Question: Why does topsoil contain the highest amount of humus?

The topsoil contains the highest amount of humus due to its protected environment. Much of the humus in topsoil has persisted for over a century, shielded from decomposition by being occluded within small soil aggregates or tightly bound to clays. This stable humus, while not a primary source of plant-available nutrients, plays a crucial role in maintaining soil structure. A unique, stable form of humus is created through the slow oxidation of soil carbon when finely powdered charcoal is incorporated into the topsoil, contributing to the formation of highly fertile soils, as seen in the Amazonian terra preta do Indio.

Deposits of slow periglacial solifluction compromise poorly stratified diamicton and diamicton where stratification is wholly lacking. When stratification can be seen it is often distinguished by a buried organic soil.[3] Some other solifluction deposits that have a more defined stratification consist of alternating layers of diamicton and open-work beds, these last representing buried stone-banked lobes and sheets. A common feature in solifluction deposits is the orientation of clasts parallel to the slope.[3]

Humidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1%â€“0.6%), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.

There are few areas in which the earlier drifts from the glacial deposits of the Pre-Ilionian or Illinoian stages are exposed at the surface.[1] The extreme southeastern and southwestern portions of Minnesota (Driftless Area) have extensive areas of pre-Wisconsin drifts, but they are masked almost everywhere by surficial covering of loess (wind-blown silt). Furthermore, these regions of older drift are maturely drained, because the streams have had a longer time to evolve into an efficient drainage system compared with the streams flowing in areas covered by younger glacial deposits. Howard Hobbs has proposed that the Pre-Illinoian glacial deposits in southeastern Minnesota are actually younger Illinoian glacial deposits.[3][4]

The nature of soil makes direct observation of food webs difficult. Since soil organisms range in size from less than 0.1 mm (nematodes) to greater than 2 mm (earthworms) there are many different ways to extract them. Soil samples are often taken using a metal core. Larger macrofauna such as earthworms and insect larva can be removed by hand, but this is impossible for smaller nematodes and soil arthropods. Most methods to extract small organisms are dynamic; they depend on the ability of the organisms to move out of the soil. For example, a Berlese funnel, used to collect small arthropods, creates a light/heat gradient in the soil sample. As the microarthropods move down, away from the light and heat, they fall through a funnel and into a collection vial. A similar method, the Baermann funnel, is used for nematodes. The Baerman funnel is wet, however (while the Berlese funnel is dry) and does not depend on a light/heat gradient. Nematodes move out of the soil and to the bottom of the funnel because, as they move, they are denser than water and are unable to swim. Soil microbial communities are characterized in many different ways. The activity of microbes can be measured by their respiration and carbon dioxide release. The cellular components of microbes can be extracted from soil and genetically profiled, or microbial biomass can be calculated by weighing the soil before and after fumigation.

Isostatic rebound from the retreat of the last glaciers results in a steady rise of Lake Simcoe, particularly at its south end, and is further responsible for the deep organic sediments that have accumulated in its one-time shallow southern arm, known as the Holland Marsh. Here, organic deposits created by vegetation have largely kept pace with the steady rise in water level, and today supports extensive market gardening. All rivers, and most streams, flowing into the lake have wide, deep, navigable mouths as a consequence of the rising waters drowning the river channels.

Rainfall in the catchment generally follows topography[49] with the highest annual rainfall of 1,450 mm (57 in) and above occurring over the high moorland uplands of the Derwent headwaters to the north and west, with the lowest of 580 mm (23 in), in the lowland areas to the north and east.[50] Rainfall totals in the Tame are not as high as would be expected from the moderate relief, due to the rain shadow effect of the Welsh mountains to the west, reducing amounts to an average of 691 mm (27.2 in) for the tributary basin.[49][51]
The average for the whole Trent catchment is 720 mm (28 in) which is significantly lower than the average for United Kingdom at 1,101 mm (43.3 in) and lower than that for England at 828 mm (32.6 in).[52][53][54]

Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in underwater concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Although rusting is generally a negative aspect of iron, a particular form of rusting, known as "stable rust," causes the object to have a thin coating of rust over the top, and if kept in low relative humidity, makes the "stable" layer protective to the iron below, but not to the extent of other oxides, such as aluminum.[2]

Agricultural land can actually suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion, salinization, compaction, nutrient depletion, pollution, and urbanization.[18] Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and ecotourism usually rely upon virtually undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and are disturbed by the loss of natural habitats and animal or plant species worldwide.

Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers, which cause soil acidification.

An old-growth forest — also termed primary forest, virgin forest, primeval forest, or late seral forest— is a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance and thereby exhibits unique ecological features and might be classified as a climax community.[1] Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitat that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem.  The concept of diverse tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters, and diverse tree species and classes and sizes of woody debris.


Question: Who is the man who walked between the Twin Towers?

Philippe Petit, a French high-wire artist, is best known for his daring walk between the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City on August 7, 1974. He also performed a high wire act at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris in 1971. For his unauthorized stunt at the World Trade Center, Petit walked 400 meters (1,000 feet) above the ground, using a 200-kilogram (440-pound) cable and a custom-made 8-meter (30-foot) long, 25-kilogram (55-pound) balancing pole. He performed for 45 minutes, making eight passes along the wire. In exchange for dismissing all charges, Petit gave a performance in Central Park for children the following week, coinciding with his 25th birthday.

Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 â€“ 887), a polymath and inventor in Muslim Spain, made contributions in a variety of fields and is most known for his contributions to glass-making and aviation. He developed novel ways of manufacturing and using glass. He broke his back at an unsuccessful attempt at flying a primitive hang glider in 875.

After the feat, Wallenda said he was "not scared at all," but admitted that the circumstances of Karl's death had haunted him for years.[6] "This has been a dream of mine to recreate this walk", he explained. "To be able to walk in his exact footsteps is an extremely huge honor, and I did this for him as much as I did it for my family to get some closure." [6] He also called the walk the biggest and most emotional moment of his career to that point. "I can't even put it into words. It was so emotional", he said a week later.[23]

After completing the walk, Wallenda said it was more difficult than he had expected. "That mist was thick. It was hard to see at times. The wind was wild. It'd come at me one way and hit me from the front, and hit me from the back."[52] Weather instruments showed gusts up to 14 mph during the walk. Wallenda further remarked that the turbulent waters below made it difficult for him to see the wire.[45] Before the walk, Jay Cochrane, a veteran wire walker who had unsuccessfully petitioned to walk Horseshoe Falls for 30 years, said of the local weather "Unpredictable is a mild word. It is unforgiving ... [Horseshoe Falls] can spray mist anywhere from 380 to 590 feet in the air. I've seen it, I've measured it."[2]  He added that walking Horseshoe Falls was an opportunity "like none other in history."[2]  Long-time circus performer, Jackie LeClaire, remarked "aerialists always try to calculate risk. Nik couldn't do that because this walk had never been done before."[52] Local historian, Paul Gromosiak, who has researched daredevil activity in the Niagara region for his books, said Wallenda's proximity to the falls made his act far more dangerous than any prior act.[52]

Many of Walshe's performances included playing animals, particularly monkeys or apes. Eventually Walshe began to specialize in performing monkeys, which gained him popularity on the vaudeville circuit, appearing in such events as Lew Fields's and Joe Weber's Reunion show.[3] Appearing in many variety shows, Walshe earned prominence for his performances and received him the nickname; 'the monkey man'.[3] Of particular note was the meticulous attention to detail that Walshe gave to his performances. Walshe would spend time visiting the zoo, and studying the movement of the apes.[3] Walshe had much fascination with the creatures putting significant effort into successfully mimicking not only the monkey's physicality but also impersonating the sounds that they made. Walshe was even allowed by the zookeeper (who he was friends with) to enter the cages of the apes, to spend time close up with them. Walshe's performances were perfected to such a degree of accuracy that, when wearing his costume, he allegedly was able to convince a particular chimp, that he was in fact an ape, scaring the creature.[3]

A character named Chinaman, originally planned to be included as a villain, was later on omitted and his abilities incorporated in Vamp, namely the ability to walk on water and walls. Chinaman would have movements modeled after Jet Li and have a body tattoo of a dragon that would come alive as soon as he dove into the water.[40]

In 1951, Bill Veeck, the colorful former owner of the Cleveland Indians, purchased the Browns from DeWitt. In St. Louis, he extended the promotions and wild antics that had made him famous and loved by many and loathed by many others. His most notorious stunt in St. Louis came on August 19, 1951, when he ordered Browns manager, Zack Taylor to send Eddie Gaedel, a 3-foot 7-inch, 65-pound midget, to bat as a pinch hitter. When Gaedel stepped to the plate he was wearing a Browns child's uniform with the number 1⁄8. With no strike zone to speak of, Gaedel walked on four straight pitches, as he was ordered not to swing at any pitch. The stunt infuriated American League President Will Harridge, who voided Gaedel's contract the next day. Veeck also promoted another publicity stunt in which the Browns handed out placards – reading take, swing, bunt, etc. – to fans and allowed them to make managerial decisions for a day. Manager Zack Taylor dutifully surveyed the fans' advice and relayed the sign accordingly.[6] The Browns won the game against the Philadelphia Athletics, whose venerable owner Connie Mack took part in the "Grandstand Managers" voting (against his own team).

Project costs were between US$1.2 and $1.3 million, necessitating ABC's financial support (and with it, their demand of a safety harness).[52][63] "I'd dare say that never in the history of the circus industry has there been one event that costs this much," said Wallenda.[2]  The production was a serious financial strain on Wallenda.  "It's been a tough situation all around", he said a week before the event, blaming the lingering fight over the safety harness for inhibiting sponsorship deals.[55]  When production costs ran over the original estimate of $1 million, he appealed to the public for help using the fundraising website Indiegogo.[63]  He eventually met his goal of $50,000.[64]  Additionally, Niagara Falls, Ontario, mayor Jim Diodati asked local businesses to chip in, saying he hoped to raise $250,000.[57]  Ultimately, he helped generate about $200,000 of support from local business associations.[65]  The main causes of the overrun were the need to produce two custom cables – one for the performance and a shorter one for practice – and the need to hire a new helicopter company to set up the cable at the last minute, after the original one discovered they did not hold the necessary licenses.[63]  After the event, Wallenda said he had probably lost money on the event; however, he added, it was "clearly worth it" in the long term.[46]  With all but one bill accounted for, Wallenda said he lost less than $50,000 on the event.[66]  The fundraising, combined with several contractors lowering their bills, helped him get close to budget.  "I think people still have the impression that Nik Wallenda is going to walk away from this thing making millions of dollars, but that's not the case," he commented.[66]

The Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge is an arch bridge in the United States that spans the Colorado River between the states of Arizona and Nevada. The bridge is located within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area approximately 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Las Vegas, and carries U.S. Route 93 over the Colorado River. Opened in 2010, it was the key component of the Hoover Dam Bypass project, which rerouted US 93 from its previous routing along the top of Hoover Dam and removed several hairpin turns and blind curves from the route. It is jointly named for Mike O'Callaghan, Governor of Nevada from 1971–1979, and Pat Tillman, an American football player who left his career with the Arizona Cardinals to enlist in the United States Army and was later killed in Afghanistan by friendly fire.

The act was set around a story line. During the first half of the circus, Wallenda's wife, Erendira, played the love interest of Nock.[30] After intermission, Wallenda and Nock "battled" it out on the Wheel, competing for her heart. To enhance the entertainment value, they mixed jumping rope, somersaults, and leaps into the routine.[30] In all, the Wheel performance lasted seven minutes.[29]

In the long run, Wallenda's goal is to achieve global recognition and celebrity.  "I've had a vision for my name since I was very young, that I was going to take it to the top of my industry", he says.[18]  His wirewalking "wishlist" includes traversing the Bosphorus continental divide in Turkey and Inca ruins at Machu Picchu.[74]  He would like to do an event with the Eiffel Tower and Egypt's pyramids.[15]  "There's a lot of expectations on my end", he says, adding that he wants to "[reinvent] the circus".[74]  "Whenever we're someplace unique or different," says Erendira, "he's always looking around â€“ 'Oh, I could string a wire from here to there and walk there.'"[18] Wallenda, who spent the summer of 2014 in Western New York with shows at Darien Lake and the Erie County Fair, hopes to develop a longer-term tourist attraction near Niagara Falls honoring stuntmen such as his family.[103]


Question: All of the motor neurons that control skeletal muscles are?

The term 'motor neuron' typically refers to lower motor neurons, which are the efferent nerve cells that directly stimulate skeletal muscles. These neurons are responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movements.

The extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development.[20] These signaling molecules include proteins, neurotrophic factors, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. Netrin (also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the UNC-5 netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly.[21][22][23][24] The neurotrophic factors â€“ nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to Trk receptors.[25]

Electrophysiology (from Greek ἥλεκτρον, ēlektron, "amber" [see the etymology of "electron"]; φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements of voltage changes or electric current or manipulations on a wide variety of scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart. In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons, and, in particular, action potential activity. Recordings of large-scale electric signals from the nervous system, such as electroencephalography, may also be referred to as electrophysiological recordings.[1] They are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring.

In 2009, it was reported, that there are two evolutionary distinct regions, an older one on the outer surface, and a new one found in the cleft. The older one connects to the spinal motorneurons through interneurons in the spinal cord. The newer one, found only in monkeys and apes, connects directly to the spinal motorneurons.[10] The direct connections form after birth, are dominant over the indirect connections, and are more flexible in the circuits they can develop which allows the post-natal learning of complex fine motor skills. "The emergence of the 'new' M1 region during evolution of the primate lineage is therefore likely to have been important for the enhanced manual dexterity of the human hand."[11]

Though receptors and stimuli are varied, most extrinsic stimuli first generate localized graded potentials in the neurons associated with the specific sensory organ or tissue.[6] In the nervous system, internal and external stimuli can elicit two different categories of responses: an excitatory response, normally in the form of an action potential, and an inhibitory response.[11] When a neuron is stimulated by an excitatory impulse, neuronal dendrites are bound by neurotransmitters which cause the cell to become permeable to a specific type of ion; the type of neurotransmitter determines to which ion the neurotransmitter will become permeable. In excitatory postsynaptic potentials, an excitatory response is generated. This is caused by an excitatory neurotransmitter, normally glutamate binding to a neuron's dendrites, causing an influx of sodium ions through channels located near the binding site.

In the peripheral nervous system, local junctional transmission was recognized in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Until then, all chemical neurotransmission was thought to involve synapses and the innervations of tissue were considered synonymous with the existence of a synapse. Later, it was observed that at smooth muscle neuromuscular junctions in the gut and other peripheral autonomic neuroeffector junctions, neurotransmission takes place in the absence of any synapses and it was suggested that at these sites, neurotransmission involved non-synaptic transmission. Accordingly, nerve endings release their neurotransmitters in extracellular space in a manner similar to paracrine secretion. Target cells affected by a locally released transmitter even though located several hundreds to thousands of nanometers away from the release site are considered as being innervated.[7]

Somitogenesis is the process by which somites (primitive segments) are produced. These segmented tissue blocks differentiate into skeletal muscle, vertebrae, and dermis of all vertebrates.

A notable exception to the routes mentioned above is the sympathetic innervation of the suprarenal (adrenal) medulla. In this case, presynaptic neurons pass through paravertebral ganglia, on through prevertebral ganglia and then synapse directly with suprarenal tissue. This tissue consists of cells that have pseudo-neuron like qualities in that when activated by the presynaptic neuron, they will release their neurotransmitter (epinephrine) directly into the bloodstream.

Three main ventral cell types are established during early neural tube development: the floor plate cells, which form at the ventral midline during the neural fold stage; as well as the more dorsally located motor neurons and interneurons.[2] These cell types are specified by the secretion of the Shh from the notochord (located ventrally to the neural tube), and later from the floor plate cells.[5] Shh acts as a morphogen, meaning that it acts in a concentration-dependent manner to specify cell types as it moves further from its source.[6]

It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration.[29]

Following gastrulation, the ectoderm gives rise to epithelial and neural tissue, and the gastrula is now referred to as the neurula. The neural plate that has formed as a thickened plate from the ectoderm, continues to broaden and its ends start to fold upwards as neural folds. Neurulation refers to this folding process whereby the neural plate is transformed into the neural tube, and this takes place during the fourth week. They fold, along a shallow neural groove which has formed as a dividing median line in the neural plate. This deepens as the folds continue to gain height, when they will meet and close together at the neural crest. The cells that migrate through the most cranial part of the primitive line form the paraxial mesoderm, which will give rise to the somitomeres that in the process of somitogenesis will differentiate into somites that will form the sclerotome, the syndetome,[16] the
myotome and the dermatome to form cartilage and bone, tendons, dermis (skin), and muscle. The intermediate mesoderm gives rise to the urogenital tract and consists of cells that migrate from the middle region of the primitive line. Other cells migrate through the caudal part of the primitive line and form the lateral mesoderm, and those cells migrating by the most caudal part contribute to the extraembryonic mesoderm.[9][13]


Question:
All the motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles are?

(Here, I've maintained the length, text complexity, and semantic style by slightly rephrasing the question while keeping the meaning intact.)

Somatic motor neurons, originating in the central nervous system, extend their axons to skeletal muscles, such as those in the limbs, abdomen, and between the ribs, which are essential for movement. These neurons can be categorized into three types: alpha, beta, and gamma efferent neurons, with "efferent" denoting the direction of information flow from the CNS to the peripheral muscles.

The axon initial segment — the thick, unmyelinated part of an axon that connects directly to the cell body — consists of a specialized complex of proteins. It is approximately 25 µm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation.[5] The density of voltage-gated sodium channels is much higher in the initial segment than in the remainder of the axon or in the adjacent cell body, excepting the axon hillock.[6] The voltage-gated ion channels are known to be found within certain areas of the axonal membrane and initiate action potential, conduction, and synaptic transmission.[4]

The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of nervous control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve, a cranial nerve. The sensation to other portions of the head is provided by the cervical nerves.

Sagittal division reveals more morphological distinctions. The raphe nuclei form a ridge in the middle of the reticular formation, and, directly to its periphery, there is a division called the medial reticular formation. The medial RF is large and has long ascending and descending fibers, and is surrounded by the lateral reticular formation. The lateral RF is close to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, and mostly mediates their function.

Messages travel through the sympathetic nervous system in a bi-directional flow. Efferent messages can trigger changes in different parts of the body simultaneously. For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate; widen bronchial passages; decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine; constrict blood vessels; increase peristalsis in the oesophagus; cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating); and raise blood pressure. One exception is with certain blood vessels such as those in the cerebral and coronary arteries, which dilate (rather than constrict) with an increase in sympathetic tone. This is because of a proportional increase in the presence of β2 adrenergic receptors rather than α1 receptors. β2 receptors promote vessel dilation instead of constriction like α1 receptors. An alternative explanation is that the primary (and direct) effect of sympathetic stimulation on coronary arteries is vasoconstriction followed by a secondary vasodilation caused by the release of vasodilatory metabolites due to the sympathetically increased cardiac inotropy and heart rate. This secondary vasodilation caused by the primary vasoconstriction is termed functional sympatholysis, the overall effect of which on coronary arteries is dilation.[9]

The Purkinje fibres (/pərˈkɪndʒiː/ pər-KIN-jee) (Purkinje tissue or subendocardial branches) are located in the inner ventricular walls of the heart, just beneath the endocardium in a space called the subendocardium. The Purkinje fibres are specialised conducting fibres composed of electrically excitable cells that are larger than cardiomyocytes with fewer myofibrils and a large number of mitochondria and which (cells) conduct cardiac action potentials more quickly and efficiently than any other cells in the heart.[1] Purkinje fibres allow the heart's conduction system to create synchronized contractions of its ventricles, and are, therefore, essential for maintaining a consistent heart rhythm.

The code by which neurons in the primate motor cortex control the spinal cord, and thus movement, remains debated.

The axoplasm is the equivalent of cytoplasm in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same direction – towards the axon terminals.[7] This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body.[7] Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filaments – the microtubules, in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body.

Three main ventral cell types are established during early neural tube development: the floor plate cells, which form at the ventral midline during the neural fold stage; as well as the more dorsally located motor neurons and interneurons.[2] These cell types are specified by the secretion of the Shh from the notochord (located ventrally to the neural tube), and later from the floor plate cells.[5] Shh acts as a morphogen, meaning that it acts in a concentration-dependent manner to specify cell types as it moves further from its source.[6]

An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greekâ€“end of tree). At the end of each telodendron is an axon terminal (also called a synaptic bouton, or terminal bouton). Axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that store the neurotransmitter for release at the synapse. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an autapse.

A neuromechanical simulator that combines biomechanical and biologically realistic neural network simulation. It allows the user to test hypotheses on the neural basis of behavior in a physically accurate 3-D virtual environment.


Question: When do you hear the lub-dub sounds of the heart?

In a healthy adult's heartbeat, two primary sounds are typically heard, often characterized as a lub and a dub. These sounds are known as the first heart sound (S1) and the second heart sound (S2), respectively. S1 is produced when the atrioventricular valves close, while S2 results from the closure of the semilunar valves. Additional sounds, such as heart murmurs, adventitious sounds, and S3 and S4 gallop rhythms, may also be detected.

In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system."[15] In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628.[16]

In 1907, Lord Rayleigh utilized tuning forks to generate monophonic excitation and studied the lateral sound localization theory on a human head model without auricle. He first presented the interural clue difference based sound localization theory, which is known as Duplex Theory.[7] Human ears are on the different sides of the head, thus they have different coordinates in space. As shown in fig. 2, since the distances between the acoustic source and ears are different, there are time difference and intensity difference between the sound signals of two ears. We call those kinds of differences as Interaural Time Difference (ITD) and Interaural Intensity Difference (IID) respectively.

The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source.[7] Wind shear of 4 m/(s · km) can produce refraction equal to a typical temperature lapse rate of 7.5 °C/km.[10] Higher values of wind gradient will refract sound downward toward the surface in the downwind direction,[11] eliminating the acoustic shadow on the downwind side. This will increase the audibility of sounds downwind. This downwind refraction effect occurs because there is a wind gradient; the sound is not being carried along by the wind.[12]

Duplex theory clearly points out that ITD and IID play significant roles in sound localization but they can only deal with lateral localizing problems. For example, based on duplex theory, if two acoustic sources are symmetrically located on the right front and right back of the human head, they will generate equal ITDs and IIDs, which is called as cone model effect. However, human ears can actually distinguish this set of sources. Besides that, in natural sense of hearing, only one ear, which means no ITD or IID, can distinguish the sources with a high accuracy. Due to the disadvantages of duplex theory, researchers proposed the pinna filtering effect theory.[14] The shape of human pinna is very special. It is concave with complex folds and asymmetrical no matter horizontally or vertically. The reflected waves and the direct waves will generate a frequency spectrum on the eardrum, which is related to the acoustic sources. Then auditory nerves localize the sources by this frequency spectrum. Therefore, a corresponding theory was proposed and called as pinna filtering effect theory.[15]

Hear Music is the brand name of Starbucks' retail music concept. Hear Music began as a catalog company in 1990, adding a few retail locations in the San Francisco Bay Area. Hear Music was purchased by Starbucks in 1999. Nearly three years later, in 2002, they produced a Starbucks opera album, featuring artists such as Luciano Pavarotti, followed in March 2007 by the hit CD "Memory Almost Full" by Paul McCartney, making McCartney the first artist signed to New Hear Music Label sold in Starbucks outlets. Its inaugural release was a big non-coffee event for Starbucks the first quarter of 2007.

While in the healthy heart, waves of electrical impulses originate in the sinus node before spreading to the rest of the atria, the atrioventricular node, and finally the ventricles (referred to as a normal sinus rhythm), this normal rhythm can be disrupted. Abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias may be asymptomatic or may cause palpitations, blackouts, or breathlessness. Some types of arrhythmia such as atrial fibrillation increase the long term risk of stroke.[60]

In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30% of deaths.[11][12] Of these more than three quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke.[11] Risk factors include: smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others.[13] Cardiovascular diseases frequently do not have symptoms or may cause chest pain or shortness of breath. Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history, listening to the heart-sounds with a stethoscope, ECG, and ultrasound.[3] Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment.[12]

In pregnancy, it is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive blood through the fetal circulation. The blood pressure in the fetal aorta is approximately 30 mmHg at 20 weeks of gestation, and increases to approximately 45 mmHg at 40 weeks of gestation.[52]

These ambiguities can be removed by tilting the head, which can introduce a shift in both the amplitude and phase of sound waves arriving at each ear. This translates the vertical orientation of the interaural axis horizontally, thereby leveraging the mechanism of localization on the horizontal plane. Moreover, even with no alternation in the angle of the interaural axis (i.e. without tilting one's head) the hearing system can capitalize on interference patterns generated by pinnae, the torso, and even the temporary re-purposing of a hand as extension of the pinna (e.g., cupping one's hand around the ear).


Question: How old is the actress who portrays Phyllis on Y&R?

Gina Tognoni, the actress who portrays Phyllis on The Young and the Restless, was born on November 28, 1973. She is also recognized for her roles as Kelly Cramer on One Life to Live and Dinah Marler on Guiding Light, showcasing her talent in the daytime soap opera genre.

Sarah Tracey Braverman (Lauren Graham), age 38 at the beginning of the series, is the second child and oldest daughter. She and her two children (Amber and Drew) move back into her parents' house in the pilot episode because of her financial situation. At the show's beginning, it is established that she had previously worked as a bartender for over ten years and as a graphic artist for local bands, including her ex-husband's. She is divorced from her rocker husband Seth (John Corbett), who appears to have been a very poor father figure to their children due to his drug use, alcoholism, and touring schedule. They were married for 12 years. After she fails to obtain a job with a design company due to her lack of a college degree, Sarah once again takes a bartending job. However, she soon begins an internship position at the same company where her older brother, Adam, works. She starts dating her boss despite her brother's disapproval. However, she eventually leaves him when she finds out that he sold the company without the knowledge of its employees. One night, she writes a play which her father passes to his friend, who is well-connected in Broadway. Her play is later produced. She turns 40 in the second season, which means she had her 17-year-old daughter, Amber, when she was 23 and Drew when she was 25. Sarah re-kindles her relationship with Mark Cyr, who is 12 years her junior, after revealing to Amber that she is falling in love with him. In the last episode of season three, Mark proposes to Sarah and we find out in the first episode of the fourth season that she accepted. Sarah goes to work for photographer Hank Rizzoli. In season 4, episode 10, "Trouble in Candyland", Mark breaks up with Sarah because of her habit of running away from things that make her feel good about herself. This happens after Sarah puts her job before Mark when she turned down going to a wedding with him so she could accompany her boss to a photography job in Los Angeles. In season five she becomes a supervisor of a nice apartment building before becoming Hank's photography partner full-time. Hank and Sarah marry in the series finale.

Cleo de Nile (voiced by Salli Saffioti)[11] is the daughter of the Egyptian mummy named Ramses de Nile. Cleo is the most popular ghoul in school. Apart from being popular, she is also the student council president of Monster High, and captain of the Fearleading Squad. Being a Mummy and preserved for many years, her appearance is that of a 16-year-old girl but is actually over 3,000 years old. While her profile lists her as 3,357 years old,[14] previous iterations as well as the videos had shown her true age to be 5,842 years old.[15] Her boyfriend is Deuce Gorgon.[14]

RenÃ©e Felice Smith (born 16 January 1985[1]) is an American actress. She is known for portraying Nell Jones on NCIS: Los Angeles, since joining the series that began in 2010.

Michael Learned (born April 9, 1939) is an American actress, known for her role as Olivia Walton in the long-running CBS drama series The Waltons (1972â€“1979). She has won a record four Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series; three for The Waltons (1973, '74, '76), and one for Nurse (1982).[2]

The Young and the Restless originally focused on two core families: the wealthy Brooks family and the working class Foster family.[3] After a series of recasts and departures in the early 1980s, all the original characters except Jill Foster and Katherine Chancellor were written out. Bell replaced them with the new core families, the Abbotts and the Williamses.[3] Over the years, other families such as the Newmans, Winters, and the Baldwin-Fishers were introduced.[10][11] Despite these changes, one storyline that has endured through almost the show's entire run is the feud between Jill Abbott and Katherine Chancellor, the longest rivalry on any American soap opera.[12][13]

Marion Lorne MacDougal[3] or MacDougall (sources differ) (August 12, 1883[1] – May 9, 1968), known professionally as Marion Lorne, was an American actress of stage, film, and television. After a career in theatre in New York and London, Lorne made her first film in 1951, and for the remainder of her life, played small roles in films and television. Her recurring role, between 1964 and her death in 1968, as Aunt Clara in the comedy series, Bewitched (1964–1972) brought her widespread recognition, and for which she was posthumously awarded an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.

Macchio was introduced to his wife, Phyllis Fierro, by his grandmother when he was fifteen.[19] They married on April 5, 1987 and have two children, Julia (born 1992) and Daniel (born 1996).  Fierro is a nurse practitioner.[19][20][21]

Joanna Louise Page (born 23 March 1978) is a Welsh actress and model, best known for her role as Stacey Shipman in the BAFTA-winning television series Gavin & Stacey.[1]

A tribute episode of The Young and the Restless in honor of Jeanne Cooper made up of clips, cast memories and interviews was shown on May 28 on the CBS network. Her character, Katherine, died offscreen a few months later after a long, world-wide trip.

In the early 1970s, Young found work with New World Pictures as crew for Roger Corman, however, the failure of an actor to appear resulted in Young starring in Night Call Nurses.[1][2] While acting, he received offers to guest star on prime-time television and joined Beverly Hills Playhouse theatre group.  Young found a variety of work from both film and television including appearing in Kung Fu with William Katt and Gary Busey, Flamingo Road with Morgan Fairchild, Knight Rider and the Cheers episode 'Love Thy Neighbor'. In 1979, Young and John Chesko, along with Brenda Venus, filmed American novelist Henry Miller, resulting in the film Dinner with Henry Miller. A short thirty minute cut was released by Brenda Venus in 1984, however, over 2 hours of footage exist that is owned and being produced by Young who has yet to formally release the finished film, one of Miller's final film appearances.[1]


Question:
Who has scored more goals in the Premier League? (The original question and the similar question are identical in this case, as there are no changes needed to maintain the length, text complexity, and semantic style.)

However, if a slight change is desired while preserving the meaning:

**Similar Question**: In the Premier League, who has the highest goal tally?

In the Premier League, Alan Shearer was the first player to achieve the milestone of 100 goals, a feat he accomplished in just 124 games, setting the record for the fastest to reach this milestone. Shearer also holds the record for the most goals scored in the Premier League's history. Following Shearer, Harry Kane is the second-quickest to 100 goals, achieving this in 141 games.

This is a list of football players considered "the greatest of all time", so claimed by at least one expert or one group of experts.[a] With the 20th century coming to an end, numerous lists and elections were composed on the subject.[1]

Manchester United hold the record for the most victories, winning the competition 21 times since its inception.[B][15] They also hold the distinction of having the most appearances (30) and most losses (9). Although the Shield has had its share of historical moments – from Eric Cantona's first career hat-trick in 1992,[16] to Manchester United's first loss of 1999 ending a streak of 33 consecutive games without a defeat[17] – it has been dismissed as a ceremonial friendly that is not on par with other domestic honours in terms of prestige.[14][18][19] Winning the Shield has proven to be an unreliable indicator of success in the forthcoming season.[1][18] Since the establishment of the Premier League in 1992, only seven clubs that won the Shield proceeded to become League champions in the same season, the last being Manchester United in 2010–11.[18] Indeed, Gianluca Vialli was sacked only weeks after guiding Chelsea to the victory in the 2000 match, following a lacklustre start to the season.[20] The current holders are Arsenal, who defeated Chelsea in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw in the 2017 edition.[21]

With the departure of John Aldridge a few weeks into the 1989–90 season, Dalglish reverted to a 4–4–2 formation with Beardsley and Rush as his main strikers, with Beardsley scoring 10 goals in 29 games.

The striker remained at Bournemouth during the 2007–08 season, despite being linked to several other clubs, including Newcastle United, Aston Villa, Everton and Celtic.[7] The youngster was a bright spark in an otherwise tumultuous season for the Cherries as they were embroiled in a club ownership saga. His 12-goal tally could not prevent Bournemouth from being relegated to League Two.[8]

Despite making just one goalless appearance as England failed to progress past the Euro 1992 group stages,[14] Shearer was soon subject to an English transfer record-breaking Â£3.6million bid from Blackburn Rovers.[15] Although there was also interest from Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson, Blackburn benefactor Jack Walker's millions were enough to prise the striker from the Saints, and Shearer moved north to Ewood Park in the middle of 1992.[16]

Although Shearer's status as the world's most expensive footballer would only last for one year, he remained unmatched as the most expensive footballer in England for four years, when Chelsea signed the Dutch striker Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink for £15 million. Later that year, Shearer's record was finally eclipsed when Leeds United paid £18 million for West Ham United's Rio Ferdinand. In the summer of 2001, the English record was broken twice in the space of a few weeks, both times by Manchester United, who first signed Dutch striker Ruud van Nistelrooy for £19 million, and then signed Argentine midfielder Juan Sebastián Verón for £28.1 million. A year later, they broke the English record fee again by signing Rio Ferdinand from Leeds United for a fee in the region of £29 million, 11 years after Liverpool had paid a mere tenth of that figure to set an English record transfer fee when they signed Dean Saunders.

Samuel Michael Vokes (born 21 October 1989) is a professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Burnley and the Welsh national team.

This is the history of Leicester City Football Club, based in Leicester, England, the United Kingdom. Having been founded over 100 years ago, for the first time, in the 2015–16 season, Leicester City won the Premier League, with Claudio Ranieri being the manager. Also, in the same season, the team qualified for the UEFA Champions League.

Shearer did not get the manager's job on permanent basis. Chris Hughton stepped up from the coaching staff to take charge of the quest to get Newcastle back into the Premier League, which was achieved at the first attempt as Newcastle finished top of the Championship in the 2009–10 season.


Question: What's the total number of MNAs in Pakistan's National Assembly?

The National Assembly of Pakistan is the lower chamber of the country's bicameral legislature, the Majlis-e-Shura, which also includes the President and the Senate (upper chamber). Located in Islamabad, the National Assembly is composed of 332 Members of the National Assembly (MNAs), with 272 directly elected and 70 seats reserved for women and religious minorities. A party needs to secure at least 172 seats to hold a majority.

The Chamber of deputies is elected by direct and universal suffrage by voters who are eighteen or older. There are 630 deputies, twelve of which are elected in the overseas constituencies.[2] All voters who are twenty-five or older on election day are eligible to be deputies.[2]

The Faroese government holds executive power in local government affairs. The head of the government is called the Løgmaður ("Law person") and serves as a premier. Any other member of the cabinet is called a landsstýrismaður ("national committee man") or landsstýriskvinna ("national committee woman"). The Faroese parliament – the Løgting ("Law assembly") – dates back to Viking times and is believed to be one of the oldest parliaments in the world. The parliament currently has 33 members.[31]

Under this system, the first direct presidential election was held on January 2, 1965. Some 80,000 'basic democrats', as members of urban and regional councils, caucused to vote. There were two main contestants: Pakistan Muslim League led by President Ayub Khan and the Combined Opposition Parties (COP) under the leadership of Fatima Jinnah. In this highly controversial election with the means of using the state machinery to rigging the votes, the PML secured a thumping majority of 120 seats while the opposition could clinch only 15 seats. Fatima Jinnah's Combined Opposition Party (COP) only secured 10 seats whereas the NDF won 5 seats in East Pakistan and 1 in West Pakistan. The rest of the seats went to the independents.

He believed in forming a Muslim Bloc by uniting all Central Asian Muslim countries thus he extended the membership of Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) to all Central Asian countries.[47] Nawaz Sharif was confident that he had majority in the assembly thus he ruled with considerable confidence. He had disputes with three successive army chiefs.[47] Sharif took the issue of environmentalism as part of his government platform, and established the Environmental Protection Agency in 1997, as part of his environmental conservatism policy.[49]

The name Pakistan literally means "Land of the Pure" in Urdu and Persian. It was coined in 1933 as Pakstan by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in his pamphlet Now or Never,[278] using it as an acronym ("thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKSTAN") referring to the names of the five northwestern regions of the Indian Empire: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan".[279][280][281] The letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name.[282]

In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative, elected body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries.

Islamabad officially became the capital of Pakistan on 14 August 1967, exactly 20 years after the country's independence.[1] Previously, Rawalpindi was the capital, designated in 1958.[1] The first capital of Pakistan was the coastal city of Karachi, which was selected by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. [1] Karachi was and still is the largest city and economic capital of Pakistan. It remained the seat of government until 1959, when the military president, Ayub Khan, decided to build a new capital in the north of Pakistan, near the general headquarters of the Pakistani Armed Forces at Rawalpindi.

Between 24 December 2014 to 25 March 2015, based on the National Action Plan, government arrested 32,347 people on different charges in 28,826 operations conducted across the country. During the same period Pakistan deported 18,855 Afghan refugees while the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) registered 64 cases for money transfer through Hawala, arrested 83 people and recovered Rs. 101.7 million. In total, 351 actionable calls were received on the anti-terror helpline and National Database and Registration Authority verified total 59.47 million SIMs.[270] On 28 March 2016, a suicide attack by the Jamaat-ul-Ahrar at a park in Lahore killed 70 people on the evening of Easter Sunday.[271] Analysts believed that Sharif's desire to maintain stability in Punjab led him to turn a blind eye towards groups operating in Punjab. Following the attack Pakistan rounded up more than 5,000 suspects and arresting 216 people.[272]

The 38 federal justices are elected by the United Federal Assembly. The Federal Supreme Court is composed of seven divisions, with five or six justices each. The tasks of the divisions differ according to the legal domains they cover (public law, private law, criminal

A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India,[16] Pakistan, and Bangladesh, have enacted an anti-defection law, which prohibits a member of the legislature from switching to another party after being elected. With this law, elected representatives lose their seats in parliament if they vote contrary to the directions of their party.


Question: Where do we set the boundary between painting and drawing?

Drawing, a fundamental form of visual art expression, primarily focuses on creating lines and tones on paper or other surfaces. Historically, drawings were often monochrome, but contemporary colored-pencil techniques can blur the lines between drawing and painting. In Western art, drawing is traditionally distinguished from painting, though they often use similar tools and materials. For instance, dry media like chalk, typically used for drawing, can also be found in pastel paintings. Conversely, liquid media applied with brushes or pens can be used for drawing. Both disciplines can share the same supports, with painting often involving the application of liquid paint onto canvas or panels, occasionally preceded by a preparatory drawing on the same surface.

The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short a was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. (See below.)

In the most traditional sense, allusion is a literary term, though the word has also come to encompass indirect references to any source, including allusions in film or the visual arts.[7] In literature, allusions are used to link concepts that the reader already has knowledge of, with concepts discussed in the story. In the field of film criticism, a film-maker's intentionally unspoken visual reference to another film is also called an homage. It may even be sensed that real events have allusive overtones, when a previous event is inescapably recalled by a current one. "Allusion is bound up with a vital and perennial topic in literary theory, the place of authorial intention in interpretation", William Irwin observed, in asking "What is an allusion?"[8]

As the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (firstly Catholic, then Protestant as well) churches spread their influence, the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving. Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome. Beginning in the Middle Ages religious cultural hegemony slowly waned in Europe generally. This process may have prompted the geographic line of religious division to approximately follow a line of cultural divide.

The term is not strictly defined, though Merriam-Webster's full dictionary definition is "a fictional story that is presented in comic-strip format and published as a book", while its simplest definition is given as "cartoon drawings that tell a story and are published as a book".[4] In the publishing trade, the term extends to material that would not be considered a novel if produced in another medium.[citation needed] Collections of comic books that do not form a continuous story, anthologies or collections of loosely related pieces, and even non-fiction are stocked by libraries and bookstores as "graphic novels" (similar to the manner in which dramatic stories are included in "comic" books).[citation needed] The term is also sometimes used to distinguish between works created as standalone stories, in contrast to collections or compilations of a story arc from a comic book series published in book form.[5][6][7]

The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is "contemporary art". Not all art labeled as contemporary art is postmodern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modernist and late modernist traditions, as well as artists who reject postmodernism for other reasons. Arthur Danto argues "contemporary" is the broader term, and postmodern objects represent a "subsector" of the contemporary movement.[3] Some postmodern artists have made more distinctive breaks from the ideas of modern art and there is no consensus as to what is "late-modern" and what is "post-modern." Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have been re-established. In painting, postmodernism reintroduced representation.[4] Some critics argue much of the current "postmodern" art, the latest avant-gardism, should still classify as modern art.[5]

The idealized ruler, known as a straightedge, is assumed to be infinite in length, and has no markings on it with only one edge. The compass is assumed to "collapse" when lifted from the page, so may not be directly used to transfer distances. (This is an unimportant restriction since, using a multi-step procedure, a distance can be transferred even with collapsing compass; see compass equivalence theorem.) More formally, the only permissible constructions are those granted by Euclid's first three postulates.

Mithila painting is also called Madhubani art. It mostly depicts human beings and their association with nature. Common scenes illustrate deities like Krishna, Ram, Shiva, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati from ancient epics. Natural objects like the sun, moon, and religious plants like tulsi are also widely painted, along with scenes from the royal court and social events like weddings. Generally no space is left empty.[109]

Stated this way, straightedge and compass constructions appear to be a parlour game, rather than a serious practical problem; but the purpose of the restriction is to ensure that constructions can be proven to be exactly correct.

Not all views are necessarily used.[5] Generally only as many views are used as are necessary to convey all needed information clearly and economically.[6] The front, top, and right-side views are commonly considered the core group of views included by default,[7] but any combination of views may be used depending on the needs of the particular design. In addition to the six principal views (front, back, top, bottom, right side, left side), any auxiliary views or sections may be included as serve the purposes of part definition and its communication. View lines or section lines (lines with arrows marked "A-A", "B-B", etc.) define the direction and location of viewing or sectioning. Sometimes a note tells the reader in which zone(s) of the drawing to find the view or section.

An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items.


Question: Where is the protein synthesized within the cell?

Protein synthesis
The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription, which takes place in the cell nucleus. Here, the DNA, composed of two helical strands held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, is "unzipped" by the enzyme helicase. This exposes the single nucleotide chain for copying by RNA polymerase, which reads the DNA from the 3' end to the 5' end, synthesizing a single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) in the opposite direction. The resulting mRNA, with a structure similar to DNA but containing uracil instead of thymine, exits the nucleus through nuclear pores and enters the cytoplasm.

There are many proteins like FGF1 (aFGF), FGF2 (bFGF), interleukin-1 (IL1) etc. which do not have a signal sequence. They do not use the classical ER-golgi pathway. These are secreted through various nonclassical pathways.

Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport. Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic mRNAs must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasmâ€”a process that may be regulated by different signaling pathways.[2] Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore by binding to the cap-binding proteins CBP20 and CBP80,[3] as well as the transcription/export complex (TREX).[4][5] Multiple mRNA export pathways have been identified in eukaryotes.[6]

Red blood cells in mammals are unique amongst vertebrates as they do not have nuclei when mature. Red blood cells of mammals cells have nuclei during early phases of erythropoiesis, but extrude them during development as they mature in order to provide more space for hemoglobin. The red blood cells without nuclei, called reticulocytes, go on to lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.

Inside eukaryotic cells, there is a balance between the processes of translation and mRNA decay. Messages that are being actively translated are bound by ribosomes, the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-4G, and poly(A)-binding protein. eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme (DCP2), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the exosome complex, protecting the ends of the message. The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of cytoplasmic structures known as P-bodies[23] The poly(A) tail of the mRNA is shortened by specialized exonucleases that are targeted to specific messenger RNAs by a combination of cis-regulatory sequences on the RNA and trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Poly(A) tail removal is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the cap binding complex. The message is then subject to degradation by either the exosome complex or the decapping complex. In this way, translationally inactive messages can be destroyed quickly, while active messages remain intact. The mechanism by which translation stops and the message is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail.

At least four nonclassical (unconventional) protein secretion pathways have been described.[3] They include 1) direct translocation of proteins across the plasma membrane likely through membrane transporters, 2) blebbing, 3) lysosomal secretion, and 4) release via exosomes derived from multivesicular bodies. In addition, proteins can be released from cells by mechanical or physiological wounding[4] and through nonlethal, transient oncotic pores in the plasma membrane induced by washing cells with serum-free media or buffers.[5]

SREBF1 (sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1) is a transcription factor synthesized as an inactive precursor protein inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane by two membrane-spanning helices. Also anchored in the ER membrane is SCAP (SREBF-cleavage activating protein), which binds SREBF1. The SREBF1-SCAP complex is retained in the ER membrane by INSIG1 (insulin-induced gene 1 protein). When sterol levels are depleted, INSIG1 releases SCAP and the SREBF1-SCAP complex can be sorted into COPII-coated transport vesicles that are exported to the Golgi. In the Golgi, SREBF1 is cleaved and released as a transcriptionally active mature protein. It is then free to translocate to the nucleus and activate the expression of its target genes.

The delay between growth phases reflects the time needed to produce sufficient quantities of lactose-metabolizing enzymes. First, the CAP regulatory protein has to assemble on the lac promoter, resulting in an increase in the production of lac mRNA. More available copies of the lac mRNA results in the production (see translation) of significantly more copies of LacZ (Î²-galactosidase, for lactose metabolism) and LacY (lactose permease to transport lactose into the cell). After a delay needed to increase the level of the lactose metabolizing enzymes, the bacteria enter into a new rapid phase of cell growth.

Secretion is not unique to eukaryotes alone, it is present in bacteria and archaea as well. ATP binding cassette (ABC) type transporters are common to all the three domains of life. The Sec system constituting the Sec Y-E-G complex (see Type II secretion system (T2SS), below) is another conserved secretion system, homologous to the translocon in the eukaryotic endoplasmic reticulum and the Sec 61 translocon complex of yeast. Some secreted proteins are translocated across the cytoplasmic membrane by the Sec translocon, which requires the presence of an N-terminal signal peptide on the secreted protein. Others are translocated across the cytoplasmic membrane by the twin-arginine translocation pathway (Tat). Gram negative bacteria have two membranes, thus making secretion topologically more complex. There are at least six specialized secretion systems in Gram negative bacteria. Many secreted proteins are particularly important in bacterial pathogenesis.[6]

Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.

Fertilization (also known as 'conception', 'fecundation' and 'syngamy') is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism. In animals, the process involves a sperm fusing with an ovum, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo. Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female in internal fertilisation, or outside in the case of external fertilisation. The fertilized egg cell is known as the zygote.


Question: What were the technological advancements during the Old Stone Age?

During the Old Stone Age, significant technological advancements were made, primarily in the use of stone and other materials. Flint and chert were skillfully chipped to create cutting tools and weapons, while basalt and sandstone were utilized for ground stone tools like quern-stones. Other materials, including wood, bone, shell, and antler, were also extensively used. In the later stages of this era, sediments like clay were employed to craft pottery, marking a notable development. Additionally, the advent of agriculture and the domestication of certain animals further showcased the innovative capabilities of this period.

Dereaze, located in the city of Ibri, is the oldest known human settlement in the area, dating back as many as 8,000 years to the Late Stone Age.[15] Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. Findings have included stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths, with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-molded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools and scrapers.

In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian temples were massive structures of crude brick which were supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the relief, there was greater use of three-dimensional figuresâ€”the earliest examples being the Statues of Gudea, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.[21]

During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine. All of today's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher-yielding varieties took place, possibly unknowingly, over hundreds to thousands of years. Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet: rice in East Asia, wheat and barley in the Middle east, and maize in Central and South America. By Greco-Roman times popular food plants of today, including grapes, apples, figs, and olives, were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts.[5] Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that "cultivated plants are mankind's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity".[6]

New products and services were introduced which greatly increased international trade. Improvements in steam engine design and the wide availability of cheap steel meant that slow, sailing ships were replaced with faster steamship, which could handle more trade with smaller crews. The chemical industries also moved to the forefront. Britain invested less in technological research than the U.S. and Germany, which caught up.

Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmecs probably also practiced swidden (or slash-and-burn) agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted.[90] Fields were located outside the village, and were used for maize, beans, squash, manioc, and sweet potato. Based on archaeological studies of two villages in the Tuxtlas Mountains, it is known that maize cultivation became increasingly important to the Olmec over time, although the diet remained fairly diverse.[91]

Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like the Maya. Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).[citation needed]

Inventions which made their first appearance in China after the Neolithic age, specifically during and after the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600â€“1050 BC), are listed in alphabetical order below.

The condition and placement of the remains of the Cro-Magnon 1 specimen, along with pieces of shell and animal teeth in what appear to have been pendants or necklaces, raises the question of whether it was buried intentionally. If Cro-Magnons buried their dead intentionally, it suggests they had a knowledge of ritual, by burying their dead with necklaces and tools, or an idea of disease and that the bodies needed to be contained.[21]

Society in 8th century Scandinavia was, unlike parts of the British Isles, still pre-literate, existing in the final stages of European prehistory, known to archaeologists as the Iron Age. In Scandinavia, the 8th century proved to be "a period of rapid technological, economic and social development" which would lead the region out of the Iron Age and into what has come to be known as the Viking Age.[11]

The cave became habitable at 10,600 B.P. due to the water tables dropping and flushing river sediment that once filled and buried the cave between 17,000 and 15,000 B.P.[2] The site represents five cultural components. These are Quad/Beaver Lake/Dalton (10,650-9200 cal B.C.), Early Side-Notched (10,000-9000 cal B.C.), Kirk Stemmed (8200-5800 cal B.C.), Eva/Morrow Mountain (6400-4000 cal B.C.), and Benton (4500-3600 cal B.C.).[3] The stratigraphic profile of the cave is made up of zones labeled A through Y. A is considered the youngest and Y, determined to have been from the Pleistocene, the oldest.[2]


Question: Where was the "A Time for Choosing" speech given?

"A Time for Choosing" speech
Contrary to popular belief, Ronald Reagan's "A Time for Choosing" speech was not delivered at the 1964 Republican National Convention in San Francisco, California, as a nomination speech for presidential candidate Senator Barry Goldwater. Instead, Richard Nixon gave that nomination speech. Reagan first used "A Time for Choosing" on October 27, 1964, as part of a pre-recorded television program called "Rendezvous with Destiny." According to his autobiography, An American Life, Reagan went to bed that night hoping he hadn't let Barry Goldwater down. The speech was not given at the convention but was rather a part of Reagan's campaign efforts for Goldwater.

In the 1913 session, Coolidge enjoyed renowned success in arduously navigating to passage the Western Trolley Act which connected Northampton with a dozen similar industrial communities in western Massachusetts.[34] Coolidge intended to retire after his second term as was the custom, but when the President of the State Senate, Levi H. Greenwood, considered running for Lieutenant Governor, Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer.[35] Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate, he was defeated primarily due to his opposition to women's suffrage; Coolidge was in favor of the women's vote, won his own re-election and with Crane's help, assumed the presidency of a closely divided Senate.[36] After his election in January 1914, Coolidge delivered a published and frequently quoted speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts, which summarized his philosophy of government.[33]

The SCLC announced the campaign on December 4, 1967. King delivered a speech which identified "a kind of social insanity which could lead to national ruin."[23] In January 1968, the SCLC created and distributed an "Economic Fact Sheet" with statistics explaining why the campaign was necessary.[24] King avoided providing specific details about the campaign and attempted to redirect media attention to the values at stake.[25] The Poor People’s Campaign held firm to the movement’s commitment to non-violence. “We are custodians of the philosophy of non-violence,” said King at a press conference. “And it has worked”.[9] King originally wanted the Poor People's Campaign to start in Quitman County, Mississippi because of the intense and visible economic disparity there.[26]

By early October 1971, bootleg recordings of the concerts were available in New York,[14] potentially denying funds to the refugees.[15] On 23 November, Harrison's exasperation with the situation saw him raging against Capitol president Bhaskar Menon during a late-night television interview with Dick Cavett, and threatening to take the album to a rival label.[16][17] Menon then backed down,[12] ceding much of the distribution rights to Columbia/CBS,[18] whose artist Bob Dylan had made a successful comeback at the Concert for Bangladesh.[19] Further delaying the release until well into December, wholesalers objected to Apple's financial terms,[15] which ensured that wholesalers and retailers could make little profit on each copy shipped.[19] Ignoring the spirit behind the release, author Peter Lavezzoli writes, some US retailers "engaged in shameless price gouging".[20]

The final passage from King's speech closely resembles Archibald Carey Jr.'s address to the 1952 Republican National Convention: both speeches end with a recitation of the first verse of "America", and the speeches share the name of one of several mountains from which both exhort "let freedom ring".[9][30]

By 1941, Barnes was convinced he could never make money in St. Louis. After interests in Los Angeles approached him about buying a stake in the team, he asked AL owners for permission to move there for the 1942 season. Los Angeles was already the third-largest city in the United States, and was larger than any major-league city except New York and Chicago. They got tentative approval from the league, which went as far as to draw up a schedule accounting for transcontinental train trips, though the Browns suggested that teams could travel by plane, a new concept at the time. The deal was slated to receive final approval at a league meeting on December 8. In a case of disastrous timing, the attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7. After league officials expressed concerns that travel restrictions would be too stringent for a prospective Los Angeles-based team to be viable, the Browns' proposal was unanimously rejected.[4][5]

A few months earlier, in November 1967, Westmoreland had spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support.[203] In a speech before the National Press Club he had said a point in the war had been reached "where the end comes into view."[204] Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet.[203] The American media, which had until then been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, turned on the Johnson administration for what had become an increasing credibility gap.

Because King's speech was broadcast to a large radio and television audience, there was controversy about its copyright status. If the performance of the speech constituted "general publication", it would have entered the public domain due to King's failure to register the speech with the Register of Copyrights. However, if the performance only constituted "limited publication", King retained common law copyright. This led to a lawsuit, Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc., which established that the King estate does hold copyright over the speech and had standing to sue; the parties then settled. Unlicensed use of the speech or a part of it can still be lawful in some circumstances, especially in jurisdictions under doctrines such as fair use or fair dealing. Under the applicable copyright laws, the speech will remain under copyright in the United States until 70 years after King's death, therefore until 2038.[59]

In 2003, he headlined the White House Correspondents Dinner in Washington, D.C., attended by President George W. Bush, Laura Bush, Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice.[37] Also in 2003, Charles presented Van Morrison with Morrison's award upon being inducted in the Songwriters Hall of Fame, and the two sang Morrison's song "Crazy Love" (the performance appears on Morrison's 2007 album The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3). In 2003, Charles performed "Georgia on My Mind" and "America the Beautiful" at a televised annual banquet of electronic media journalists held in Washington, D.C. His final public appearance was on April 30, 2004, at the dedication of his music studio as a historic landmark in Los Angeles.[17]

Greenspan, because of his position as the Fed chairman, was not at liberty to accept the $10,000 honorarium, the $15,000 sculpture, nor the crystal trophy, but only accepted the "honor" of being named an Enron Prize recipient.[65] The situation was further complicated because a few days earlier, Enron had filed paperwork admitting it had falsified financial statements for five years.[66] Greenspan did not mention Enron a single time during his speech.[67] At the ceremony, Ken Lay stated, "I'm looking forward to our first woman recipient."[68] The next morning, it was reported in the Houston Chronicle that no decision had been made on whether the name of the prize would be changed.[69] 19 days after the prize was awarded to Greenspan, Enron declared bankruptcy.[70]

On August 13, they rode in parades in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.[73][74] On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official State Dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel.[74] President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro T. Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.[74] This celebration was the beginning of a 45-day "Giant Leap" tour that brought the astronauts to 25 foreign countries and included visits with prominent leaders such as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Many nations honored the first manned Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.[75][76]


Question: What was the purpose of revival meetings during the Second Great Awakening?

The revival meetings during the Second Great Awakening aimed to enroll new members into existing evangelical denominations and contributed to the formation of new ones. These revivals fueled a sense of anticipation for a new millennial age among the converts. Additionally, the Second Great Awakening spurred the creation of various reform movements intended to address societal ills in preparation for the expected Second Coming of Jesus Christ.

According to the historian James M. McPherson, exceptionalism applied not to the South but to the North after the North ended slavery and launched an industrial revolution that led to urbanization, which in turn led to increased education, which in its own turn gave ever-increasing strength to various reform movements but especially abolitionism. The fact that seven immigrants out of eight settled in the North (and the fact that most immigrants viewed slavery with disfavor), compounded by the fact that twice as many whites left the South for the North as vice versa, contributed to the South’s defensive-aggressive political behavior. The Charleston Mercury read that on the issue of slavery the North and South “are not only two Peoples, but they are rival, hostile Peoples.”[48] As De Bow's Review said, "We are resisting revolution.... We are not engaged in a Quixotic fight for the rights of man.... We are conservative."[48]

In the twentieth century there was a revival of interest in the text. Critic David Carlson suggests that it was "Not aesthetics, but the politics of nationalism appears to have been the primary force behind Crevecoeur's critical resurrection"—the Letters being among the first works to depict an American "melting pot".[34] Letters, particularly Letter III ("What is an American?"), is frequently anthologized, and the work is recognized as being one of the first in the canon of American literature.[35][36][37]

As Methodist societies multiplied, and elements of an ecclesiastical system were, one after another, adopted, the breach between John Wesley and the Church of England gradually widened. In 1784, Wesley responded to the shortage of priests in the American colonies due to the American Revolutionary War by ordaining preachers for America with power to administer the sacraments.[30] This was a major reason for Methodism's final split from the Church of England after Wesley's death. This split created a separate, eventually worldwide, group of church denominations. With regard to the position of Methodism within Christendom, "John Wesley once noted that what God had achieved in the development of Methodism was no mere human endeavor but the work of God. As such it would be preserved by God so long as history remained."[31]

With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages—Spanish, English, and French—it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non Spanish families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Scotland, also immigrated to the island.[62]

The new United States saw a newspaper boom beginning with the Revolutionary era, accelerated by spirited debates over the establishment of a new government, spurred on by subsidies contained in the 1792 Postal Service Act, and continuing into the 1800s.[94][95] American newspapers got many of their stories by copying reports from each other. Thus by offering free postage to newspapers wishing to exchange copies, the Postal Service Act subsidized a rapidly growing news network through which different stories could percolate.[96] Newspapers thrived during the colonization of the West, fueled by high literacy and a newspaper-loving culture.[97] By 1880, San Francisco rivaled New York in number of different newspapers and in printed newspaper copies per capita.[98] Boosters of new towns felt that newspapers covering local events brought legitimacy, recognition, and community.[99] The 1830s American, wrote Alexis de Tocqueville, was "a very civilized man prepared for a time to face life in the forest, plunging into the wilderness of the New World with his Bible, ax, and newspapers."[100] In France, the Revolution brought forth an abundance of newspapers and a new climate of press freedom, followed by a return to repression under Napoleon.[101] In 1792 the Revolutionaries set up a news ministry called the Bureau d'Esprit.[102]

A revival of the play by British director Stephen Daldry opened at the National Theatre's Lyttelton Theatre in September 1992. It won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Play, and was widely praised for making the work involving and politically relevant for a modern audience. The production is often credited with single-handedly rediscovering Priestley's works and "rescuing" him from the reputation of being obsolete and class-bound, though the production had some detractors, including Sheridan Morley[9] who regarded it as a gimmicky travesty of the author's patent intentions. The success of the production since 1992 has led to a critical reappraisal of Priestley as a politically engaged playwright who offered a sustained critique of the hypocrisy of English society. A Broadway transfer of the production starring Philip Bosco opened at the Royale Theatre (now the Bernard Jacobs Theatre) on 27 April 1994 and played 454 performances.[10]

The concept of republican motherhood was inspired by this period and reflects the importance of Republicanism as the dominant American ideology. It assumed that a successful republic rested upon the virtue of its citizens. Women were considered to have the essential role of instilling their children with values conducive to a healthy republic. During this period, the wife's relationship with her husband also became more liberal, as love and affection instead of obedience and subservience began to characterize the ideal marital relationship. In addition, many women contributed to the war effort through fundraising and running family businesses in the absence of husbands.

Stewart objected for the prosecution, demanding to know the legal purpose of Darrow's questioning. Bryan, gauging the effect the session was having, snapped that its purpose was "to cast ridicule on everybody who believes in the Bible". Darrow, with equal vehemence, retorted, "We have the purpose of preventing bigots and ignoramuses from controlling the education of the United States."[37]

The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution,[1] was a phase of rapid industrialization in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the early to mid 1800s, was punctuated by a slowdown in macroinventions[clarification needed] before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its characteristic events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts and the invention of the Bessemer Process to produce steel, the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 up to the start of World War I.[2]

The Sussex coast was greatly modified by the social movement of sea bathing for health which became fashionable among the wealthy in the second half of the 18th century.[46] Resorts developed all along the coast, including at Brighton, Hastings, Worthing, and Bognor.[46] At the beginning of the 19th century, agricultural labourers' conditions took a turn for the worse with an increasing amount of them becoming unemployed, those in work faced their wages being forced down.[47] Conditions became so bad that it was even reported to the House of Lords in 1830 that four harvest labourers (seasonal workers) had been found dead of starvation.[47] The deteriorating conditions of work for the agricultural labourer eventually triggered riots, first in neighbouring Kent, and then in Sussex, where they lasted for several weeks, although the unrest continued until 1832 and became known as the Swing Riots.[47][48]