Question: How many lines of symmetry does an equilateral triangle have?

An equilateral triangle exhibits the highest degree of symmetry among triangles, featuring 3 lines of reflectional symmetry and a rotational symmetry of order 3 around its center. Its symmetry group is characterized as the dihedral group D3, which consists of 6 elements.

Triangles are sturdy; while a rectangle can collapse into a parallelogram from pressure to one of its points, triangles have a natural strength which supports structures against lateral pressures. A triangle will not change shape unless its sides are bent or extended or broken or if its joints break; in essence, each of the three sides supports the other two. A rectangle, in contrast, is more dependent on the strength of its joints in a structural sense. Some innovative designers have proposed making bricks not out of rectangles, but with triangular shapes which can be combined in three dimensions.[43] It is likely that triangles will be used increasingly in new ways as architecture increases in complexity. It is important to remember that triangles are strong in terms of rigidity, but while packed in a tessellating arrangement triangles are not as strong as hexagons under compression (hence the prevalence of hexagonal forms in nature). Tessellated triangles still maintain superior strength for cantilevering however, and this is the basis for one of the strongest man made structures, the tetrahedral truss.

where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Euler's polyhedron formula. Thus the number of edges is 2 less than the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces. For example, a cube has 8 vertices and 6 faces, and hence 12 edges.

Rectangles have been the most popular and common geometric form for buildings since the shape is easy to stack and organize; as a standard, it is easy to design furniture and fixtures to fit inside rectangularly shaped buildings. But triangles, while more difficult to use conceptually, provide a great deal of strength. As computer technology helps architects design creative new buildings, triangular shapes are becoming increasingly prevalent as parts of buildings and as the primary shape for some types of skyscrapers as well as building materials. In Tokyo in 1989, architects had wondered whether it was possible to build a 500-story tower to provide affordable office space for this densely packed city, but with the danger to buildings from earthquakes, architects considered that a triangular shape would have been necessary if such a building was ever to have been built (it hasn't by 2011).[37]

While the measures of the internal angles in planar triangles always sum to 180°, a hyperbolic triangle has measures of angles that sum to less than 180°, and a spherical triangle has measures of angles that sum to more than 180°. A hyperbolic triangle can be obtained by drawing on a negatively curved surface, such as a saddle surface, and a spherical triangle can be obtained by drawing on a positively curved surface such as a sphere. Thus, if one draws a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one will find that the sum of the measures of its angles is greater than 180°; in fact it will be between 180° and 540°.[36] In particular it is possible to draw a triangle on a sphere such that the measure of each of its internal angles is equal to 90°, adding up to a total of 270°.

Two triangles are said to be similar if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle. The corresponding sides of similar triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion, and this property is also sufficient to establish similarity.

Denoting the common length of the sides of the equilateral triangle as a, we can determine using the Pythagorean theorem that:

In the first case, it would not be correct to say that A's being a triangle caused it to have three sides, since the relationship between triangularity and three-sidedness is that of definition. The property of having three sides actually determines A's state as a triangle. Nonetheless, even when interpreted counterfactually, the first statement is true. An early version of Aristotle's "four cause" theory is described as recognizing "essential cause". In this version of the theory, that the closed polygon has three sides is said to be the "essential cause" of its being a triangle.[18] This use of the word 'cause' is of course now far obsolete. Nevertheless, it is within the scope of ordinary language to say that it is essential to a triangle that it has three sides.

In New York City, as Broadway crisscrosses major avenues, the resulting blocks are cut like triangles, and buildings have been built on these shapes; one such building is the triangularly shaped Flatiron Building which real estate people admit has a "warren of awkward spaces that do not easily accommodate modern office furniture" but that has not prevented the structure from becoming a landmark icon.[38] Designers have made houses in Norway using triangular themes.[39] Triangle shapes have appeared in churches[40] as well as public buildings including colleges[41] as well as supports for innovative home designs.[42]

The trigonometric functions for acute angles can be defined as ratios of the sides of a right triangle. For a given angle, a right triangle may be constructed with this angle, and the sides labeled opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse with reference to this angle according to the definitions above. These ratios of the sides do not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, but only on the given angle, since all triangles constructed this way are similar. If, for a given angle Î±, the opposite side, adjacent side and hypotenuse are labeled O, A and H respectively, then the trigonometric functions are

Rowson writes that "in general one would assume that whatever advantage White has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions."[133] Accordingly, Watson, Suba, Evans, and the eminent player and theorist Aron Nimzowitsch (1886â€“1935) have all argued that it is in Black's interest to avoid symmetry.[134][135][136][137] Nonetheless, even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the tenuous nature of White's advantage, in several respects.


Question: How many seasons of "The OC" have been produced?

The fourth and last season of The O.C., an American teen drama TV series, was broadcast in the U.S. from November 2, 2006, to February 22, 2007, and comprised sixteen episodes. The O.C.'s ultimate season aired on Thursdays at 9:00 p.m. ET in the U.S. on Fox, a terrestrial TV network. Fox tried a new timeslot by airing the second episode on Wednesday at 9:00 p.m. ET against ABC's Lost and CBS's Criminal Minds. With Lost about to take a three-month break, Fox hoped that changing the timeslot for The O.C. would bring back viewers it had lost since the end of the last season; however, this strategy was unsuccessful, and the show returned to its Thursday timeslot. There are four seasons of The O.C. in total.

ABC signed a new contract to keep the show on through a ninth season, even though the show had yet to enter its seventh season (2001–2002) at that time. The season saw one of the show's biggest drops in ratings, finishing 57th with an average rating of 5.9, a significant drop of 28.3% from the sixth season. The show finished its eighth season (2002–2003) season 119th with an average rating of 3.29, a drop of 44.23 percent from the seventh season. This caused ABC to put the series on hiatus, airing the rest of the season in the summer of 2003. Unable to get out of the contract, ABC was forced to allow the show to film a ninth season, paying three million dollars per episode. Not doing well enough to receive a time slot on ABC's fall schedule in 2003, the show had its ninth and final season burned off during the summer of 2004. The series finale was viewed by a little over 5 million viewers.[citation needed]

PAW Patrol is a Spin Master Entertainment production for TVOKids and Nickelodeon, with animation provided by Guru Studio. As of February 2018, five seasons of the series have been produced. Additionally, Spin Master has confirmed that the sixth season is in development.[1]

In March 2014, the show was renewed for three more years through a tenth season, which premiered on September 19, 2016.[1][2] In March 2017, CBS announced that the series was renewed for two more years, leading the show to a total of 12 seasons.[3] The eleventh season premiered on September 25, 2017.[4] As of October 23, 2017,[update] 236 episodes of The Big Bang TheoryÂ have aired. There was also an unaired pilot which CBS did not broadcast.

The series was originally narrated by Lauren Conrad as she completed her senior year of high school. It additionally placed emphasis on her classmates Lo Bosworth, Stephen Colletti, Morgan Olsen, Trey Phillips, Christina Schuller, and juniors Kristin Cavallari and Talan Torriero. The second season was narrated by Cavallari, and saw the additions of Taylor Cole, Alex Murrel, Jessica Smith, and Jason Wahler. Upon its conclusion, all cast members departed from the series and were replaced by a group of current students. The third season was narrated by Tessa Keller, and also showcased Cameron Brinkman, Breanna Conrad, Lexie Contursi, Raquel Donatelli, Cami Edwards, Kelan Hurley, Chase Johnson, and Kyndra Mayo.

On October 14, 2015, it was announced that production on the first season had been finished.[3] On November 20, 2015, a second season was announced.[4] On January 5, 2017, series co-creator and executive producer Devin Bunje, and various members of the cast, announced on social media that the series had been canceled.[2][5]

Each episode of the series is called a "chapter" in line with the show's overarching story, numbered from 1 to 52 across both seasons.[10]

Paris Barclay joined Sons of Anarchy as an executive producer in the fourth season, after directing episodes in the first and second season. In addition to serving as Executive Producer in the fourth, fifth, and sixth seasons, Barclay directed three episodes each season, including the season 4 and 5 premieres, the top two highest-rated telecasts in the history of FX.[5]

Since its founding, Fox has surpassed ABC and NBC in the ratings during the early primetime hours in which it competes against the longer established networks, becoming the second most-watched network behind CBS during the 2000s. During the 2007-08 season, Fox was the highest-rated of the major broadcast networks (as well as the first non-Big Three network to reach first place), but lost the spot in the 2008-09 season and dropped to a close second. From 2004 to 2012, Fox also dominated U.S. television in the lucrative and viewer-rich 18-49 demographics, in large part due to the success of its NFL coverage and its top rated prime time program, American Idol. Given the network's success in its prime time and sports offerings, it has been occasionally included with the Big Three, in which case the phrase "Big Four" is used.

The final season saw a number of changes, including an episode count of 39, which had become the industry standard. Wrather invested money from his own pocket to film in color, although ABC telecast only in black and white. Wrather also went outdoors for action footage. Otherwise, the series was mostly filmed on a studio sound stage. Another big change, not readily detectable by the viewers, was replacing Jack Chertok with producer Sherman A. Harris. By this time, Chertok had established his own television production company and was busy producing other programs.

"The Truth" is the collective name for the 201st and 202nd episodes of the American science fiction television series The X-Files. The last episodes of the show's ninth season, "The Truth" originally served as the finale for the entire series, until the return of the series in January 2016. First aired together on the Fox network on MayÂ 19, 2002, the episodes were written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners. "The Truth" was the most-watched episode of the ninth season and was seen by 13.25 million viewers upon its initial broadcast. The finale received mixed reviews, with many commentators criticizing the episode's lack of closure. Others were pleased with the full return of actor David Duchovny to the series, as well as the episode's conclusion.


Question: What is the latest season of "Keeping Up with the Kardashians"?

As of December 10, 2017, a total of 205 original episodes from fourteen seasons of Keeping Up with the Kardashians have been broadcast, marking the conclusion of the latest season available at that time.

In August 2016, the series was renewed for a 16-episode seventh season,[3] which premiered on July 12, 2017.[4]

Rumer Glenn Willis (born August 16, 1988)[1] is an American actress and singer. She is the oldest daughter of actors Bruce Willis and Demi Moore. Willis won season 20 of Dancing with the Stars. She went on to make her Broadway debut in Chicago as Roxie Hart on September 21, 2015. She currently has a recurring role in season 3 of FOX musical-drama Empire.

ABC renewed Grey's Anatomy for a fourth season, which aired from September 27, 2007 to May 22, 2008, and ultimately consisted of seventeen episodes.[322][323] The fourth season had a reduced number of episodes, due to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, which caused production to cease from February to April, leaving the show with no writing staff during that time.[324] At the beginning of the fourth season, the show aired its final special entitled "Come Rain or Shine", created to transition viewers from Grey's Anatomy to Private Practice, which was narrated by the editors of People magazine.[325] The show received a renewal for a fifth season,[326] which premiered on September 25, 2008 and concluded on May 14, 2009, consisting of twenty-four episodes.[327] The series was renewed for a sixth season consisting of twenty-four episodes,[328] which commenced on September 24, 2009 and ended on May 20, 2010.[329] During its sixth season, Grey's Anatomy aired a series of webisodes entitled Seattle Grace: On Call at ABC.com.[330] ABC renewed the show for a seventh season,[331] which premiered on September 23, 2010 and concluded on May 19, 2011, consisting of twenty-two episodes.[332] This was followed up with Seattle Grace: On Call, Seattle Grace: Message of Hope, aired during the beginning of the seventh season.[20] Also during the seventh season, the series produced a musical episode entitled "Song Beneath the Song", featuring songs that became famous through their use in Grey's Anatomy.[333] The show received a twenty-four episode eighth season renewal,[334] which commenced on September 22, 2011 with a two-hour episode, and ended on May 17, 2012.[335] Grey's Anatomy was renewed for a ninth season,[336] which premiered on September 27, 2012 and ended on May 16, 2013.[337] Grey's Anatomy was renewed for a tenth season on May 10, 2013[338] and premiered on September 27, 2013 with a two-hour episode, and ended on May 15, 2014.

The sixth season of The Real Housewives of Atlanta received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics. Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Andrew Asare commented that "we're in for quite a season [of] divorce, strained relationships, and tested marriages and friendships" after the premiere episode.[7] Danielle Henderson from Vulture stated that "it's the first episode of the season and I'm already riveted".[8] Lauren Weigle from Heavy stated that "Kenya continues to twirl, Porsha gets wild in the club, Peter's club 'Bar One' goes under, Apollo and Phaedra have marital issues, Kandi and her mother are at odds over Kandi's wedding, and more. Kandi's mother accuses Kandi's fiance of having an affair with Kandi's friend. Nene calls Porsha a bad friend. Somehow Porsha ends up in the hospital. Fist fights ensue," and summarized her review by acknowledging that "this season is going to be crazy."[9] However, Jodi Walker from Entertainment Weekly later criticized the series for insisting its disapproval of violence, despite its widespread promotion of the fight between Williams and Moore and ultimate decision to broadcast the altercation.[10] In April 2014, Bravo renewed The Real Housewives of Atlanta for a seventh season, and additionally announced the spin-off series The Real Housewives of Atlanta: Kandi's Wedding.[11]

Ink Master: Return of the Masters is the tenth season of the tattoo reality competition Ink Master that premiered on January 9 at 10/9c and concluded on April 24, 2018 with 16 episodes. The first two episodes of the season marked the series' last to air on Spike prior to the network's transition to Paramount Network nine days later on January 18. Despite this, the remaining episodes continued to air on the new channel. Host Dave Navarro returned alongside co-judges Oliver Peck and Chris Nunez.

The fourth season of the British-American animated television series The Amazing World of Gumball, created by Ben Bocquelet, aired on Cartoon Network in the United States. The series focuses on the misadventures of Gumball Watterson, a blue 12-year-old cat, along with his adopted brother, Darwin, a goldfish. Together, they cause mischief among their family, as well as with the wide array of students at Elmore Junior High, where they attend middle school. The series began filming on January 6, 2015 and ended filming on April 28, 2016.

Mike Tyson Mysteries is an American adult animated television series, and the first to be produced by Warner Bros. Animation for Adult Swim. It premiered October 27, 2014.[3] The series features Mike Tyson solving mysteries, in the style of I Am the Greatest: The Adventures of Muhammad Ali, Scooby-Doo!, Jonny Quest, and Mr. T.[4] On December 10, 2014, Adult Swim renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on November 1, 2015. A third season premiered on May 14, 2017[5], and the remaining Season 3 episodes aired from March 4, 2018 to May 13, 2018[6][7]

In March 2014, the show was renewed for three more years through a tenth season, which premiered on September 19, 2016.[1][2] In March 2017, CBS announced that the series was renewed for two more years, leading the show to a total of 12 seasons.[3] The eleventh season premiered on September 25, 2017.[4] As of October 23, 2017,[update] 236 episodes of The Big Bang TheoryÂ have aired. There was also an unaired pilot which CBS did not broadcast.

As of May 24, 2017,[update] 58 episodes of The 100 have aired, concluding the fourth season. In March 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season, set to premiere on April 24, 2018.[7][8]

Season 4 premiered on July 21, 2013.[23] It chronicles the family as they move into four adjacent houses within the same neighborhood. The wives are still working on starting their jewelry business. Meri comes to a decision following Robyn's offer to be her surrogate.


Question: How does the poet present death as a journey in "Crossing the Bar"?

In "Crossing the Bar," the poet portrays death as a peaceful and secure journey, akin to crossing a sandbar at the mouth of a river. The metaphor of the Pilot symbolizes God, whom the speaker anticipates encountering after passing through the veil of death. Tennyson clarifies that the Pilot has been present and guiding the speaker throughout life, representing the unseen divine force that steers us through our mortal existence.

Dale Allison, a Christian theologian, views these lyrics as a song-wide message where Harrison "mourns how few are working for a better world and paying homage to God".[39] Allison refutes the idea of any elitism or superiority in Harrison's compositions, suggesting: "George nowhere claims to have arrived [at his spiritual goal]; he is rather always a pilgrim, always on the road. In the words of 'The Day the World Gets 'Round,' he is one of those who has 'made a start,' nothing more."[40]

There at the foot of yonder nodding beech
That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high,
His listless length at noontide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.
Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn,
Mutt'ring his wayward fancies he would rove,
Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn,
Or craz'd with care, or cross'd in hopeless love.
One morn I miss'd him on the custom'd hill,
Along the heath and near his fav'rite tree;
Another came; nor yet beside the rill,
Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he;
The next with dirges due in sad array
Slow thro' the church-way path we saw him borne.
Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay,
Grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn." (lines 101â€“116)

Alice L. Cook and John B. Mason offer representative interpretations of the "self" as well as its importance in the poem. Cook writes that the key to understanding the poem lies in the "concept of self" (typified by Whitman) as "both individual and universal,"[8] while Mason discusses "the reader’s involvement in the poet’s movement from the singular to the cosmic".[9] The "self" serves as a human ideal; in contrast to the archetypal self in epic poetry, this self is one of the common people rather than a hero.[10] Nevertheless, Whitman locates heroism in every individual as an expression of the whole (the "leaf" among the "grass").

Endymion is a poem by John Keats first published in 1818. It begins with the line "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever". Endymion is written in rhyming couplets in iambic pentameter (also known as heroic couplets). Keats based the poem on the Greek myth of Endymion, the shepherd beloved by the moon goddess Selene. The poem elaborates on the original story and renames Selene "Cynthia" (an alternative name for Artemis).

On the difference between the obscure and the renowned in the poem, scholar David Cecil argued, "Death, he perceives, dwarfs human differences. There is not much to choose between the great and the humble, once they are in the grave. It may be that there never was; it may be that in the obscure graveyard lie those who but for circumstance would have been as famous as Milton and Hampden."[45] However, death is not completely democratic because "if circumstances prevented them from achieving great fame, circumstances also saved them from committing great crimes. Yet there is a special pathos in these obscure tombs; the crude inscriptions on the clumsy monuments are so poignant a reminder of the vain longing of all men, however humble, to be loved and to be remembered."[45]

The Elegy's continued influence in the 19th century provoked a response from the Romantic poets, who often attempted to define their own beliefs in reaction to Gray's.[59] Percy Bysshe Shelley, for example, who as a schoolboy was given the exercise of translating part of the Elegy into Latin, eventually wrote his own meditation among the graves in 1815. His "A Summer Evening Churchyard, Lechlade, Gloucestershire" is metrically more inventive and written in a six-line stanza that terminates Grayâ€™s cross-rhymed quatrain with a couplet. In theme and tendency Shelley's poem closely resembles the setting of the Elegy but concludes that there is something appealing in death that frees it of terror.[60]

The rotten remains of the ship sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy, in a boat. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the pilot has a fit. The hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilot's boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, and cries, "The Devil knows how to row". As penance for shooting the albatross, the mariner, driven by guilt, is forced to wander the earth, telling his story over and over, and teaching a lesson to those he meets:

Claimed as "probably still today the best-known and best-loved poem in English",[2] the Elegy quickly became popular. It was printed many times and in a variety of formats, translated into many languages, and praised by critics even after Gray's other poetry had fallen out of favour. Later critics tended to comment on its language and universal aspects, but some felt the ending was unconvincing—failing to resolve the questions the poem raised—or that the poem did not do enough to present a political statement that would serve to help the obscure rustic poor who form its central image.

In an interview on ITV's The South Bank Show aired on 24 June 2007, Faithfull said that her interpretation was that Lucy climbs to the rooftop but gets taken away by "the man who reached and offered her his hand" in an ambulance ("long white car") to a mental hospital, and that the final lines ("At the age of thirty-seven she knew she'd found forever / As she rode along through Paris with the warm wind in her hair ...") are actually in her imagination at the hospital.[1] Thelma and Louise has a similar fatalistic theme.[2]

The song describes a young male who has grown up suffering from the death of his parents. The boy's father was a preacher who anticipated an eventual apocalypse, and he died while having the spirit to take up a snake, and he was killed by it. The boy's father's last words to the boy were; "We never walked on the moon, Elvis ain't dead, you ain't going crazy, it's all in your head."


Question: Who were the farmers that kept a small portion of their crops and gave the rest to the landowners?

Tenant farming
Tenant farming, particularly in the form of sharecropping, involves farmers who cultivate a portion of land owned by others in return for a share of the crop yield. This system, prevalent in various historical and cultural contexts, encompasses diverse agreements, some rooted in tradition and others regulated by law. Examples of such contractual arrangements include the Italian mezzadria, French métayage, Spanish mediero, and Islamic muqasat systems, all characterized by the division of agricultural produce between the landowner and the tenant farmer.

This system often gives an advantage to one native African group over another, and is not just Europeans over Africans. For example, it was hoped that land reform in Zimbabwe would transfer land from European land owners to family farmers. Instead, it simply substituted native Africans with ties to the government for Europeans, leaving much of the population disadvantaged.[6] Because of this abuse, foreign aid that was destined for land purchases was withdrawn. (See Land reform in Zimbabwe)

Geographic features encouraged this shared distribution of power. African farmers relied on rain-fed agriculture and consequently invested little in particular pieces of land.[12] Because land was sparsely populated, African farmers could easily flee rulers rather than fight. Establishing absolute control over particular pieces of land was prohibitively costly and consequently a low priority for African elites.[13]

Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. As an example, German farmers generally preferred oxen rather than horses to pull their plows and Scots-Irish made a farming economy based on hogs and corn. Eventually cows were brought with the horses. They were more useful than horses for many reasons. Almost all the farms had cows on their land. In Ireland, people farmed intensively, working small pieces of land trying to get the largest possible production-rate from their crops. In the American colonies, settlers from northern Ireland focused on mixed-farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and as feed for hogs and other livestock. Many improvement-minded farmers of all different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to raise their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by farmers in one day. Farmers also began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile. By 1700, Philadelphia was exporting 350,000 bushels of wheat and 18,000 tons of flour annually. The Southern colonies in particular relied on cash crops such as tobacco and cotton. South Carolina produced rice and indigo. North Carolina was somewhat less involved in the plantation economy, but because a major producer of naval stores. Virginia and Maryland came to be almost totally dependent on tobacco, which would ultimately prove fatal at the end of the 18th century thanks to exhausted soil and collapsing prices, but for most of the century, the soil remained good and a single-crop economy profitable.

Large villa holdings in the Campania around Rome, in the valley of the Po and in southern Gaul organized populations in a self-sufficient economy, more similar to the haciendas of Latin America, while they produced oil, wine or garum for exportation. The practice of establishing agricultural coloniae as a way to compensate Roman soldiers formed smaller landholdings, which would be accumulated by large landholders in times of want. Thus the direction, over time, was in larger consolidations of landholdings.

A prolonged agricultural depression in Britain at the end of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the primary source of wealth for the upper classes. Many estates were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies, encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century.

The four occupations (simplified Chinese: 士农工商; traditional Chinese: 士農工商) or "four categories of the people" (Chinese: 四民)[1][2] was an occupation classification used in ancient China by either Confucian or Legalist scholars as far back as the late Zhou dynasty and is considered a central part of the fengjian social structure (c. 1046–256 BC).[3] These were the shi (gentry scholars), the nong (peasant farmers),  the gong (artisans and craftsmen), and the shang (merchants and traders).[3]
The four occupations were not always arranged in this order.[4][5] The four categories were not socioeconomic classes; wealth and standing did not correspond to these categories, nor were they hereditary.[1][6]

The 16 people, in charge of the manors, were known as the Tenentes in capite in other words the chief tenants who held their land directly from the crown.[34][35] The list includes nine ecclesiasticals although the portion of their landholding is quite small and was virtually no different from that under Edward the Confessor.[34] Two of the lords were Englishmen, Ode, who had been a pre-Conquest treasurer, and his brother Eldred.[36] This means that 353 of the 387 manors in Sussex would have been wrested from their Saxon owners and given to Norman Lords by William the Conqueror[34]

In part due to Cuban slaves working primarily in urbanized settings, by the 19th century, there had developed the practice of coartacion, or "buying oneself out of slavery", a "uniquely Cuban development", according to historian Herbert S. Klein.[50] Due to a shortage of white labor, blacks dominated urban industries "to such an extent that when whites in large numbers came to Cuba in the middle of the nineteenth century, they were unable to displace Negro workers."[42] A system of diversified agriculture, with small farms and fewer slaves, served to supply the cities with produce and other goods.[42]

In 1929, Stalin edited the plan to include the creation of "kolkhoz" collective farming systems that stretched over thousands of acres of land and had hundreds of peasants working on them. The creation of collective farms essentially destroyed the kulaks as a class (dekulakization). Another consequence of this is that peasants resisted by killing their farm animals rather than turning them over to the State when their farms were collectivized.[2] This disruption led to a famine in Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan as well as areas of the Northern Caucasus. Despite the ruinous loss of life, the introduction of collective farms allowed peasants to use tractors to farm the land, unlike before when most had been too poor to own a tractor. Public machine and tractor stations were set up throughout the USSR, and peasants were allowed to use these public tractors to farm the land, increasing the food output per peasant. Peasants were allowed to sell any surplus food from the land. However, the government planners failed to take notice of local situations. In 1932, grain production was 32% below average;[3] to add to this problem, procurement of food were up by 44%. Agricultural production was so disrupted that famine broke out in several districts.[4]

Cooperative farming exists in many forms throughout the United States, Canada, and the rest of the world. Various arrangements can be made through collective bargaining or purchasing to get the best deals on seeds, supplies, and equipment. For example, members of a farmers' cooperative who cannot afford heavy equipment of their own can lease them for nominal fees from the cooperative. Farmers' cooperatives can also allow groups of small farmers and dairymen to manage pricing and prevent undercutting by competitors.


Question: What is "Pumped Up Kicks" the song about?

"Pumped Up Kicks" is a track by the American indie pop band Foster the People, which initially gained attention as their debut single in September 2010. It was later featured on both their EP and their first full-length album, Torches. The song catapulted the band into the spotlight and was a major hit in 2011. Composed by lead singer Mark Foster during his time composing commercial jingles, "Pumped Up Kicks" presents a stark contrast between its cheerful melody and the dark lyrics that delve into the mind of a disturbed young individual contemplating violence.

Critical reaction to "It's Not the End of the World?" was generally mixed. Website Drowned in Sound described the song as "sweet and charming" but stated that, although it is a good album track it isn't strong enough to stand up on its own as a single and is rather "bland" compared to some of the band's other songs such as "Demons" and "Fire in My Heart".[8] The NME called the song "a bit rubbish" by the Super Furries' "usual high standards" and went as far as to claim that "John Lennon was shot for less".[9] The Dallas Observer claimed the track is "guaranteed to induce the same type of melancholic, goose-bumpy splendor that tunes like The Kinks' 'Waterloo Sunset', Dennis Wilson's 'Forever' and Jack Bruce's 'Theme for an Imaginary Western' still do",[10] Entertainment Weekly described it as one of the best songs on parent album Rings Around the World, comparing it to the work of The Beatles while The Daily Telegraph called it a "honey-dripping pop classic".[3][11] Adrien Begrand of PopMatters claimed the track "sounds like any of Blur's best ballads".[12]

"Manic Monday" is a song by the American pop rock band The Bangles, and the first single released from their second studio album, Different Light (1986). It was written by American musician Prince, using the pseudonym "Christopher". Originally intended for the group Apollonia 6 in 1984, he offered the song to The Bangles two years later. Lyrically, it describes a woman who is waking up to go to work on Monday, wishing it were still Sunday where she could relax.

"I Ran (So Far Away)" was recorded at Battery Studios is London with producer Mike Howlett.[3] It is a new wave[4][5] and synth-pop song,[6] with a run time of five minutes and seven seconds.[3] According to the sheet music, the song moves at a quick tempo of 145 beats per minute. With a chord progression of A-G-A-G in the verses and F-G-A in the choruses, the song is written in the key of A minor.[7] During the song's introduction and musical interludes, short guitar riffs are played, which give the sense of an echo.[2] Guitarist Paul Reynolds had joined the band after the music was already written, so the short guitar riffs were added for Reynolds to play.[2] Lyrically, "I Ran (So Far Away)" is about a man who sees an attractive woman and attempts to run away from his feelings. Before this happens, the man sees an aurora in the sky, and he and the woman are abducted by aliens.[8]

In an interview with KROQ-FM, Rivers Cuomo talked extensively about the concept behind the song. The song was originally titled "The Ballad of Oswaldo Sánchez", inspired by Sánchez playing in the 2006 World Cup after the death of his father. He mentioned the influence for each section, including the Baroque counterpoint vocal style which inspired the final 'Bach' & 'Beethoven' sections.[5] In a January 21, 2009, interview on the NPR program Fresh Air, Cuomo stated that "The Greatest Man That Ever Lived (Variations on a Shaker Hymn)" is his favorite Weezer song.[6]

Lyrically, "Secret Love Song" details unrequited and forbidden love.[12] Edwards said the lyrics are about "being with someone and you want to scream it from the rooftops but you have to hold it in".[13] Thirlwall interprets the group's lyrics in the song as a narrative for the struggles LGBT people are faced with when coming to terms with their sexuality and public affection.[14] According to Derulo, his verse serves as a "twist" in the song, discussing his personal experience of having an affair: "I told a true story about this girl that I am really into but she has a boyfriend but we still do our thing."[3]

A reviewer from Plugged In criticized Perry's decision to create an uplifting song about such a serious subject matter as divorce: "Framing the song in terms of her divorce from Brand, though 'Part of Me', puts a much more somber and serious spin on things. This is no mere breakup. It's the demolition of a marital covenant. So no matter how bad things were in her relationship, no matter how much better she feels now, no matter how cathartic the pulsing beats (courtesy of hitmeisters Max Martin and Dr. Luke) might feel, the ultimate end here is a very sad one indeed."[26] Priya Elan of NME panned the song: 'This is the part of me, that you're never going to take away from me,' "she sings in that strange angry robot voice of hers. The sentiment, as ever, is punch you in face crystal clear and probably meant something to one of the (probably) 17 writers who wrote the song. As it stands, it's another de-humanised slab of radio pop from Perry INC."[27]

"Green Light" is a song by New Zealand singer Lorde, from her second studio album Melodrama (2017). Universal Music New Zealand released the song on 2 March 2017 as the album's lead single. Lorde co-wrote and co-produced the song with Jack Antonoff, with additional writing by Joel Little and production assistance from Frank Dukes and Kuk Harrell.[1] "Green Light" was described as an electropop, dance-pop, and post-disco song with an upbeat piano loop, hand-claps, bass and strings in its instrumentation. In the lyrics, Lorde uses a "green light" as a street signal metaphor that gives her permission to move on into the future.

A couple sits at a booth in a diner, while the woman (Friday Night Lights star Aasha Davis) breaks up with her boyfriend (Saturday Night Live writer and The Lonely Island band member Jorma Taccone). After receiving the plate he requested from the waitress, the man stabs himself in the chest, and pulls out his heart, places it on the plate and gives it to the woman. He explains that his heart "is actually [hers] now," that he will never be able to get over her, and says "from now on every girl that I meet will be meticulously compared to the false memory of what you and I once 'had.'" The woman offers to return it after keeping it temporarily for a "shitty day" or when she needs to move something heavy, but the man insists that he is now "heartless" and thus will passively/aggressively ruin all his future relationships. The heart then comes to life, growing arms, legs and a mouth, and begins to sing the lyrics to the song on the counters of the diner using a piece of broccoli as a microphone before finally stabbing itself with a knife and pulling the man's head out of its body. The head looks around, staring off into space. The scene cuts back to the man staring out the window as the woman speaks. The woman finally asks, "Are you even listening to me?" The man simply replies "No." Cee-Lo and Danger Mouse also made cameos as chefs in the diner.

"Hunter" is a song recorded by Icelandic musician Björk for her fourth studio album Homogenic (1997). The lyrics explore the pressure Björk felt to write music after realising the workforce that depended on her, following the success she found as a solo artist with her previous studio albums. The song was first performed at the 1997 Tibetan Freedom Concert and later included with the online promotional release of Homogenic; the track was subsequently released as the third single for the album as three different CD releases in October 1998. A collaborative effort between Björk and Mark Bell, "Hunter" features a dark combination of strings and layered synths, a militaristic electronic beat, and enigmatic lyrics about the heading towards a mission.

Over a marching rhythm, Björk sings: "If travel is searching / And home has been found / I'm not stopping / I'm going hunting".[9] Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted self-mockery towards "her own idyllic disposition" in the lyrics "I thought I could organize freedom / How Scandinavian of me!"[10] That line was covered in various reviews; it has been described as "hilarious" and "derisively" delivered.[2] When asked about the meaning of those lines, Björk replied: "in Iceland, the people from Sweden, we think they're really not cool at all and they just have got no sense of humour, are really organized. And you can't organize everything. So I think in that song, I was sort of... thinking that I could even organize freedom, just like very stupid. Quite Swedish, you know."[11] Some critics interpreted the line as an allusion to a failed relationship.[2] Björk said: "'Hunter' is based on what my grandma told me at Christmas; about two different types of birds. One bird always had the same nest and partner all their lives. The other was always travelling and taking on different partners. At some point there was a conscious decision made to remain a hunter."[6]


Question: What is "Pumped Up Kicks" by Foster the People about?

"Pumped Up Kicks" is a song that explores the perspective of a disturbed teenager harboring violent tendencies. The chorus alludes to the danger he poses, urging listeners to "outrun my gun" and escape the threat of his "bullet." According to songwriter Mark Foster, the song was inspired by the alarming rise in teenage mental health issues and the associated increase in youth violence. Foster aimed to delve into the psyche of a troubled youth, highlighting the epidemic of gun violence among young people, which he attributes to a lack of familial support, love, and social connection. The song's title, "Pumped Up Kicks," is a reference to the status symbol of trendy shoes worn by the narrator's peers.

As the visions continue, four Buddhist monks enter. One monk pours a can of gasoline over another monk, who is set afire (reminiscent of the self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức) and runs off screaming. Three Catholic nuns strangle the three remaining Buddhist monks. Three astronauts shoot the nuns with ray guns. Three Chinese people stab the astronauts with knives. Three Native Americans kill the Chinese with bows and tomahawks. Three green berets kill the Native Americans with machine guns and then kill each other. A Sergeant and two parents appear holding up a suit on a hanger. The parents talk to the suit as if it is their son and they are very proud of him. The bodies rise and play like children. The play escalates to violence until they are all dead again. They rise again and comment about the casualties in Vietnam: "It's a dirty little war" ("Three-Five-Zero-Zero"). At the end of the trip sequence, two tribe members sing, over the dead bodies, a melody set to a Shakespeare speech about the nobility of Man ("What A Piece of Work Is Man").

"Hunter" is a song recorded by Icelandic musician Björk for her fourth studio album Homogenic (1997). The lyrics explore the pressure Björk felt to write music after realising the workforce that depended on her, following the success she found as a solo artist with her previous studio albums. The song was first performed at the 1997 Tibetan Freedom Concert and later included with the online promotional release of Homogenic; the track was subsequently released as the third single for the album as three different CD releases in October 1998. A collaborative effort between Björk and Mark Bell, "Hunter" features a dark combination of strings and layered synths, a militaristic electronic beat, and enigmatic lyrics about the heading towards a mission.

Jim references both Michael J. Fox and the 1985 film Back to the Future during his "nonsense" conference room meeting. Dwight realizes that Phillip is his son after the child looks at a small-scale replica of the Battlestar Galactica, fictional ship from the science fiction series of the same name, in the same way that Dwight does.[9] Dwight's test to see if Phillip is his son has been compared to a similar scene in the 1997 film Kundun, in which Tibetan monks practice a similar ritual.[10] To win over Kevin, Angela and Oscar pretend that baby Phillip presented him with an iTunes gift card.[9] Darryl and the rest of the office dance to the song "Boogie Wonderland" by Earth, Wind, and Fire.[6] The show Andy auditions for America's Next A Cappella Sensation, is a parody of popular singing shows like American Idol, The Voice, and The Sing-Off. The fictional show is hosted by Mark McGrath, the lead singer from the rock band Sugar Ray.[11] The judges for the show include Aaron Rodgers, Clay Aiken, and Santigold. Rodgers is an American football quarterback for the Green Bay Packers, Aiken is a singer who gained prominence following the second season of American Idol in 2003, and Santigold is an American singer, songwriter, and producer.[6][7] Andy sings both the Cornell University alma mater ("Far Above Cayuga's Waters"), as well as "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" from the musical Annie. The woman auditioning that he interrupts is Rachel Crow, who achieved fame after competing in season one of The X-Factor.[9]

In the months leading up to the Tate/LaBianca murders in August 1969, Charles Manson often spoke to the members of his "Family" about Helter Skelter, an apocalyptic war arising from racial tensions between blacks and whites.[1]:311–2 This "chimerical vision"—as it was termed by the court that heard Manson's appeal from his conviction for the killings[2]—involved reference to music of the Beatles (particularly songs from their 1968 double album The Beatles, also known as "the White Album") and to the New Testament's Book of Revelation.[1]:238–44

"Paranoid Android" is a song by the English alternative rock band Radiohead, released as the lead single from their third studio album OK Computer (1997) on 26 May 1997. The darkly humorous lyrics were written primarily by singer Thom Yorke following an unpleasant experience in a Los Angeles bar. The song is more than six minutes long and contains four distinct sections. "Paranoid Android" takes its name from Marvin the Paranoid Android of Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series.

"Hunter" garnered acclaim from music critics, who complimented its elaborate production, its haunting melody and cryptic lyrics. Marvin Lin from Tiny Mix Tapes called it "painfully beautiful".[19] Jack Dickey of Deadspin considered "Hunter" one of the only two songs in the album where "the instruments win out" and wrote it "is like Peter and the Wolf if, instead of a merciful hunter, Artemis were chasing the wolf."[20] In a review for the single release, Keir Langley of AllMusic praised the rhythm and intensity of the track as a showcase of her collaboration with Mark Bell.[21] The Wire's Louise Gray thought it was an "extraordinary, mesmeric song."[5] Evelyn McDonnell wrote "I myself had used the prevalent critical category for Björk uncategorizable amalgalm of styles: 'quirky.' There was nothing quirky about 'Hunter.'" She also praised the song's originality and appeal to various types of listeners.[2] Phil Freeman included "Hunter" in his list of songs which "say something important about the state of music since 1979—how venerable forms have changed;" inspired by Greil Marcus' attempt to define rock and roll in Stranded (1978). He wrote "her voice is protean and capable of astonishingly raw, forceful outbursts, but it's when she holds it in, on tracks like this one, that her real power emerges."[22] Authors Shirley R. Steinberg and Donaldo Pereira Macedo identified elements of Donna Haraway's A Cyborg Manifesto in "Hunter". They state that, by assuming the position of authority in relation to the masculine other, Björk challenges the traditional notions of femininity; and that by "[leaving] to be the hunter," she "disrupts the nature/culture binary of which Haraway speaks."[23]

Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times stated that like her previous single "Hold It Against Me", "Spears's main intention with her new single seems to be keeping the dance floor pulsating with sweaty bodies".[19] Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said the song recalls past hits by English recording artist Taio Cruz, Swedish recording artist Robyn and Spanish recording artist Enrique Iglesias.[6] Allison Stewart of The Washington Post felt the song was comparable to Iglesias' "Tonight (I'm Lovin' You)" (2010).[20] Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine and a reviewer from Popjustice compared it to Kesha's "Blow" (2011).[21][22] According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Publishing Inc., "Till the World Ends" is set in the compound meter time signature, with a moderate dance beat infused metronome of 132 beats per minute.[23] It is composed in the key of C minor; Spears' vocals range from the low-key of Bb3 to the high-note of C5.[23] Lyrically, the song talks about dancing until the end of the world.[14]

A reviewer from Plugged In criticized Perry's decision to create an uplifting song about such a serious subject matter as divorce: "Framing the song in terms of her divorce from Brand, though 'Part of Me', puts a much more somber and serious spin on things. This is no mere breakup. It's the demolition of a marital covenant. So no matter how bad things were in her relationship, no matter how much better she feels now, no matter how cathartic the pulsing beats (courtesy of hitmeisters Max Martin and Dr. Luke) might feel, the ultimate end here is a very sad one indeed."[26] Priya Elan of NME panned the song: 'This is the part of me, that you're never going to take away from me,' "she sings in that strange angry robot voice of hers. The sentiment, as ever, is punch you in face crystal clear and probably meant something to one of the (probably) 17 writers who wrote the song. As it stands, it's another de-humanised slab of radio pop from Perry INC."[27]

A couple sits at a booth in a diner, while the woman (Friday Night Lights star Aasha Davis) breaks up with her boyfriend (Saturday Night Live writer and The Lonely Island band member Jorma Taccone). After receiving the plate he requested from the waitress, the man stabs himself in the chest, and pulls out his heart, places it on the plate and gives it to the woman. He explains that his heart "is actually [hers] now," that he will never be able to get over her, and says "from now on every girl that I meet will be meticulously compared to the false memory of what you and I once 'had.'" The woman offers to return it after keeping it temporarily for a "shitty day" or when she needs to move something heavy, but the man insists that he is now "heartless" and thus will passively/aggressively ruin all his future relationships. The heart then comes to life, growing arms, legs and a mouth, and begins to sing the lyrics to the song on the counters of the diner using a piece of broccoli as a microphone before finally stabbing itself with a knife and pulling the man's head out of its body. The head looks around, staring off into space. The scene cuts back to the man staring out the window as the woman speaks. The woman finally asks, "Are you even listening to me?" The man simply replies "No." Cee-Lo and Danger Mouse also made cameos as chefs in the diner.

The song is superficially about the protagonist mocking a woman with a severe hangover for her intoxicated escapades around town, making numerous social and verbal faux pas while high on alcohol and drugs ("But now you just can't remember / All the things you said / And you're not sure you want to know / I'll give you one hint, honey / You sure did put on a show!") The song makes late 1970s cultural references to such nouveaux riche fads as Elaine's Restaurant and Halston. At one point, Joel said in an interview that the song was actually about himself (that he was the one who "had to be a big shot".)


Question: What are the reasons states enforce protectionist policies on other nations?

Protectionist policies, such as tariffs, quotas, and regulations, are implemented by governments to shield domestic producers, businesses, and workers from foreign competition. Advocates argue that these measures safeguard domestic industries, but they also restrict trade, increase costs for consumers, and negatively impact producers and workers in export sectors, both domestically and internationally.

According to Oxford economic historian Kevin O'Rourke, "It seems clear that protection was important for the growth of US manufacturing in the first half of the 19th century; but this does not necessarily imply that the tariff was beneficial for GDP growth. Protectionists have often pointed to German and American industrialization during this period as evidence in favour of their position, but economic growth is influenced by many factors other than trade policy, and it is important to control for these when assessing the links between tariffs and growth."[51]

Advocates of the concept cite improved standards of health and education, employment opportunities, liberal markets, developed natural resources and introduced improved governance.[95] The first wave of benign colonialism lasted from c. 1790-1960, according to Mill. The second wave included neocolonial policies exemplified in Hong Kong, where unfettered expansion of the market created a new form of benign colonialism.[96] Political interference and military intervention in independent nation-states, such as Iraq,[94][97] is also discussed under the rubric of benign colonialism in which a foreign power preempts national governance to protect a higher concept of freedom. The term is also used in the 21st century to refer to US, French and Chinese market activities in African countries with massive quantities of underdeveloped nonrenewable natural resources.[citation needed]

Mercantilism in its simplest form is bullionism, yet mercantilist writers have emphasized the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money supply. Fiat money and floating exchange rates have since been rendered specie concerns irrelevant. In time, the heavy emphasis on money was supplanted by industrial policy, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for "infant" industries or the promotion of the mutual growth of countries through national industrial specialization.[citation needed]

The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being, however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers and employees indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out.

Unlike Jefferson, Calhoun rejected attempts at economic, social, or political leveling, claiming that true equality could not be achieved if all classes were given equal rights and responsibilities. Rather, to ensure true prosperity, it was necessary for a stronger group to provide protection and care for the weaker one. This meant that the two groups should not be equal before the law. For Calhoun, "protection" (order) was more important than freedom. Individual rights were something to be earned, not something bestowed by nature or God.[109] Calhoun was concerned with protecting the interests of the Southern States (which he identified with the interests of their slaveholding elites) as a distinct and beleaguered minority among the members of the federal Union; his idea of a concurrent majority as a protection for minority rights has gained some acceptance in American political thought.[126][127] Political scientist Malcolm Jewell argues, "The decision-making process in this country resembles John Calhoun's 'concurrent majority': A large number of groups both within and outside the government must, in practice, approve any major policy."[128]

Some constituent states of the empire did embrace Mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe. During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base.

Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health."[151] According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other."[152] In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms.[153] Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States' relations with the world".[154]

Despite the state's interest in protecting the public and so-called "learned professions" from having unschooled persons practising them, and the state's insistence on enforcing a monopoly, the existence of laws governing (or defining) "unauthorized practice of Law" does not, ipso facto mean that they will be enforced.[17]

This process of influence (and imposition) began with the voyages of discovery, colonization, conquest, and exploitation of Portugal and Spain it continued with the rise of the Dutch East India Company, and the creation and expansion of the British and French colonial empires. Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. Even after demands for self-determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with decolonization, these institutions persisted. One specific example was the requirement that post-colonial societies were made to form nation-states (in the Western tradition), which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation, people, or culture, and are often the cause of international conflicts and friction even to this day. Though the overt colonial era has passed, Western nations, as comparatively rich, well-armed, and culturally powerful states, still wield a large degree of influence throughout the world.

Although they were reiterating what they had already committed to, last November in Washington, 17 of these 20 countries were reported by the World Bank as having imposed trade restrictive measures since then. In its report, the World Bank says most of the world's major economies are resorting to protectionist measures as the global economic slowdown begins to bite. Economists who have examined the impact of new trade-restrictive measures using detailed bilaterally monthly trade statistics estimated that new measures taken through late 2009 were distorting global merchandise trade by 0.25% to 0.5% (about $50 billion a year).[70]


Question: Where is the new Raiders stadium being constructed?

The new Las Vegas Raiders stadium, also known as Allegiant Stadium, is being constructed in Paradise, Nevada. Situated on approximately 62 acres near Mandalay Bay, the stadium's location is at the intersection of Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue, bordered by Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, and is just west of Interstate 15. This domed venue is designed to host both the Las Vegas Raiders of the NFL and the UNLV Rebels football team. Construction, which commenced in September 2017, is on track to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season, with a budget of $1.9 billion.

To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game,[47] and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter.[48] The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures.[49][50] Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium's security perimeter.[51]

2015 also marked the beginning of a $100 million renovation project to Wallace Wade Stadium.[680] These renovations were initiated in an attempt to attract higher rated recruiting prospects and improve the overall fan experience.[681] These renovations include, a new press box, new increased seating capacity, as well as new concourse and public area modifications.[682] These changes began with the first phase in 2015 with the conclusion on the last home game.[681] These initial changes consisted of dropping the field itself several feet down.[681] This allowed the new stadium seats to be built into the newly created area cleared out by the field being dropped by over 6 feet.[681] The second part of phase 1 was to clear the old existing press box.[683] After this was concluded, there was a temporary press box built to house all media and stadium personnel during the 2015 season.[683] After the conclusion of the 2015-2016 season phase 2 began.[681] This phase consisted of building the new press box[684] as well as a new scoreboard.[683] This phase was concluded by the beginning of the 2016 season.[683] Phase 3, which is the final phase in the project, will be concluded during the beginning of the 2016-2017 football season.[681] This final phase consisted of finishing the renovation to the concourse area's as well as the entrances to the stadium itself.[681] This construction, which is being carried out by The Beck Group[685] is still underway and is expected to be concluded before the start of the 2016-2017 season.[686]

Kraft then began a plan to build a new stadium in South Boston. In that plan, Kraft was to pay for the stadium himself, hoping to win the support of Weld and Menino. He began to sketch designs, but the project was leaked to the press in December 1996. The residents of South Boston objected to a stadium being built in that location, causing Menino and Weld to become angry at Kraft. Kraft abandoned all plans for a Boston Stadium after the affair.[25] In January 1997, Kraft began talks with Providence mayor Vincent Cianci to relocate the team to Providence and build a new stadium there. The proposed 68,000-seat domed stadium would have cost $250 million, and would have been paid through income taxes, public bonds, surcharges on tickets, and private funds. Residents of the neighborhood of the proposed project were extremely opposed to the project because the surrounding area would have needed massive infrastructure improvements. The proposal fell through after a few weeks.[26]

On January 14, 2016, Kelly was hired by the San Francisco 49ers to be their new head coach.[42] He entered the 2016 season as the 49ers' third coach in three seasons, following Jim Harbaugh and Jim Tomsula. In his first game with the 49ers, they defeated the Los Angeles Rams at Levi's Stadium in a 28–0 romp.[43] It was the first Week 1 shutout since 2009, when the Seattle Seahawks coincidentally shutout the Rams.[44] However, the 49ers went on a 13-game losing streak,[45] with many speculations opening up that Kelly and general manager Trent Baalke may be fired at the end of the season.[citation needed] In late November, there were also many rumors that Kelly may return to coach the Oregon Ducks after the Ducks finished the season with a 4–8 record,[46] the team's first losing season since 2004, resulting in the firing of Ducks football coach Mark Helfrich. However, those rumors were dropped after the Ducks hired former South Florida Bulls coach Willie Taggart on December 7.

A new rail car facility to accommodate the new M8 cars is being built in New Haven. Although the project itself is not controversial, the building of it is. Originally estimated at $300 million, the facility is now expected to cost in excess of $1 billion.[44]

In a live broadcast on August 24, 2015, owner Arthur Blank announced that the new title of the stadium would be Mercedes-Benz Stadium. As the New Orleans Saints, the Falcons' archrivals in the NFC South, play in the Mercedes-Benz Superdome, this gave the division two stadiums that were sponsored by the same company. A new logo was also introduced. Steve Cannon, then CEO of Mercedes-Benz USA, also spoke at the event about the company's corporate move from New Jersey to Atlanta. Other speakers included Georgia Governor Nathan Deal and Atlanta Mayor Kasim Reed.

Concurrently announced was a new road to access the stadium from U.S. Route 1, and an additional 3,000 parking spaces to accommodate the increased number of fans.[32]

Demolition of the Golden Inn motel began on November 30, 2004, to make room for the Streamline Tower, a 21-story, 251-unit condominium tower that was expected to cost $105 million. Occupancy of the new building was expected around December 2006.[7] Las Vegas Mayor Oscar Goodman attended a publicity event held on the property, which included him kicking off the demolition of the motel with the swing of a sledgehammer.[8] The new project would be located in the center of Goodman's planned entertainment district, as part of a revitalization of the downtown area.[9] Sales began on December 3, 2004.[10]

Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.[18]

On November 20, 2008, ground was broken for a downtown practice facility at 188 Martin Luther King Drive. The facility would eventually be expanded to include a 100-yard artificial turf field and a 50-yard natural turf field. The existing buildings were converted into facilities and offices for the football team.[6]


Question: What event motivated Congress to suggest the Eleventh Amendment and the states to endorse it?

The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution, passed by Congress on March 4, 1794, and ratified by the states on February 7, 1795, was a direct response to the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia (1793). This amendment was designed to clarify and reinforce each state's sovereign immunity, essentially overturning the Court's decision in that case.

The Black Codes outraged public opinion in the North because it seemed the South was creating a form of quasi-slavery to negate the results of the war.[117] When the Radical 39th Congress re-convened in December 1865, it was generally furious about the developments that had transpired during Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction. The Black Codes, along with the appointment of prominent Confederates to Congress, signified that the South had been emboldened by Johnson and intended to maintain its old political order.[118] Railing against the Black Codes as returns to slavery in violation of the Thirteenth Amendment, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Second Freedmen's Bureau Bill.[119]

In 1958 the National Defense Education Act was passed with the encouragement of many legislators who feared the United States education system was falling behind that of the Soviet Union. The act yielded textbooks, produced in cooperation with the American Institute of Biological Sciences, which stressed the importance of evolution as the unifying principle of biology.[58] The new educational regime was not unchallenged. The greatest backlash was in Texas where attacks were launched in sermons and in the press.[57] Complaints were lodged with the State Textbook Commission. However, in addition to federal support, a number of social trends had turned public discussion in favor of evolution. These included increased interest in improving public education, legal precedents separating religion and public education, and continued urbanization in the South. This led to a weakening of the backlash in Texas, as well as to the repeal of the Butler Law in Tennessee in 1967.[57]

Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members were mostly in favor of a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.[21]:229â€“30 They were William Samuel Johnson (Connecticut), Alexander Hamilton (New York), Gouverneur Morris (Pennsylvania), James Madison (Virginia), and Rufus King (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the Convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the contract clause.[21]:243

Calhoun had begun to oppose increases in protective tariffs, as they generally benefitted Northerners more than Southerners. While Vice President in the Adams administration, Jackson's supporters devised a high tariff legislation that placed duties on imports that were also made in New England. Calhoun had been assured that the northeastern interests would reject the Tariff of 1828, exposing pro-Adams New England congressmen to charges that they selfishly opposed legislation popular among Jacksonian Democrats in the west and Mid-Atlantic States. The southern legislators miscalculated and the so-called "Tariff of Abominations" passed and was signed into law by President Adams. Frustrated, Calhoun returned to his South Carolina plantation, where he anonymously composed "South Carolina Exposition and Protest," an essay rejecting the centralization philosophy and supporting the principle of nullification as a means to prevent tyranny of a central government.[58]

Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment[15] , ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments).[15] Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy.[24] One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate.[25] Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.[26]

In 1804, after the passage of the 12th Amendment, the Democratic-Republicans caucus met again. In a ballot of the caucus, George Clinton defeated John Breckinridge and was nominated as Jefferson's running mate. At the 1808 caucus, supporters of James Madison defeated attempts to nominate Clinton or James Monroe instead of Madison. Clinton was nominated as the vice presidential nominee, but Clinton criticized the legitimacy of the caucus system and both Clinton and Monroe considered running for president. The Federalists meanwhile, held a proto-national convention in New York in 1808, where they nominated Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Rufus King. In 1812, Madison won unanimous re-nomination by the caucus. However, the Democratic-Republican members of the New York legislature denounced the caucus system as illegitimate, and instead nominated DeWitt Clinton, the nephew of George Clinton. The Federalists held another proto-convention in 1812, there they agreed to support Clinton. Clinton ultimately lost the election, but provided a strong challenge to Madison and won 89 electoral votes.[1]

The Federalists had no control of national policy, however.  As the war dragged on, they grew increasingly frustrated.  Eventually, some in New England, began to advocate constitutional changes that would increase their diminished influence at the national level.  The Hartford Convention, with 26 delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and dissident counties in Vermont and New Hampshire, was held in December 1814 to consider remedies.  It was called to discuss proposed Constitutional amendments.Many federalists within Massachusetts believed that the Hartford Convention was the only way to save the Union from Republicans, and from civil war. [7] Its final report called for several Constitutional amendments.  However, when convention representatives arrived in Washington to advocate their changes, they were greeted with news of a peace treaty with Britain, the Treaty of Ghent, which essentially restored the pre-war status quo, as well as the great American victory at the Battle of New Orleans.  This undercut their position, leaving them with little support.  They returned home, and the decline of the Federalist Party continued.

The United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit has ruled that Puerto Rico enjoys Eleventh Amendment immunity.[10]

President James Buchanan decided to end the troubles in Kansas by urging Congress to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution. Kansas voters, however, soundly rejected this constitution—at least with a measure of widespread fraud on both sides—by more than 10,000 votes. As Buchanan directed his presidential authority to this goal, he further angered the Republicans and alienated members of his own party. Prompting their break with the administration, the Douglasites saw this scheme as an attempt to pervert the principle of popular sovereignty on which the Kansas–Nebraska Act was based. Nationwide, conservatives were incensed, feeling as though the principles of states' rights had been violated. Even in the South, ex-Whigs and border states Know-Nothings—most notably John Bell and John J. Crittenden (key figures in the event of sectional controversies)—urged the Republicans to oppose the administration's moves and take up the demand that the territories be given the power to accept or reject sovereignty.[citation needed]

The movement reached its zenith with the election of John Adams, an overtly Federalist President. However, with the defeat of Adams in the election of 1800 and the death of Hamilton, the Federalist Party began a long decline from which it never recovered. What finally finished off the Federalist party was the Hartford Convention of 1814, in which five New England states gathered to discuss several constitutional amendments necessary to protect New England's interests in regard to the blockade of their ports by the British during the War of 1812. The threat of secession also was proposed during these secret meetings. Three delegates were sent to Washington, DC to negotiate New England's terms only to discover the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war with the British. The Federalists were then seen by many as traitors to the union.[4]


Question: What event motivated Congress to suggest the Eleventh Amendment and the states to approve it?

The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted in response to the Supreme Court's decision in Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. 419 (1793). This ruling allowed private citizens to sue states in federal court, which was seen as an infringement of states' sovereign immunity. As a result, the amendment was proposed by Congress and ratified by the states to clarify Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, specifying that federal courts do not have jurisdiction to hear cases brought by citizens against states without their consent.

In the years after the end of the American Civil War, many former slave states that were members of the Confederacy during the war adopted new state flags. Incorporating in their new flags' designs were motifs that were used in the Confederacy's flags, such as the St. Andrew's cross. In the case of Mississippi, Florida, and Alabama, these new state flags were adopted around the same time that new Jim Crow segregation laws were being enacted. These laws, combined with poll taxes, literacy tests, and extrajudicial violence such as lynchings, disenfranchised African American voters for the next several decades.[59] According to historian John M. Coski:

As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed".[46] Adams's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance.[47] Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest.[48] Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.[49]

In Reynolds v. United States (1878) the Supreme Court used these words to declare that "it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere [religious] opinion, but was left free to reach [only those religious] actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order." Quoting from Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the court stated further in Reynolds:

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831), was a United States Supreme Court case. The Cherokee Nation sought a federal injunction against laws passed by the U.S. state of Georgia depriving them of rights within its boundaries, but the Supreme Court did not hear the case on its merits. It ruled that it had no original jurisdiction in the matter, as the Cherokees were a dependent nation, with a relationship to the United States like that of a "ward to its guardian," as said by Justice Marshall.

Different interpretations of state sovereignty in the United States of America, as it related to the expansion of slavery and fugitive slave laws, led to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Depending on the particular issue, sometimes both northern and southern states justified their political positions by appealing to state sovereignty. Fearing that slavery would be threatened by results of the 1860 presidential election, eleven slave states declared their independence from the federal Union and formed a new confederation.[37] The United States government rejected the secessions as rebellion, declaring that secession from the Union by an individual state was unconstitutional, as the states were part of an indissolvable federation.[citation needed]

Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...[11]

There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In Virginia v. Tennessee, 148 U.S. 503 (1893), the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States".[72] The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.[73]

Debate over incorporation began in the 1970s when the city of Atlanta attempted to use a state law to force annexation of Sandy Springs. The attempt failed when the Supreme Court of Georgia ruled that the law was unconstitutional. In response, the Committee for Sandy Springs was formed in 1975. In every legislative session, state legislators representing the area introduced a bill in the Georgia General Assembly to authorize a referendum on incorporation. Legislators representing Atlanta and southwestern Fulton County, who feared tax revenue that would be lost from incorporation, blocked the bills using the procedural requirement that all local legislation be approved first by a delegation of representatives from the affected area. In 1989, a push was made for Sandy Springs to join neighboring Chattahoochee Plantation in Cobb County. This move was blocked by Speaker Tom Murphy.

Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment[15] , ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments).[15] Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy.[24] One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate.[25] Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.[26]

The Federalists and Democratic-Republicans of the early 19th century were not as organized on the state and especially federal level as later parties would be, so members of Congress were the one group of national party officials who met regularly. Many criticized the caucus system as illegitimate since it was not mentioned in the Constitution. The caucus also became the subject of intra-party struggles, particularly in 1808 when opponents of Madison denounced his selection. The caucus system produced concerns about separation of powers, as members of the legislative branch nominated the head of the executive branch. The importance of earning re-nomination may have pressured Madison into taking a more aggressive posture in the lead-up to the War of 1812. Many critics of the caucus system proposed that the states should play the primary role in nominating candidates. However, supporters of the caucus system argued that it was the best system for choosing national candidates in a country with several states.[1]