Question: When was the letter 'J' added to the English alphabet?

The letter J, initially a variant of the letter I, was introduced to distinguish between the sounds of /i/, /iː/, and /j/ in Middle High German. Gian Giorgio Trissino, in his 1524 work, was the first to recognize J as a separate letter with a distinct sound. Originally, 'I' and 'J' represented the same sounds, but as Romance languages evolved, new sounds emerged, leading to the differentiation. English 'J', borrowed from French, now has a sound distinct from /j/, as heard in the word "yet".

Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.[39] According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.[39] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.

The Old English period is followed by Middle English (12th to 15th century), Early Modern English (c. 1480 to 1650) and finally Modern English (after 1650).

The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals,[8] to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.[9]

By 1932, the available codes were running out, and an extended scheme was introduced. This scheme placed a serial letter before the code, and had the sequence number run only to 999, thus restricting the number of characters in a registration to six. The first area to issue such marks was Staffordshire in July 1932 with ARFÂ 1 etc.,[31] and all other areas in England and Wales, plus most areas in Scotland, followed suit once they had issued all their two-letter registrations.

A decade before the publication of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and the sequel Through the Looking-Glass, Carroll wrote the first stanza to what would become "Jabberwocky" while in Croft on Tees, close to Darlington, where he lived as a child. It was printed in 1855 in Mischmasch, a periodical he wrote and illustrated for the amusement of his family. The piece was titled "Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry" and read:

There are no universal standards of the multiple names for such abbreviations and of their orthographic styling. In English and most other languages, such abbreviations historically had limited use, but they became much more common in the 20th century. Acronyms are a type of word formation process, and they are viewed as a subtype of blending.

The Greek alphabet, in its Euboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the Italic languages. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin (the Romance languages) and then for most of the other languages of Europe.

Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmon's Hymn, composed between 658 and 680.[3] There is a limited corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the Franks Casket) date to the 8th century. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century.

The term "alphabet" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is segmental at the phoneme levelâ€”that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters.[16] The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet) and Hebrew (via Aramaic).

Jude, also known as Judas Thaddaeus[4] (Greek: Θαδδαῖος; Coptic: ⲑⲁⲇⲇⲉⲟⲥ), was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is generally identified with Thaddeus, and is also variously called Jude of James, Jude Thaddaeus, Judas Thaddaeus or Lebbaeus. He is sometimes identified with Jude, the brother of Jesus, but is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, the apostle who betrayed Jesus prior to his crucifixion. Judas Thaddaeus became known as Jude after early translators of the New Testament from Greek into English sought to distinguish him from Judas Iscariot and subsequently abbreviated his forename.[5] Most versions of the New Testament in languages other than English and French refer to Judas and Jude by the same name.[6]


Question: What is money's role as a medium of exchange?

A medium of exchange, which is a key function of money, is an item used to facilitate trade by eliminating the difficulties associated with a direct barter system. This allows for the efficient exchange of goods and services without the need for a double coincidence of wants.

Developed money markets help the commercial banks to become self-sufficient. In the situation of emergency, when the commercial banks have scarcity of funds, they need not approach the central bank and borrow at a higher interest rate. On the other hand, they can meet their requirements by recalling their old short-run loans from the money market.

In his analysis of barter between coastal and inland villages in the Trobriand Islands, Keith Hart highlighted the difference between highly ceremonial gift exchange between community leaders, and the barter that occurs between individual households. The haggling that takes place between strangers is possible because of the larger temporary political order established by the gift exchanges of leaders. From this he concludes that barter is "an atomized interaction predicated upon the presence of society" (i.e. that social order established by gift exchange), and not typical between complete strangers.[13]

Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products. Almost every kind of product can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments.[2]

Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount".[184] Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.[185] Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property".[186]

Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, especially in hyperinflation situations where money devalues quickly.[10]

In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses inputs to create a commodity or a service for exchange or direct use. Production is a flow and thus a rate of output per period of time. Distinctions include such production alternatives as for consumption (food, haircuts, etc.) vs. investment goods (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.), public goods (national defence, smallpox vaccinations, etc.) or private goods (new computers, bananas, etc.), and "guns" vs "butter".

Financial institutions are corporations which provide services as intermediaries of financial markets. Broadly speaking, there are three major types of financial institutions:[1][2]

Economic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e. used to price items). All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt. They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.[15]

Generating a sufficient amount of revenue to finance government is arguably the most important purpose of the tax system. Optimal taxation, which is the theory of designing and implementing taxes that reduce inefficiency and distortion in the market through Pareto optimal moves under given constraints, is constantly debated.[7] Though inequality will always exist within even the most efficient markets, the goal of taxation is to eliminate as much inefficiency as possible and to raise revenue to fund government expenditures. With any tax, there will be an excess burden, or additional cost, to the consumer and the producer. Whenever the consumer purchases the taxed good or service, and the higher elasticity, or responsiveness, of the demanded product, the greater the excess burden is on either the consumer or producer. Those individuals or corporations who have the most inelastic demand curve pay the brunt of the excess burden curve. However, the tradeoff of placing larger taxes on inelastic goods is that the higher tax will lead to lower quantity exchanged and thus a smaller deadweight loss of reduced revenue.[7]

A postal order is a financial instrument usually intended for sending money through the mail. It is purchased at a post office and is payable at another post office to the named recipient. A small fee for the service, known as poundage, is paid by the purchaser. In the United States, this is known as a postal money order. Postal orders are not legal tender, but a type of promissory note, similar to a cheque.


Question: What is money's role as a medium of exchange?

Medium of Exchange
Supporters of alternative monetary systems argue that the current fiat money system is the underlying reason for recurring economic crises, as it fosters deceit, malfeasance, and control, primarily due to its failure to meet the essential criteria for a medium of exchange. Specifically, the fluctuating nature of fiat money, which is determined by market forces in response to its supply, leads to a continuous alteration in its value. An increase in the supply of fiat money relative to the economy's requirements diminishes the volume of goods and services it can acquire, thus undermining its role as a reliable measure of wealth. This manipulation disrupts the market's ability to establish fair prices, resulting in an environment where economic data related to value is neither accurate nor trustworthy.[3][4] Conversely, proponents of Chartalism contend that the capacity to adjust the value of fiat money is beneficial, as it facilitates the implementation of economic stimulus measures during times of financial hardship.

Money plays a key role in the marriage market, not only for the young ladies seeking a well-off husband, but also for men who wish to marry a woman of means. Two examples are George Wickham, who tried to elope with Georgiana Darcy, and Colonel Fitzwilliam. Marrying a woman of a rich family also ensured a linkage to a high family, as is visible in the desires of Bingley's sisters to have their brother married to Georgiana Darcy. Mrs. Bennet is frequently seen encouraging her daughters to marry a wealthy man of high social class. In chapter 1, when Mr. Bingley arrives, she declares "I am thinking of his marrying one of them."[15]

Rules of engagement (ROE) are the internal rules or directives among military forces (including individuals) that define the circumstances, conditions, degree, and manner in which the use of force, or actions which might be construed as provocative, may be applied.[1] They provide authorization for and/or limits on, among other things, the use of force and the employment of certain specific capabilities. In some nations, ROE has the status of guidance to military forces, while in other nations, ROE is lawful commands. Rules of engagement do not normally dictate how a result is to be achieved, but will indicate what measures may be unacceptable.[2]

Terms of trade (TOT) refers to the relative price of imports in terms of exports[1] and is defined as the ratio of export prices to import prices.[2] It can be interpreted as the amount of import goods an economy can purchase per unit of export goods.

In the United States, a promissory note that meets certain conditions is a negotiable instrument regulated by article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code. Negotiable promissory notes called mortgage notes are used extensively in combination with mortgages in the financing of real estate transactions. One prominent example is the Fannie Mae model standard form contract Multistate Fixed-Rate Note 3200, which is publicly available.[7] Promissory notes, or commercial papers, are also issued to provide capital to businesses. However, Promissory Notes act as a source of Finance to the company's creditors.

Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics analyzes basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labour, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies). See glossary of economics.

In economics, a model is a theoretical construct that represents economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. The economic model is a simplified framework designed to illustrate complex processes, often but not always using mathematical techniques. Frequently, economic models use structural parameters. Structural parameters are underlying parameters in a model or class of models. A model may have various parameters and those parameters may change to create various properties.

Three important interpretations of the terms of the theory have been often cited. First, suppose commodities are distinguished by the location where they are delivered. Then the Arrow-Debreu model is a spatial model of, for example, international trade.

A cheque sold by a post office, bank or merchant such as a grocery store for payment by a third party for a customer is referred to as a money order or postal order. These are paid for in advance when the order is drawn and are guaranteed by the institution that issues them and can only be paid to the named third party. This was a common way to send low value payments to third parties, avoiding the risks associated with sending cash via the mail, prior to the advent of electronic payment methods.

In financial accounting, a cash flow statement, also known as statement of cash flows,[1] is a financial statement that shows how changes in balance sheet accounts and income affect cash and cash equivalents, and breaks the analysis down to operating, investing and financing activities. Essentially, the cash flow statement is concerned with the flow of cash in and out of the business. The statement captures both the current operating results and the accompanying changes in the balance sheet.[1] As an analytical tool, the statement of cash flows is useful in determining the short-term viability of a company, particularly its ability to pay bills. International Accounting Standard 7 (IAS 7), is the International Accounting Standard that deals with cash flow statements.

A white elephant gift exchange[1] or Yankee swap[2] is a party game where white elephant gifts are exchanged during festivities. The goal of a white elephant party is usually to entertain rather than to gain.


Question: From where do you kick a field goal?

Field goal distance
When attempting a field goal, the kick is typically 17 yards (or 7 yards in Canadian football) longer than the distance from the line of scrimmage to the goal line. This additional length accounts for the end zone (10 yards) and the 7 yards needed for the holder to place the ball. In Canadian football, the goal posts are positioned on the goal lines, in front of the end zones. Consequently, if the line of scrimmage is at the 30-yard line, the field goal attempt would be 47 yards in American football or 37 yards in Canadian football.

In rugby union the game does not end until the ball goes dead after time has expired - therefore if a side trailing by less than one score can maintain possession and keep the ball in play they have a chance of victory. A rule change in 2017[23] amended the rules so that if a penalty is awarded the ball can be kicked out and a line-out taken, even if time has elapsed. The rules in rugby league also allow for play after time has elapsed, however a tackle will also end the game, meaning that significant extensions are less likely.

Some of the top 25 scorers in Division I history played before the three-point line was officially instituted in 1986–87. All of the players with a dash through the three-point field goals made column were affected by this rule. Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount is the only three-point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three-point shot. From the 1986–87 season through the 2007–08 season, the three-point perimeter was marked at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) for both men's and women's college basketball.[4] On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men's three-point line back to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m); the women's line would remain at the original distance until it was moved to match the men's distance effective in 2011–12.[4]

The goaltender must remain in the crease until the attacking player has gained possession of the puck.  After this point he may move out of the crease to gain a better defending position. If the goaltender exits the crease prior to the attacker touching the puck, the official allows the play to continue, and any goal scored stands.  If the penalty shot is unsuccessful, however, the puck is returned to centre ice and the shot is re-taken, thus penalizing the goaltender by giving another penalty shot.

In professional football, a transfer is the action taken whenever a player under contract moves between clubs. It refers to the transferring of a player's registration from one association football club to another. In general, the players can only be transferred during a transfer window and according to the rules set by a governing body. Usually some sort of compensation is paid for the player's rights, which is known as a transfer fee. When a player moves from one club to another, their old contract is terminated and they negotiate a new one with the club they are moving to, unlike in American, Canadian and Australian sports, where teams essentially trade existing player contracts. In some cases, however, transfers can function in a similar manner to player trades, as teams can offer another player on their squad as part of the compensation.

For much of the 20th century, a one-point conversion could be scored either by kick or by way of a scrimmage play. Beginning in 1958, the scrimmage play method of scoring became worth two points (a two-point conversion). While the American Football League adopted the college rule throughout its existence (as did the United States Football League throughout its existence in the 1980s), other professional leagues did not follow suit; all levels of Canadian football did so in 1975, and the National Football League did not do so until 1994.

The balance in value between tries and conversions has changed greatly over the years. Until 1891, a try scored one point, a conversion two. For the next two years, tries scored two points and conversion three. In 1893, the modern pattern of tries scoring more was begun, with three points awarded for a try, two for a kick. The number of points from a try increased to four in 1971[40] and five in 1992.[41]

The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play, though they must use both their hands during a throw-in restart. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around they may use any part of their body (notably, "heading" with the forehead)[66] other than their hands or arms.[67] Within normal play, all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch, though the ball cannot be received in an offside position.[68]

In league competitions, games may end in a draw. In knockout competitions where a winner is required various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock, some competitions may invoke replays.[94] A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score).[65]

A penalty shot is awarded to a player who is deemed to have lost a clear scoring chance on a breakaway by way of a penalty infraction by an opposing player.  A breakaway, in this case, means that there are no other players between the would-be shooter and the goaltender of the defending team. Generally, the penalty shot is awarded in lieu of what would normally be a minor penalty, so the fouled team will not get both a penalty shot and a power play from a single infraction, even if they did not score on the former.

In American football, the game clock does not run during an extra-point attempt, except for some rare circumstances at the high-school level (some state associations allow for the clock to run continuously in the second half if one team is leading the other by a large margin)[6] and for arena football, which runs the clock continuously except during the final minute of each half and overtime. In Canadian football, the clock runs during a conversion attempt except during the last three minutes of each half.


Question: Where would you kick a field goal from?

Field goal range can vary for each team, depending on the skill level of their placekicker. Some kickers may struggle with field goals beyond 30 yards, making it challenging to score from beyond the 13-yard line, while others can consistently make field goals from 50 yards or more, allowing for attempts from beyond the 33-yard line. In the NFL, the typical limit for a field goal range is around the 35-yard line for most kickers. Weather conditions, especially wind, can significantly impact the field goal range; kicking with the wind can increase the range, while kicking against the wind or with a strong crosswind can reduce the kicker's effective range. Indoor games do not offer an advantage beyond ensuring a targeted kick. Altitude also affects kicking range; the longest punt and some of the longest field goals in NFL history were achieved in Denver, Colorado, due to its higher elevation. From the 1970s to the 1990s, artificial turf improved kicking range by reducing friction during the kick; however, modern artificial turf, which mimics natural grass, does not significantly affect kicking range.

This period also saw further alterations to the rules of the sport. In 1964 substitutes were allowed for the first time, but only for players injured before half-time. In 1966 limited tackles were introduced. In 1967 professional matches were first allowed on Sundays. Also this year the number of times a team could retain possession after a play-the-ball was limited to four tackles.[21] The concept of limited tackles had existed in American football since the 1880s, and it was hoped that this would encourage more attacking play, and prevent teams from simply playing to maintain possession of the ball at all costs. Although successful in this respect, it was felt that four tackles did not give sufficient time to develop an attack, with play often being characterised by pure panic. In 1971, the number of tackles allowed was increased to six, and has remained so ever since. That year the value of field goals was reduced as well, from 2 to 1.[21]

Florida State opened the fourth quarter punting the ball away to Auburn. On the ensuing Auburn drive, P.J. Williams intercepted Nick Marshall at FSU's 40-yard line. Willams fumbled the interception, but the fumble was recovered by teammate Lamarcus Joyner. Taking advantage of the turnover, the Seminoles cut into the Tigers' lead on an 11-yard touchdown pass to Chad Abram.[34] Florida State's Devonta Freeman was called for a taunting penalty, pushing Florida State 15-yards back on the conversion attempt. In turn, Seminoles had to settle for an extra point instead of a two-point conversion, cutting FSU's deficit to 21–20.[35] Auburn responded on its next drive with a 22-yard field goal from Cody Parkey to give Auburn a 24–20 lead with 4:42 remaining in the game. On the ensuing kickoff, FSU's Levonte Whitfield returned the kickoff 100 yards to give Florida State a 27–24 lead. Auburn retook the lead on a 37-yard rushing touchdown by Tre Mason to give Auburn a 31–27 lead with 1:19 remaining in the game. Levonte Whitfield received the kickoff again, but this time was only able to return the kickoff 17 yards to Florida State's 20-yard line.[34]

On August 12, 2007, in his NFL head coaching debut, Kiffin and the Raiders won their preseason opener 27–23 over the Arizona Cardinals. Kiffin vehemently opposed the selection of LSU quarterback JaMarcus Russell in the 2007 NFL Draft, who would eventually be regarded as one of the biggest draft busts in NFL history.[11] Russell held out until September 12, and did not make his first start until December 2, long after the season was effectively over. Kiffin recorded his first regular season win as an NFL head coach on September 23, 2007; the Raiders defeated the Cleveland Browns by a score of 26–24 when defensive lineman Tommy Kelly blocked a late Cleveland field goal. At his end-of-the-season press conference, Kiffin told the media and his players that he had many plans and changes he was going to make in the 2008 offseason. When asked by his players about rumors that Kiffin was interested in open coaching positions in college football, he told them he never thought the rumors were important enough to address because he was never planning to leave.[12]

A goal may be scored directly from a kick-off against the opponent.[4]

On October 23, 2000, the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins competed in what is now known as The Monday Night Miracle Trailing 30–7 in the fourth quarter, Vinny Testaverde led the Jets to score 23 consecutive points to tie the game. After Miami scored another touchdown, Testaverde threw to offensive tackle Jumbo Elliott to tie the game at 37-all. At 1:08 a.m. Eastern Time, the game having crossed into Tuesday morning, John Hall kicked a field goal in overtime to win the game 40–37. It was the second biggest fourth quarter comeback in NFL history and biggest comeback in Jets' history. Arnold Schwarzenegger predicted the comeback at halftime, where he was appearing with the MNF crew to promote an upcoming movie. With the Jets already down by 20 points he said, "Wayne Chrebet will catch a pass and the Jets will win. They're a great team."[citation needed]

Rutigliano was a gambler: he tinkered with offenses, took chances on trick plays and was not afraid to break with the play-calling conventions of his time.[160] The coach, who earned the nickname "Riverboat Sam" for his risk-taking approach, once said that security was "for cowards". "I believe in gambling", he said. "No successful man ever got anywhere without gambling."[161] This seat-of-your-pants philosophy began to manifest itself on the field in 1979. The campaign started with a nail-biter against the New York Jets that the Browns won in overtime on a Cockroft field goal as time expired. "If we continue to play 'em that way all year, I'll be gone before the 10th game because my heart just won't take it", Rutigliano said after the game.[162] In the second week, Cleveland beat the Kansas City Chiefs 27–24 on a Sipe touchdown to Rucker with 52 seconds left.[163] The third game was an equally improbable 13–10 win against the Baltimore Colts.[163] Cleveland Plain Dealer sports editor Hal Lebovitz wrote after the game that these "Kardiac Kids" were lucky to have pulled off the win after Colts kicker Toni Linhart missed three field goals.[164]

Playing in extraordinarily windy conditions at Soldier Field, the Eagles air attack was somewhat hindered in its 19–9 win over the Chicago Bears. David Akers, facing his most challenging conditions of the season, connected on a 51-yard field goal in the first quarter. He made another field goal in the second quarter to double Philadelphia's lead to 6–0. Capitalizing on a turnover, Donovan McNabb hit his favorite target Terrell Owens for an 11-yard touchdown in the second quarter. With another Akers field goal, the Eagles led 16–0. The Bears got on the board with a field goal before the half ended, but Akers' fourth field goal made it 19–3. Akers missed his next two field goals in the increasingly windy conditions, but the Eagles hung on for the 19–9 victory. Brian Westbrook had a career-high 23 rushes for 115 yards and Owens caught his sixth touchdown in just four games. With the victory, the Eagles completed a four-game sweep of their schedule preceding their Week 5 bye.

Before the snap of the ball, in the American game, backfield players may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one back may be in motion at any given time, and if forward motion has occurred, the back must be still for a full second before the snap. The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap. A breach of this rule results in a penalty for illegal procedure (five yards). However, in the Canadian game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap.

Another 2003 game, this one between the Carolina Panthers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers, was sent to overtime after what would have been a game-winning extra point was blocked; the Panthers won the game in overtime 12-9. A 2005 game between the Green Bay Packers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers is another notable exception, as the Buccaneers won 17-16, the difference being Ryan Longwell missing an extra point after a Packers touchdown.[4]

Players advance the football, a spherical leather ball, up the field with a combination of carrying, bouncing, kicking, hand-passing, and soloing (dropping the ball and then toe-kicking the ball upward into the hands). In the game, two types of scores are possible: points and goals. A point is awarded for kicking or hand-passing the ball over the crossbar, signalled by the umpire raising a white flag. A goal is awarded for kicking the ball under the crossbar into the net, signalled by the umpire raising a green flag. Positions in Gaelic football are similar to that in other football codes, and comprise one goalkeeper, six backs, two midfielders, and six forwards, with a variable number of substitutes.


Question: What is OneNote and how does it function?

Microsoft OneNote is a digital notebook application designed for collaborative work and information management. It enables users to store a variety of content, including typed and handwritten notes, drawings, screen captures, and audio recordings. Notes can be easily shared with other OneNote users online or through a network. Initially, OneNote was included in Microsoft Office, but since 2018, it has been available as a free, standalone app for Windows, Windows RT, Windows Phone, macOS, iOS, and Android devices. Additionally, there is a web-based version of OneNote that comes with OneDrive or Office Online, allowing users to edit notes using any web browser.

The botnet, or zombie network, comprises computers running Microsoft Windows as their operating system.[17] Once infected, a computer becomes known as a bot. This bot then performs automated tasks—anything from gathering data on the user, to attacking web sites, to forwarding infected e-mail—without its owner's knowledge or permission. Estimates indicate that 5,000 to 6,000 computers are dedicated to propagating the spread of the worm through the use of e-mails with infected attachments; 1.2 billion virus messages have been sent by the botnet through September 2007, including a record 57 million on August 22, 2007 alone.[17] Lawrence Baldwin, a computer forensics specialist, was quoted as saying, "Cumulatively, Storm is sending billions of messages a day. It could be double digits in the billions, easily."[2] One of the methods used to entice victims to infection-hosting web sites are offers of free music, for artists such as Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Clarkson, Rihanna, The Eagles, Foo Fighters, R. Kelly, and Velvet Revolver.[18] Signature-based detection, the main defense of most computer systems against virus and malware infections, is hampered by the large number of Storm variants.[19]

Since version 7, Notes has provided a Web services interface. Domino can be a Web server for HTML files; authentication of access to Domino databases or HTML files uses the IBM Domino user directory and external systems such as Microsoft Active Directory.

Protected View is implemented as a separate child process instance of Excel, PowerPoint, and Word. The main process of each app is assigned the current user's access token and hosts the Office user interface elements such as the ribbon, whereas the Protected View process consists of the document viewing area, parses and renders the document content, and operates with reduced privileges; the main process serves as a mediator for requests initiated by the separate process. In Windows Vista and later versions of Windows, Mandatory Integrity Control and User Interface Privilege Isolation further restrict the separate process.[109] Protected View is also available when Office 2010 is installed on Windows XP, but it is not as robust due to the absence of these security features.[112]

During this time, Microsoft was in the midst of developing their Jet database system. Jet combined three primary subsystems; an ISAM-based database engine (also named Jet, confusingly), a C-based interface allowing applications to access that data, and a selection of driver dynamic-link libraries (DLL) that allowed the same C interface to redirect input and output to other ISAM-based databases, like Paradox and xBase. Jet allowed using one set of calls to access common microcomputer databases in a fashion similar to Blueprint, by then renamed DataLens. However, Jet did not use SQL; like DataLens, the interface was in C and consisted of data structures and function calls.

Windows Server 2008 includes a variation of installation called Server Core. Server Core is a significantly scaled-back installation where no Windows Explorer shell is installed. All configuration and maintenance is done entirely through command-line interface windows, or by connecting to the machine remotely using Microsoft Management Console. However, Notepad and some control panel applets, such as Regional Settings, are available.

Flip 3D is a supplemental task switcher. It was introduced with Windows Vista and removed in Windows 8. It is invoked by holding down the ⊞ Win key and tapping the Tab ↹ key. As long as the ⊞ Win key remains pressed, Windows displays all application windows, including the Desktop, in an isometric view, diagonally across the screen from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The active window at the time of pressing the ⊞ Win key is placed in front of the others. This view is maintained while ⊞ Win key is held down. Tab ↹ and ⇧ Shift+Tab ↹ cycle through the open windows, so that the user can preview them. When the ⊞ Win key is released, the Flip 3D view is dismissed and the selected window comes to the front and into focus.[5]

As of version 6, Lotus established an XML programming interface in addition to the options already available. The Domino XML Language (DXL) provides XML representations of all data and design resources in the Notes model, allowing any XML processing tool to create and modify IBM Notes and Domino data.

PSMs are a general methodology and are not necessarily dependent on electronic information technology,[26] but PSMs do rely on some kind of shared display of the models that participants are developing. The shared display could be flip charts, a large whiteboard, Post-it notes on the meeting room walls, and/or a personal computer connected to a video projector.[26] After PSMs have been used in a group work session, it is normal for a record of the session's display to be shared with participants and with other relevant people.[26]

Not all assessments and reviews were positive. InfoWorld considered the modified Ribbon in Office 2010 to be a "disorganized mess", and the user-interface conventions to be confusing because of the lack of consistency across routine functions. The Backstage view was also criticized for "containing a schizophrenic array of buttons, button menus, and hyperlink-like text labels" and for being presented as a full-screen interface instead of as a drop-down menu similar to Paint and WordPad in Windows 7. Sluggish performance was also a subject of criticism, although the review was written before development of the product had been formally completed.[165]

Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as the hard drive or memory). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operationâ€”moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.


Question: Where does the gesture of putting two fingers up originate from?

The V sign, often used as an offensive gesture in the UK, can be traced back to 1901. This was when a worker at Parkgate ironworks in Rotherham was filmed using the gesture to show his displeasure at being recorded. According to Peter Opie's interviews with children in the 1950s for his book "The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren", the V sign had replaced the older thumbing of the nose (cock-a-snook) as the most popular insulting gesture in school playgrounds.

Many of the gags involved Foghorn and a canine nemesis (formally known as The Barnyard Dawg within Warner today, though on early model sheets his name is given as George P. Dog) engaging in one-upmanship through a series of pranks. Unlike other Looney Tunes rivalries, with the notable exception of the Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner series, Foghorn is often the initial aggressor out of self-amusement and subsequently on the 'losing' end of gags (although the dog sometimes initiates). However it ends, the formula for how it begins is usually the same. Foghorn, humming "Camptown Races" to himself and carrying a wooden fencepost, sneaks up on Dawg while he is sleeping. Foghorn then pulls the Dawg up by his hindquarters and uses the fencepost to give him a thorough spanking. Dawg, now angry, chases after Foghorn barking angrily but can only go as far as the rope he is tied to can stretch. Thus, when the rope becomes taut and he cannot move, he is either yanked back or stopped. (In some cartoons, there's a sign Foghorn stands to one side of saying "Rope Limit" and Dawg stops just shy of it.) In the latter case, he keeps barking at Foghorn who tells him, "Ah, shaddap!" and does something to Dawg to force him to stop. This gag was passed down to the Leghorns' grandson in Feather Bluster, where Foghorn was puzzled as to why the kid was behaving that way and the Dog was all too happy to remind him: "Ain't nothin' wrong with 'im, Foggy, 'cept that he takes after you."

Some signs are the contraction of several others. These signs have, however, a function and existence of their own: for example, a forearm where the hand holds a scepter is used as a determinative for words meaning "to direct, to drive" and their derivatives.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "Chew the fat" first appeared in 1885 in a book by J Brunlees Patterson called Life in the Ranks of the British Army in India. He implied it was a kind of general grumbling and bending of the ears of junior officers to stave off boredom, a typical part of army life.[8] Patterson also uses "chew the rag" in the same sentence he used "chew the fat", but it is not the oldest occurrence.[8] Prior to the adoption of metallic cartridges, most ammunition was composed of powder and a ball wrapped in paper or cloth soaked in animal fat, which was bitten open during musket drill. Soldiers were known to chew on these ends to pass the time and reduce nerves, and in some cases to stave off cravings for chewing tobacco. Though long-since replaced by 1885, the idea of biting or chewing on fat-soaked rag ends may well have entered military parlance in this fashion prior to Patterson's recording.[citation needed]

"I'm Coming Out" has been regarded as an anthem for the LGBT community. The phrase "coming out" to describe one's self-disclosure of sexual orientation or gender identity had been present in the gay subculture in the early 20th century[3], analogous to a débutante's coming-out party or celebration of her formal presentation to society. It has also been understood as "coming out of the closet" or coming out from hiding. The song is thus interpreted as a celebration of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender, identity and the encouragement of self-disclosure.

Although some sources attribute the phrase "chew the fat" to sailors, who during a period of resting and conversing, or while working together,[3] would chew on salt-hardened fat,[4] there are no reliable historical recordings of this practice. It has even been suggested that the phrase is derived from a practice by North American Indians or Inuit of chewing animal hides during their spare time, and even of British farmers chewing on smoked pork,[5] but again, there remains to be no evidence supporting these claims, and would require accepting a great deal of uncertainty in connecting the phrase from nautical origins to its modern metaphorical use.[3]

Symbols are often combined, as when the feminine elibelinde and the masculine ram's horn are each drawn twice, overlapping at the centre, forming a figure (some variants of the Bereket or fertility motif[4]) of the sacred union of the principles of the sexes.[10]

Dim mak has become a kind of camp pop culture item which is recognized also outside the genre of martial arts films. In Thomas Pynchon's novel Vineland, one of the protagonists uses the "Quivering Palm Death Touch", which kills the opponent one year after it is used. In the TV series Quincy, M.E., a 1977 episode entitled "Touch of Death" features a martial-arts movie star whose mysterious death is found to be a result of a dim mak attack against him ten days earlier.[9] The lead character of the British TV series Gangsters (1978) is murdered by a hired assassin 'The White Devil' using a similar attack, with death occurring four days after he is touched.[10] Dan Brown's novel Inferno depicts a character incapacitating a guard by putting pressure on his wrist, explaining the technique as "Dim Mak". In the comedy film The Men Who Stare at Goats, George Clooney's character claims to have been hit with the Touch of Death, a "light tap" that causes death at an unknown point in the future, in one case "about eighteen years later".

The combination of the Bravo and Zulu nautical signal flags, e.g., Bravo Zulu, also referred to as "BZ," is a naval signal, typically conveyed by flaghoist or voice radio, meaning "Well Done" with regard to actions, operations or performance. In addition to U.S. naval forces, it has also been used as part of vernacular slang within NATO and other Allied naval forces. It can be combined with the "negative" signal, spoken or written as NEGAT, to say "NEGAT Bravo Zulu" to convey "not well done" for a given action.

Graffiti (plural of graffito: "a graffito", but "these graffiti") are writing or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched, or painted illicitly on a wall or other surface, often within public view.[1] Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and they have existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire.[2]

"Much has been written about that scene ... most of it silly," wrote Gene Lees in High Fidelity.[96] The scene was inspired by two men who took off their clothes to antagonize the police during an informal anti-war gathering.[7] During "Where Do I Go?", the stage was covered in a giant scrim, beneath which those choosing to participate in the scene removed their clothes. At the musical cue, "they [stood] naked and motionless, their bodies bathed in Fisher's light projection of floral patterns. They chant[ed] of 'beads, flowers, freedom, and happiness.'"[97] It lasted only twenty seconds.[98] Indeed, the scene happened so quickly and was so dimly lit that it prompted Jack Benny, during the interval at a London preview, to quip, "Did you happen to notice if any of them were Jewish?"[99] Nevertheless, the scene prompted threats of censorship and even violent reactions in some places.[8] It also became fodder for pop-cultural jokes. Groucho Marx quipped, "I was gonna go see it, and then I called up the theater. ... They said the tickets were $11 apiece. I told them I'd call back, went into my bathroom, took off all my clothes, and looked at myself in the full-length mirror. Then I called the theater and said, 'Forget it.'"[100]


Question: Where is Bruno from the show Dancing with the Stars?

Bruno Tonioli, a judge on Dancing with the Stars, was born in Ferrara, northeast Italy. His father, Werther, was a bus driver, and his mother, Fulvia, worked in car-seat upholstery. Until he was 12, Bruno lived with his grandparents. He is multilingual, speaking Italian, English, Portuguese, Spanish, and French. Since 1975, he has resided in London.

On June 6, 2007, as part of the buildup for Season 3, Bravo aired a special charity episode called "4-Star All-Stars", which awarded $20,000 to the charity of the winning team's choice. The show brought together Season 1 contestants Harold Dieterle, Tiffani Faison, Dave Martin, and Stephen Asprinio, and Season 2 contestants Ilan Hall, Marcel Vigneron, Sam Talbot, and Elia Aboumrad. The show format was kept the same, with a Quickfire Challenge to start, followed by an Elimination Challenge. The show was filmed in Miami, Florida, the setting for the upcoming season. The Season 1 competitors won, who donated their winnings to Susan G. Komen for the Cure.[6]

On July 20, 2006, U.S. cable network Bravo announced it had picked up a reality show produced by Parker under the working title American Artist.[28] Parker participated in the United States version of the hit U.K. television series Who Do You Think You Are? for NBC, in which celebrities were helped to trace their family trees. The executive producer was Lisa Kudrow, and the series featured Parker, husband Matthew Broderick, Kudrow and others.[29]

Janet Reno's Dance Party ("coming to you live, from my basement/the deck of a battleship") was an SNL sketch starring Will Ferrell as U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno. It aired four times and featured the song "My Sharona" by the Knack. Debuted January 11, 1997. During the dance party, Reno expressed an aversion to mosh pits and accused her youthful guests of lying during interviews. While she opposed moshing, Reno did engage in stage-diving during one episode, warning the dancing youths below to brace themselves for "180 lb of pure Reno." In most episodes, Darrell Hammond would make an appearance as then-President Bill Clinton, urging Janet to leave her basement and rejoin society; he would assure her that nobody blamed her for the events at Waco, to which Reno would respond, "DANCE PARTY TAKES AWAY WACO!". Notable guests included Donna Shalala (played by Kevin Spacey), who slow-danced with Janet; and Rudy Giuliani (played by himself), who lost to Janet in a boxing match. The last time the sketch aired, January 20, 2001, the real Janet Reno herself made an appearance. It was also the day she left office, as the Clinton administration had ended earlier that afternoon. After George W. Bush's inauguration ceremony was completed at noon, Reno was whisked away to a supposed undisclosed location. Will Ferrell stated:

It was announced in June 2013 that Dixon was expecting her first child with her partner, former backing dancer Azuka Ononye,[51] and on her 35th birthday, 7 October 2013, she stated on Twitter that she had given birth to her daughter, Azura Sienna, the previous week. Dixon said she would put her fourth album on hold and concentrate on motherhood.[52]

After working for the Jazz, she performed internationally on a cruise ship, including in Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Norway.[2] She relocated to Las Vegas, Nevada and performed in Jubilee!, Fashionistas, and Sirens of TI.[2] She also appeared in informercials.[3] Let's Make a Deal relaunched in 2009 in Las Vegas. Coyne auditioned multiple times and was hired. She kept working at in the Sirens of TI as a back up plan in case Let's Make a Deal ended. She taped two episodes a day of Let's Make a Deal and then worked at Sirens of TI at night. Deal moved to Los Angeles and Coyne would drive back and forth five days a week to work on both shows. She relocated to Los Angeles to start season two of Deal. Her role as a model at Deal has been described as "to make prizes look better by her mere presence." To improve her improv skills while working with Wayne Brady and Jonathan Mangum, she took improv classes.[2]

Italian comedy rock band Elio e le Storie Tese recorded a parody cover of the song in 1996, entitled "Balla col barlafÃ¼s" (i.e. "Dance with the idiot" in Milanese dialect), with completely new Italian lyrics which mock Umberto Bossi and his attempt, earlier that year, to rally up a human chain across the river Po to symbolically block its course. Apart from the lyrics, the band's cover follows the original song in every detail, including the dance instructions.

"Count On Me" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars from his debut studio album, Doo-Wops & Hooligans (2010). The song was first unveiled on Mars' debut extended play, It's Better If You Don't Understand (2010). The song was released as a radio single in Australia and served as the overall sixth single from Doo-Wops & Hooligans, being serviced to contemporary hit radio and adult contemporary radio in Australia on November 7, 2011. It was composed by Mars, Philip Lawrence, and Ari Levine, under their alias, The Smeezingtons. Musically, "Count On Me" is a folk and tropical record that lyrically details the importance of friendship and convey a positive message.

In 2017, Dixon presented Dance Dance Dance, a six-part reality series for ITV. Will Best co-presents the show.

Caballero was born in Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Her parents moved to New York City soon after her birth, and settled down in the South Bronx area of the city. They moved in with Caballero's grandmother, a woman who served as an important influence on Caballero's life. Caballero began singing as a young girl and even took opera classes briefly. Her stage name, India, was given to Caballero by her grandmother because of her dark features and long straight black hair.[2]

After appearing on The WB's supernatural drama Charmed, where he played the recurring role of Dex Lawson, a love interest (and brief husband) of Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano), it was announced on December 5, 2006, that he would guest-star on episodes of Brothers & Sisters as a possible love interest to Matthew Rhys' character Kevin Walker. He signed on to do seven episodes to play Chad Barry, a closeted gay soap opera actor who finds it difficult trying to develop a relationship with Kevin while keeping his sexuality secret from the Hollywood press.[3] He reprised the role in an episode in April 2009. He also played a soap opera actor on two episodes of House. Lewis appears and is highlighted on the cover in the limited-edition coffee table book About Face, shot by celebrity photographer John Russo and published by Pixie Press Worldwide.[4]


Question: Where are the four Disney theme parks situated?

The Walt Disney World Resort, which encompasses four theme parks, is located in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. It debuted on October 1, 1971, with the Magic Kingdom, followed by Epcot in 1982, Disney's Hollywood Studios in 1989, and Disney's Animal Kingdom in 1998. The resort spans 27,258 acres and includes two water parks, a retail, dining, and entertainment complex, 21 resort hotels, eight golf courses, and various other recreational activities, making it the largest and most visited vacation resort globally.

On May 8, 2013, Universal Orlando announced the expansion of Wizarding World of Harry Potter, Diagon Alley, along with the Hogwarts Express attraction, to be located on the former site of the Jaws attraction.[8][9][10] By the end of August 2013, all six passenger cars and both tenders had been spotted in the backstage area, waiting to be assembled on the track.[11] The first of the two trains was installed on the track on October 24, 2013.[12] By the beginning of December 2013, the second train had been placed on the track.[13] In January, the resort previewed the interior of the Hogwarts Express through a live cast.[14][15] On December 2, 2013, Orlando Attractions Magazine, an amusement park website, spotted one of the trains being tested for the first time.[16] In mid-March 2014, Universal Orlando Resort released further information about the ride, including concept animations.[17] On June 24, 2014, the resort announced that the Diagon Alley expansion, including the Hogwarts Express, would officially open to the public on July 8, 2014.[18] A week later, Universal Orlando soft-opened the Hogwarts Express, without any announcement.[19][20] Within a month of the Hogwarts Express' opening, one million riders had ridden the attraction.[21] It had taken approximately two and a half years to develop.[22]

The Four Corners is a region of the United States consisting of the southwestern corner of Colorado, southeastern corner of Utah, northeastern corner of Arizona, and northwestern corner of New Mexico. The Four Corners area is named after the quadripoint at the intersection of approximately 37° north latitude with 109° 03' west longitude, where the boundaries of the four states meet, and are marked by the Four Corners Monument. It is the only location in the United States where four states meet. Most of the Four Corners region belongs to semi-autonomous Native American nations, the largest of which is the Navajo Nation, followed by Hopi, Ute, and Zuni tribal reserves and nations. The Four Corners region is part of a larger region known as the Colorado Plateau and is mostly rural, rugged, and arid. In addition to the monument, commonly visited areas within Four Corners include Monument Valley, Mesa Verde National Park, Chaco Canyon, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument and Canyon de Chelly National Monument. The most populous city in the Four Corners region is Farmington, New Mexico, followed by Durango, Colorado.

As recently as August 2017, an instrumental, electronic version of "The Best Time of Your Life" can be heard around Tomorrowland in the Magic Kingdom in Florida. A version can also be heard in the instrumental background music in Disneyland's Tomorrowland, even though the song was never used in Disneyland. The song is also used as an "audio exhibit" in the outdoor queue of Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout!

In September 2009, Disney announced that Mickey's Toontown Fair at the Magic Kingdom would be demolished to make room for an expansion of Fantasyland.[7] One of the new elements would be a Little Mermaid dark ride, much like the one slated for construction in California. Under the Sea: Journey of the Little Mermaid opened on December 6, 2012.

From 1977 to 1996, Walt Disney World featured movements from both instalments of Water Music as the background music for the Electrical Water Pageant, a parade of sea creatures lit up with electric lights off the coast of the Magic Kingdom.[6]

The ride received mostly positive reviews upon its July 2014 opening. Lance Hart from Screamscape was impressed with the fact that the King's Cross entrance was hidden from the rest of the Diagon Alley area. He also credited Universal for making the train look as realistic as possible: "Clearly they went to great lengths to create these cars to be replicas of what you see in the films, both on the outside as well as on the inside as you move down the hallway towards your cabin to take your seat". In terms of the overall experience Hart said, "Universal has managed to turn what would simply be a method of transporting guests between their two parks into yet another must-see attraction ... tying together the overall story and theme of visiting Hogwarts at Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley inside Universal Studios Florida".[40]

Among many other features, the National Industrial Recovery Act authorized federal purchases of land considered submarginal for farming but valuable for recreation purposes. By 1936, 46 projects containing 397,000 acres (1,610Â km2) had been set up in 24 different states, mostly near metropolitan centers, to provide outdoor recreation for people from crowded cities. It was intended from the beginning that most of these projects would be turned over to states and cities for operation and in 1942 Congress provided the necessary authority. By 1946 most of the conveyances had been completed. The National Park Service retained Catoctin Mountain Park, site of Camp David, but 4,500 of its acres were transferred to Maryland. Prince William Forest Park (formerly Chopawamsic) was retained as a unit administrated by National Capital Parks.

Robert Niles from Theme Park Insider mentioned how the attraction "broke walls"; including the separation of the Wizarding and Muggle worlds, how Universal made the audience the performers (in the part of the King's Cross queue where guests walk through the wall leading to Platform 9¾), and how, "It's become convention for theme park attractions to drop you off at or very near the same point where you boarded the ride, so it's a bit disorienting when you exit the Hogwarts Express and find that you're not only in a different train station — you're in a different theme park."[41]

The Great Movie Ride directly inspired the creation of Disney's Hollywood Studios. In a Walt Disney Imagineering book, it was revealed that The Great Movie Ride was actually going to be the main attraction in a show business themed pavilion at Epcot, which was to be called "Great Moments at the Movies". However, the newly assigned Disney CEO Michael Eisner and WDI president Marty Sklar decided the idea was strong enough to lead an entire new theme park. The idea for the ride was expanded, and the Disney-MGM Studios went into official development. The attraction used the likenesses of numerous living and deceased actors to be recreated as audio-animatronics.

The mansion scenes were filmed at Sable Ranch in Santa Clarita, California. The main building was constructed over a period of weeks while the cupola and chimneys on the top of the mansion were computer-generated. The rest of film was shot in New Orleans and surrounding areas. The paperboy in the opening scene is the nephew of the director, Rob Minkoff. A Hidden Mickey is briefly seen when Ramsley pours the poison in the goblet of wine during the wedding. Upon leaving the mansion via ghost carriage to find the mausoleum, Ezra exclaims "there's always my way," a pivotal line of dialogue from the pre-show from the Disney theme park ride.


Question: When was the song "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" released?

The song "Over the Rainbow" was first recorded by singer Bea Wain, but its release was halted by MGM until after the release of "The Wizard of Oz" in 1939, when audiences could hear Judy Garland's iconic rendition.

Regney wrote the lyrics for the song, while Shayne composed the music in October 1962.[2] This was an unusual arrangement for the two writers. Usually it was Shayne who wrote the lyrics for their songs while Regney composed the music, as they did when they wrote a song based on the classic children's song "Rain Rain Go Away".[1][2]

"Missing" is a song by British popular music duo Everything but the Girl, taken from their eighth studio album Amplified Heart (1994). It was written by the two band members, Tracey Thorn and Ben Watt, and was produced by Watt. It was taken as the second single off the album on 8 August 1994 by Atlantic Records and Blanco Y Negro Records. It initially did not achieve much success. It was remixed by Todd Terry and re-released in 1995, resulting in a worldwide hit, peaking near the top of the charts in many countries.

The Barry Sisters covered the song in a Yiddish version ("Trop'ns Fin Regen Oif Mein Kop") on their 1973 album Our Way.[25][26]

"The Revolution Will Not Be Televised" is a poem and song by Gil Scott-Heron. Scott-Heron first recorded it for his 1970 album Small Talk at 125th and Lenox, on which he recited the lyrics, accompanied by congas and bongo drums. A re-recorded version, with a full band, was the B-side to Scott-Heron's first single, "Home Is Where the Hatred Is", from his album Pieces of a Man (1971). It was also included on his compilation album, The Revolution Will Not Be Televised (1974). All these releases were issued on the Flying Dutchman Productions record label.

"A Whiter Shade of Pale" is the debut single by the British rock band Procol Harum, released 12 May 1967. The single reached number one in the UK Singles Chart on 8 June 1967 and stayed there for six weeks.[3] Without much promotion, it reached number 5 on the Bilboard pop chart in the United States.[4] One of the anthems of the 1967 Summer of Love, it is one of fewer than 30 singles to have sold over 10 million copies worldwide.[5]

This episode includes six songs, all of which were released as singles and one of which was released as a track on the deluxe version of the album Glee: The Music, Season 4, Volume 1. The songs include Frank Sinatra and Nancy Sinatra's "Somethin' Stupid" performed by Chord Overstreet and Heather Morris,[2] "All That Jazz" from the musical Chicago performed by Hudson and Michele,[3] Barbra Streisand's cover of "Being Good Isn't Good Enough" from Hallelujah, Baby! performed by Michele,[4] "Being Alive" from Company performed by Colfer,[5] and Crowded House's "Don't Dream It's Over" performed by New Directions.[6] Michele's rendition of the Christmas carol "O Holy Night," which was released in 2010 on Glee: The Music, The Christmas Album, was also performed, but not released as an individual single.

From the liner notes for the 2003 CD release:[1]

Recorded in summer 1978 and released in early 1979 on Springfield's Living Without Your Love album the same week her record label, United Artists Records, was sold, the track was subsequently never released as a single and went largely unnoticed by the listening public due to lack of promotion for the album.

The song has been covered numerous times. In 1969, Craig Douglas released a version produced by Tony Hatch. From January 24 to March 13, 1970, it was a number-one hit (for seven weeks) in Australia on the Go-Set National Top 40 for local pop singer, Johnny Farnham.[15][19] In 1970, it was also covered by Dionne Warwick on her album I'll Never Fall in Love Again, by Engelbert Humperdinck on his album We Made It Happen, Johnny Mathis on his album Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head, Perry Como on his album It's Impossible, The Four Tops on their album Changing Times, Andy Williams on his album, Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head, and The Free Design on their album Stars/Time/Bubbles/Love. Portuguese-born television and radio presenter Pedro Biker released a Danish version re-entitled "Regndråber Drypper I Mit Hår" in 1970.[20] A Swedish version was also made in 1970, "Regnet det bara öser ner" sung by Siw Malmkvist. Genesis referenced the song title in their lyrics of In the Cage" in 1974.

His dÃ©but album Adam was released on 4 November 1960 to critical acclaim for the inventiveness of Barry's arrangements and Faith's own performances. The material ranged from standards such as "Summertime", "Hit The Road to Dreamland" and "Singin' in the Rain" to more contemporary songs, such as Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman's "I'm a Man", Johnny Worth's "Fare Thee Well My Pretty Maid", and Howard Guyton's "Wonderful Time".


Question: Which layer of the OSI model deals with physical addressing?

In the OSI model's seven-layer structure, the physical layer, also known as layer 1, is the foundational and lowest layer. This layer is often realized through the use of a PHY chip.

In a logical multilayered architecture for an information system with an object-oriented design, the following four are the most common:

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is, according to the ATM Forum, "a telecommunications concept defined by ANSI and ITU (formerly CCITT) standards for carriage of a complete range of user traffic, including voice, data, and video signals".[1] ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network, as defined in the late 1980s,[2] and designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It was designed for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. The reference model for ATM approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the ISO-OSI reference model: network layer, data link layer, and physical layer.[3] ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), but its use is declining in favour of all IP.

Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical connectors (or optical connectors) - plugs and sockets - for carrying audio signal and video signal. Audio interfaces and video interfaces define physical parameters and interpretation of signals.  For digital audio and digital video, this can be thought of as defining the physical layer, data link layer, and most or all of the application layer.  For analog audio and analog video these functions are all represented in a single signal specification like NTSC or the direct speaker-driving signal of analog audio.  Physical characteristics of the electrical or optical equipment includes the types and numbers of wires required, voltages, frequencies, optical intensity, and the physical design of the connectors.  Any data link layer details define how application data is encapsulated (for example for synchronization or error-correction).  Application layer details define the actual audio or video format being transmitted, often incorporating a codecs not specific to the interface, such as PCM, MPEG-2, or the DTS Coherent Acoustics codec.  In some cases, the application layer is left open; for example, HDMI contains an Ethernet channel for general data transmission.

While the network neutrality debate continues, network providers often enter into peering arrangements among themselves. These agreements often stipulate how certain information flows should be treated. In addition, network providers often implement various policies such as blocking of port 25 to prevent insecure systems from serving as spam relays, or other ports commonly used by decentralized music search applications implementing peer-to-peer networking models. They also present terms of service that often include rules about the use of certain applications as part of their contracts with users.[citation needed] Most consumer Internet providers implement policies like these. The MIT Mantid Port Blocking Measurement Project is a measurement effort to characterize Internet port blocking and potentially discriminatory practices. However, the effect of peering arrangements among network providers are only local to the peers that enter into the arrangements and cannot affect traffic flow outside their scope.[citation needed]

To avoid ambiguity in how to translate returned packets, further modifications to the packets are required. The vast bulk of Internet traffic is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets. For these protocols the port numbers are changed so that the combination of IP address and port information on the returned packet can be unambiguously mapped to the corresponding private network destination. RFC 2663 uses the term network address and port translation (NAPT) for this type of NAT. Other names include port address translation (PAT), IP masquerading, NAT overload and many-to-one NAT. This is the most common type of NAT and has become synonymous with the term NAT in common usage.

Primarily two common styles of naming are used in both X.500 [2008] and LDAPv3. These are documented in the ITU specifications and IETF RFCs. The original form takes the top level object as the country object, such as c=US, c=FR. The domain component model uses the model described above. An example of country based naming could be l=Locality, ou=Some Organizational Unit, o=Some Organization, c=FR, or in the US: cn=Common Name, l=Locality, ou=Some Organizational Unit, o=Some Organization, st=CA, c=US.

Hubs are not transparent when dealing with changes in the status of downstream ports, such as insertion or removal of devices. In particular, if a downstream port of a hub changes status, this change is dealt with in an interaction between the host and this hub; the hubs between them act as transparent in this case.

Early computers had a central processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved, new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances (for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for the mainframe computer model. These technologies made it possible to exchange data (such as files) between remote computers. However, the point-to-point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology was also considered unsafe for strategic and military use because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack.

N-tier application architecture provides a model by which developers can create flexible and reusable applications. By segregating an application into tiers, developers acquire the option of modifying or adding a specific layer, instead of reworking the entire application. A three-tier architecture is typically composed of a presentation tier, a domain logic tier, and a data storage tier.

The IS-IS protocol is defined in ISO/IEC 10589:2002[1][2] as an international standard within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference design. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) republished IS-IS in RFC 1142, but that RFC was later marked as "historic" by RFC 7142 because it republished a draft rather than a final version of the ISO standard, causing confusion.


Question: In the context of case law, provide a detailed explanation of dismissal by operation of law.

Dismissal by operation of law occurs when a case is terminated automatically due to certain conditions or contingencies that arise without the need for a court ruling. This can happen when a party fails to take action within a specified time frame (e.g., not responding to a filed complaint within a set period), resulting in the case being dismissed. Additionally, when a legal relationship is invalidated, but the parties still require a mechanism to settle their rights (e.g., under the Uniform Commercial Code, where a partially performed contract is voided, the court may create a new contract based on the performance already rendered and reasonable terms to accommodate the parties' expectations).

Concerned with the time-consuming nature of a contempt proceeding and the inability to extend punishment further than the session of the Congress concerned (under Supreme Court rulings), Congress created a statutory process in 1857. While Congress retains its "inherent contempt" authority and may exercise it at any time, this inherent contempt process was last used by the Senate in 1934, in a Senate investigation of airlines and the U.S. Postmaster.  After a one-week trial on the Senate floor (presided over by Vice President John Nance Garner, in his capacity as Senate President), William P. MacCracken, Jr., a lawyer and former Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics who was charged with allowing clients to remove or rip up subpoenaed documents, was found guilty and sentenced to 10 days imprisonment.[10]

The way to enforce a claim for unfair dismissal is at an employment tribunal. An employee who is dismissed may also have breach of contract claim(s), based on common law. Common law claim(s) may be brought in a county court. Employment tribunals are spread around the country, in most towns. The right to bring a case falls under Part X, Chapter 2, s.111.

"I write separately to note that modern Restatements—such as the Restatement (Third) of Restitution and Unjust Enrichment (2010), which both opinions address in their discussions of the disgorgement remedy—are of questionable value, and must be used with caution. The object of the original Restatements was "to present an orderly statement of the general common law." Restatement of Conflict of Laws, Introduction, p. viii (1934). Over time, the Restatements’ authors have abandoned the mission of describing the law, and have chosen instead to set forth their aspirations for what the law ought to be . . . Restatement sections such as that should be given no weight whatever as to the current state of the law, and no more weight regarding what the law ought to be than the recommendations of any respected lawyer or scholar." — Justice Antonin Scalia, dissenting opinion, Kansas v. Nebraska, February 25, 2015

Judicial review includes the power of the Court to explain the meaning of the Constitution as it applies to particular cases. Over the years, Court decisions on issues ranging from governmental regulation of radio and television to the rights of the accused in criminal cases have changed the way many constitutional clauses are interpreted, without amendment to the actual text of the Constitution.

Most dismissals take place for legitimate business reasons, because the employer will no longer require staff, or maybe because times are bad and the employer can no longer afford to pay. There may be the possibility of claiming redundancy (see below). But employers will usually be happy to write a reference. If they do there is an obligation to be accurate and fair, and that means not providing a so-called "kiss of death" reference on to the next potential employer: if only bad things can be said, nothing should be said at all (see the case, Spring v Guardian Assurance plc).

In Krull v Sangerhaus,[120] the court held that, to constitute a iusta causa for unilateral termination, the cause must be of a sufficiently serious nature. The allegation of a dispute between the parties' parents regarding the wedding reception, even if it also involved the parties, was "too frivolous a circumstance to warrant a repudiation."[121]

The rule is notoriously difficult to properly apply, as pointed out by a 1961 decision of the Supreme Court of California which held that it was not legal malpractice for an attorney to draft a will that inadvertently violated the rule against perpetuities.[4] Therefore, in the United States it has been abolished by statute in Alaska, Idaho, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,[5] Kentucky,[6] and South Dakota.[7] The Uniform Statutory Rule Against Perpetuities validates non-vested interests that would otherwise be void as violating the common law rule if that interest actually vests within 90 years of its creation;[8] it has been enacted in 29 states (Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia), the District of Columbia, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and is currently under consideration in New York.[9][10] Other jurisdictions apply the "wait and see" or "cy-près doctrine" that validates contingent remainders and executory interests that would be void under the traditional rule in certain circumstances.[7] These doctrines have also been codified in the United Kingdom by the 1964 statute.[3]

Part III entitled ‘void marriages’ establishes the circumstances in which a marriage is void. To preserve the validity of past marriages, this part is divided into years based on when amendments to this Act were introduced.

Others argue that Article II of the Constitution requires the President to execute the law, such law being what the lawmaker (e.g. Congress, in the case of statutory contempt) says it is (per Article I). The Executive Branch cannot either define the meaning of the law (such powers of legislation being reserved to Congress) or interpret the law (such powers being reserved to the several Federal Courts). They argue that any attempt by the Executive to define or interpret the law would be a violation of the separation of powers; the Executive may only—and is obligated to—execute the law consistent with its definition and interpretation; and if the law specifies a duty on one of the President's subordinates, then the President must "take care" to see that the duty specified in the law is executed. To avoid or neglect the performance of this duty would not be faithful execution of the law, and would thus be a violation of the separation of powers, which the Congress and the Courts have several options to remedy.

The definition reaffirms the power of the Supreme Court to engage in judicial review, a power that had traditionally belonged to the Court even before this provision was enacted. Still, this new provision effectively dissuades from the easy resort to the political question doctrine as a means of declining to review a law or state action, as was often done by the Court during the rule of President Ferdinand Marcos.[14] As a result, the existence of “grave abuse of discretion” on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the government is sufficient basis to nullify state action.


Question: What is the name of the dog in The Wizard of Oz?

Toto, a character from L. Frank Baum's Oz series of children's books and subsequent adaptations, is a small terrier. The name Toto is pronounced with a long "O", sounding like "toe toe". W. W. Denslow illustrated the original Toto for the first edition of the Wizard of Oz in 1900. The dog has made appearances in various adaptations, including The Wizard of Oz (1939), The Wiz (1978), and Return to Oz (1985).

Finally reaching their hometown, the animals cross through a train yard, where Shadow falls into a muddy pit and injures his leg.  Demoralized, he tells Chance and Sassy to go on without him.  Near dusk, Chance and Sassy finally make it home and are happily reunited with their owners.  Shadow initially fails to appear, but eventually he limps into view and happily comes running home at the sight of Peter.  Chance narrates how it was Shadow's belief that brought them home and how the years seemed to lift off of him, making him a puppy again as he reunited with his boy.  The film ends with Chance musing about how he truly feels "home" with his family, before happily running into the house at the smell of food.

In February 1991, U2 moved the album's recording sessions to the seaside manor Elsinore in the Dublin suburb of Dalkey, renting the house for ₤10,000 per month.[23][36] The band nicknamed the house "Dog Town" for the "tackiness" of its exterior dog kennels,[36] and the location was credited as such in the album notes.[38] Lanois' strategy to record in houses, mansions, or castles was something he believed brought atmosphere to the recordings.[23] Dublin audio services company Big Bear Sound installed a recording studio in the house,[36] with the recording room in a converted garage diagonally beneath the control room. Video cameras and TV monitors were used to monitor and communicate between the spaces.[23] With Elsinore located within walking distance of Bono's and the Edge's homes, the sessions there were more relaxed and productive.[36][39][40] The band struggled with one particular song—later released as the B-side "Lady With the Spinning Head"—but three separate tracks, "The Fly", "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" and "Zoo Station", were derived from it.[41] During the writing of "The Fly", Bono created a persona based on an oversized pair of black sunglasses that he wore to lighten the mood in the studio.[36][39] The character, also named "The Fly", evolved into a leather-clad egomaniac meant to parody rock stardom. Bono assumed this alter ego for the band's subsequent public appearances and live performances on the Zoo TV Tour.[42]

Wirt, the older brother, is a worry-prone teenager and would rather keep to himself than have to make a decision. His three passions are the clarinet, poetry, and architecture but he keeps this private out of fear of being mocked. On the other hand, Greg, the younger brother, is all about play and being carefree, much to Wirt's chagrin and the danger to himself and others. Greg carries a frog (Jack Jones), whose name is undetermined and who can communicate only through singing. Stalking the main cast is the Beast (Samuel Ramey), an ancient creature who leads lost souls astray until they lose their hope and willpower and turn into "Edelwood trees".

The Australian Shepherd, often known simply as the "Aussie", is a medium-sized breed of dog that was, despite its name, developed on ranches in the Western United States during the 19th century.[2][3][4] The dog was developed from a breed or breeds from the Basque country in Western Europe. It was brought by Basque people to the United States, these people had previously lived only briefly in Australia before moving to America. The dog otherwise has no connection to Australia.

In Tom's later attempts to catch Jerry, he has to deal with Spike for bothering his son. In 1949's Love That Pup, Spike was given a puppy son, Tyke, who became another popular supporting character in the Tom and Jerry cartoons. His voice was taken over by Daws Butler, who styled Spike's voice after Jimmy Durante taking after his 1940s radio series with Garry Moore. He is named Spike from then on and is not changed again. When Tyke is introduced, Spike is given a softer approach (mainly towards his son) and is kinder and less aggressive, but is still portrayed as a dumb animal on more than one occasion. Spike's love and affection towards Tyke becomes Jerry's newest weapon against Tom, as his strategy goes from luring Tom towards Spike to inflicting harm on Tyke, and even when it is perfectly obvious that Jerry is responsible and not Tom, as seen in Love That Pup. Spike fails to notice this and still blames Tom (although this can be partially due to Spike's dislike of Tom).

Series of various genres, featuring recurrent, title-worthy characters or name actors in familiar roles, were particularly popular during the first decade of sound film. Fox's many B series, for instance, included Charlie Chan mysteries, Ritz Brothers comedies, and musicals with child star Jane Withers.[27] These series films are not to be confused with the short, cliffhanger-structured serials that sometimes appeared on the same program. As with serials, however, many series were intended to attract young peopleâ€”a theater that twin-billed part-time might run a "balanced" or entirely youth-oriented double feature as a matinee and then a single film for a more mature audience at night. In the words of one industry report, afternoon moviegoers, "composed largely of housewives and children, want quantity for their money while the evening crowds want 'something good and not too much of it.'"[28] Series films are often unquestioningly consigned to the B movie category, but even here there is ambiguity: at MGM, for example, popular series like the Andy Hardy chronicles had leading stars and budgets that would have been A-level at some of the lesser majors.[29] For many series, even a lesser major's standard B budget was far out of reach: Poverty Row's Consolidated Pictures featured Tarzan, the Police Dog in a series with the proud name of Melodramatic Dog Features.[30]

Several of his routines involve hearing one-half of a conversation as he speaks to someone over the phone. In a bit called "King Kong", a rookie security guard at the Empire State Building seeks guidance as to how to deal with an ape that is "between 18 and 19 stories high, depending on whether there's a 13th floor or not." He assures his boss he has looked in the guards' manual "under 'ape' and 'ape's toes'." Other famous routines include "The Driving Instructor", "The Mrs. Grace L. Ferguson Airline (and Storm Door Company)", "Introducing Tobacco to Civilization", "Abe Lincoln vs. Madison Avenue", "Defusing a Bomb" (in which an uneasy police chief tries to walk a new and nervous patrolman through defusing a live shell discovered on a beach), "The Retirement Party", "Ledge Psychology", "The Krushchev Landing Rehearsal", and "A Friend With a Dog."

However, when countries started outlawing bull and bear baiting, dog fighters started pitting dogs against other dogs.[7] With the prevalence of such combat, dogfighters soon realized bulldogs were inadequate and began to breed bulldogs with terriers for more desired characteristics.[7] Terriers were most likely crossbred with bulldogs due to their "generally rugged body structure," speed, aggression, and "highly developed gameness."[7] Yet, there is a debate over which type of terrier was bred with bulldogs in order to create the Bull and Terrier. For instance, Joseph L. Colby claimed that it was the old English White Terrier that the Bull and Terrier is descended from, while Rhonda D. Evans and Craig J. Forsyth contend that its ancestor is the Rat Terrier.[7] Carl Semencic, on the other hand, held that a variety of terriers produced the Bull and Terrier.[7]

The Heffley's pet pig has appeared in all books except The Getaway since The Long Haul, in which Manny Heffley won it at a country fair for correctly guessing the weight of a hog. To the annoyance of Greg, the pig exhibits extraordinary intelligence and gains human characteristics. One running gag is that despite not having opposable thumbs, the pig opens objects such as soda cans or a jar full of candy corn.

Marjorie Eileen[7] "Marge" Dursley is Vernon's sister and described as physically resembling him; a large woman with hardly any neck and even a bit of a moustache, even though it is not as bushy as Vernon's. Though she is not a blood relative of Harry, he has been forced to call her "Aunt Marge" throughout his whole life with the Dursleys. Marge lives in the country, where she breeds bulldogs and because of her commitment to her animals, she rarely visits Privet Drive, to Harry's considerable relief. She adores her nephew, Dudley and treats Harry with contempt and cruelty. Owing to Vernon's and Petunia's lies, Aunt Marge believes that Harry is a horrible boy, and delights in insulting both him and his dead parents. In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban after she insults Harry's parents, Harry loses his temper and accidentally inflates her, thus causing her to blow up like a monstrous balloon and float up to the ceiling. Marge is later rescued, changed back to normal, and the Ministry of Magic modifies her memory. She also appeared in a memory in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban: When Harry is chased up a tree by one of Marge's bulldogs named Ripper.


Question: What does the emergence of behavioral modernity refer to?

The advent of behavioral modernity refers to the emergence of a set of behavioral and cognitive characteristics that differentiate Homo sapiens from other hominins and primates. These traits include abstract thought, deep planning, symbolic actions (like art, decoration, and music), the utilization of large game, and the creation of blade tools, among others. The cognitive and cultural underpinnings of these behaviors, such as cumulative cultural evolution, social rules, language, and extensive cooperation beyond immediate family, have been extensively studied. It is proposed that the development of these modern behaviors, along with the environmental conditions of the Last Glacial Maximum, played a significant role in the replacement of Neanderthals by humans and the subsequent spread of humans across the globe.

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman â€¦ was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.[98]

While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus's system of sexual classification. Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These were pre-evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of "phylogenetic systems" based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone.[18][19][20]

The extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) is an extension of the Modern Synthesis of evolution which revisits the relative importance of different factors at play in evolutionary theory. EES includes concepts and mechanisms such as multilevel selection theory, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, niche construction and evolvability.

Early anthropological studies theorize that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.[97]

Instinctive drift or instinctual drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank. Instead, the raccoon drifted to its instinctive behavior of putting the tokens on the ground or turning them over in its paws, as they often do with food.[1][2]

As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book Verbal Behavior[19] and other language-related publications;[20] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[21][22]

The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period.

However it is also possible that Middle Paleolithic cannibalism occurred for religious reasons which would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic.[20][21] Nonetheless it remains possible that Middle Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of excarnation or predation by carnivores such as saber-toothed cats, lions and hyenas.[21]

This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 ka-old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 ka-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 ka-old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa.[55]

Understanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on practitioner but the terms interface, sub-group, group and land use are common. An example of a sub-group could be the three contexts that make up a burial; the grave cut, the body and the back-filled earth on top of the body. In turn sub-groups can be clustered together with other sub-groups by virtue of their stratigraphic relationship to form groups which in turn form "phases". A sub-group burial could cluster with other sub group burials to form a cemetery or burial group which in turn could be clustered with a building such as church to produce a "phase". A less rigorously defined combination of one or more contexts is sometimes called a feature.