political elite), occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.[16] He also spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar's Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check and Mesopotamia dominant, Babylonia was ultimately exposed.

From the 11th to 13th centuries, the number of exam candidates participating in taking the exams increased dramatically from merely 30,000 to 400,000 by the dynasty's end.[39] Widespread printing through woodblock and movable type enhanced the spread of knowledge amongst the literate in society, enabling more people to become candidates and competitors vying for a prestigious degree.[31][40] With a dramatically expanding population matching a growing amount of gentry, while the number of official posts remained constant, the graduates who were not appointed to government would provide critical services in local communities, such as funding public works, running private schools, aiding in tax collection, maintaining order, or writing local gazetteers.[41][42][43][44]

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu.[55] Dou Gu (d. 88 AD) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.[56] After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.[57] At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains.[58] After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.[59] The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. AD 180), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.[60]

The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. Russia, China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. After the Russian Revolution, the western Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Central Asia, known as East Turkistan or Xinjiang, was incorporated into the People's Republic of China. Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the USSR until the Saur Revolution of 1978.

Another category that has been sometimes confused with that of the folk salvationist movements by scholars is that of the secret societies (會道門 huìdàomén, 祕密社會 mìmì shèhuì, or 秘密結社 mìmì jiéshè).[253] They are religious communities of initiatory and secretive character, including rural militias such as the Red Spears (紅槍會) and the Big Knives (大刀會), and fraternal organisations such as the Green Gangs (青幫) and the Elders' Societies (哥老會).[254] They were very active in the early republican period, and often identified as "heretical doctrines" (宗教異端 zōngjiào yìduān).[254] Recent scholarship has coined the category of "secret sects" (祕密教門 mìmì jiàomén) to distinguish positively-viewed peasant secret societies of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, from the negatively-viewed secret societies of the early republic which were regarded as anti-revolutionary forces.[254]

Westad says the Communists won the Civil War in the late 1940s because Mao Zedong made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-shek, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against Japanese. Meanwhile the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.[21]

By the Sui dynasty, however, the institution of the Imperial examination system marked the transformation of a power shift towards a full bureaucracy, though the process would not be truly completed until the Song dynasty.

In the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618–907)  the shi class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized civil service examination system, of partial recruitment of those who passed standard exams and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the Song dynasty (960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded.[30] The shi class also became less aristocratic and more bureaucratic due to the highly competitive nature of the exams during the Song period.[31]

In the late of Ming dynasty there were many porcelain kilns created that led the Ming dynasty to be economically well off.[58] The Qing emperors like the Kangxi Emperor helped the growth of porcelain export and by allowing an organization of private maritime trade that assisted families who owned private kilns.[59] Chinese export porcelain, designed purely for the European market and unpopular among locals as it lacked the symbolic significance of wares produced for the Chinese home market,[60][61] was a highly popular trade good.[62]

King Zhou of Shang (reigned 1154 to 1122 B.C.), the last king of the Shang dynasty, had three uncles advising him and his administration. The king's uncles were Bi Gan, Jizi, and Weizi. Together the three men were known as "The Three Kind-Hearted Men of Shang" in the kingdom.[1] Bi Gan was the son of Prince Ding, son of King Shang and, thus, was King Zhou's uncle.