Question: What molecule in plants absorbs energy from sunlight?

Photosynthetic Efficiency and Light Absorption
In plants, the molecule responsible for capturing energy from the sun is chlorophyll, which operates within the 400-700 nm wavelength range. Approximately 47% of solar spectrum energy is not utilized due to the incompatibility of photon wavelengths with chlorophyll's active range. About 30% of in-range photons are not absorbed due to inefficiencies in the leaf structure or photon misdirection. 24% of absorbed energy is lost as short wavelength photons are degraded to the 700 nm energy level. Furthermore, 68% of the energy that is harnessed is lost in the conversion to D-glucose, with 35-45% of this glucose being consumed by the leaf during dark and photo respiration processes.

All known extant (surviving) organisms are based on the same biochemical processes: genetic information encoded as nucleic acid (DNA, or RNA for many viruses), transcribed into RNA, then translated into proteins (that is, polymers of amino acids) by highly conserved ribosomes. Perhaps most tellingly, the Genetic Code (the "translation table" between DNA and amino acids) is the same for almost every organism, meaning that a piece of DNA in a bacterium codes for the same amino acid as in a human cell. ATP is used as energy currency by all extant life. A deeper understanding of developmental biology shows that common morphology is, in fact, the product of shared genetic elements.[2] For example, although camera-like eyes are believed to have evolved independently on many separate occasions,[3] they share a common set of light-sensing proteins (opsins), suggesting a common point of origin for all sighted creatures.[4][5] Another noteworthy example is the familiar vertebrate body plan, whose structure is controlled by the homeobox (Hox) family of genes.

A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.

If substrate molecules are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration[5] (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or against the concentration gradient), specific transmembrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and transport them across the cell membrane. Because energy is required in this process, it is known as 'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.

Primary production refers to the production of organic matter, i.e., chemically bound energy, through processes such as photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. The organic matter produced by primary producers forms the basis of all food webs. Further, it generates oxygen (O2), a molecule necessary to sustain animals and humans.[64][65][66][67]

The chlorine atom, written often as Cl., behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule (Cl2). The radical Cl. is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts; hence brominated CFCs are also regulated.

In above ground food webs, energy moves from producers (plants) to primary consumers (herbivores) and then to secondary consumers (predators). The phrase, trophic level, refers to the different levels or steps in the energy pathway. In other words, the producers, consumers, and decomposers are the main trophic levels. This chain of energy transferring from one species to another can continue several more times, but eventually ends. At the end of the food chain, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead plant and animal material into simple nutrients.

Typically a ruthenium metalorganic dye (Ru-centered) is used as a monolayer of light-absorbing material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a mesoporous layer of nanoparticulate titanium dioxide to greatly amplify the surface area (200â€“300 m2/g TiO2, as compared to approximately 10 m2/g of flat single crystal). The photogenerated electrons from the light absorbing dye are passed on to the n-type TiO2 and the holes are absorbed by an electrolyte on the other side of the dye. The circuit is completed by a redox couple in the electrolyte, which can be liquid or solid. This type of cell allows more flexible use of materials and is typically manufactured by screen printing or ultrasonic nozzles, with the potential for lower processing costs than those used for bulk solar cells. However, the dyes in these cells also suffer from degradation under heat and UV light and the cell casing is difficult to seal due to the solvents used in assembly. The first commercial shipment of DSSC solar modules occurred in July 2009 from G24i Innovations.[80]

The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and renewable energy. However, if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water rather than a photovoltaic or an electrolytic system, the reaction takes place in one step, it therefore can be more efficient.[10][11]

Astronomical spectroscopy is a particularly significant type of remote spectral sensing. In this case, the objects and samples of interest are so distant from earth that electromagnetic radiation is the only means available to measure them. Astronomical spectra contain both absorption and emission spectral information. Absorption spectroscopy has been particularly important for understanding interstellar clouds and determining that some of them contain molecules. Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in the study of extrasolar planets. Detection of extrasolar planets by the transit method also measures their absorption spectrum and allows for the determination of the planet's atmospheric composition,[6] temperature, pressure, and scale height, and hence allows also for the determination of the planet's mass.[7]

In secondary active transport, also known as coupled transport or co-transport, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead it relies upon the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions in/out of the cell.[9] Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient, but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to that where it is less concentrated increases entropy and can serve as a source of energy for metabolism (e.g. in ATP synthase).


Question: Who was the head of the Department of Homeland Security in 2017?

The position of Secretary of Homeland Security was held by Kirstjen Nielsen in 2017, succeeding John F. Kelly, who was appointed as White House Chief of Staff by President Donald Trump. Nielsen was nominated for the role on October 12, 2017, and her appointment was confirmed by the Senate on December 5, 2017.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes U.S. EPA) is an agency of the federal government of the United States which was created for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress.[2] President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA and it began operation on December 2, 1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate. The agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the President and approved by Congress. The current Administrator is Scott Pruitt. The EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the Administrator is normally given cabinet rank.

In 2010, U.S. Chamber president Tom Donohue agreed to work with Senators John Kerry, Lindsey Graham, and Joe Lieberman as they crafted legislation to address climate change; the effort fell apart and failed to produce a bill.[25] In October 2017, Karen Harbert, CEO of the U.S. Chamber's Global Energy Institute, published an op-ed in USA Today criticizing the EPA's Clean Power Plan, saying, "[t]he planâ€™s fundamental flaw was that it would have intentionally raised the cost of energy without regard to the impact on families and businesses." Harbert also stated, "To be clear, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce believes that the climate is changing, and that man is contributing to these changes. We also believe that technology and innovation, rather than sweeping federal mandates, offer the best approach for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change."[74]

Trump's "America First Energy Plan", focuses on increasing the use of fossil fuels without mentioning renewable energy. It would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Clean Water Rule, and limit the EPA's mission to protecting air and water quality. Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial oil pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan. He also invited American manufacturers to suggest which regulations should be eliminated; industry leaders submitted 168 comments, of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules.[39]
Trump's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation, particularly of the fossil fuel industry. Several of his cabinet picks, such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, were people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head.[40]

On the weekend of February 10–12, 2017, President Trump and his wife Melania hosted Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe and his wife. This was the first use of Mar-a-Lago to entertain an international leader,[27] and the occasion for one of his first international security crises, that of a North Korean missile launch. Trump and Abe conferred in full view of the other diners.[28]

In February 2005, DHS and the Office of Personnel Management issued rules relating to employee pay and discipline for a new personnel system named MaxHR. The Washington Post said that the rules would allow DHS "to override any provision in a union contract by issuing a department-wide directive" and would make it "difficult, if not impossible, for unions to negotiate over arrangements for staffing, deployments, technology and other workplace matters."[34]

In the Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data), the Department of Homeland Security earned a D by scoring 69 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. It also had not updated its FOIA policies since the 2007 FOIA amendments.[99]

Signed into effect on 12 June 2002, the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act, (PHSBPRA) was signed by the President, the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).

The Secretary at the Department's establishment in 2004 was Patricia Scott.[8] Helen Williams was appointed Secretary of the Department in 2007.[9] Finn Pratt succeeded Williams in September 2009 after her retirement from the public service.[1][9]

A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C.  This reorganization made the Marine Hospital Service into its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury.[9]  The position of Supervising Surgeon (later titled the Surgeon General) was created to administer the Service, and John Maynard Woodworth, (1837-1879), was appointed as the first incumbent in 1871.  He moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff; putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants.  Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals.  The commissioned officer corps  was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd/24th President Grover Cleveland.

The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the Governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system.[295][296] "Without action before April, Puerto Rico’s ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico", according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico’s inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth."[296]


Question: Who holds the record for the most Gold Gloves at the shortstop position?

Ozzie Smith, famously known as "the Wizard of Oz," holds the record for the most Gold Glove Awards at the shortstop position, having won 13 awards during his 19 seasons with the St. Louis Cardinals. Omar Vizquel is a close second with 11 wins, having been honored twice with the San Francisco Giants in the National League, after previously winning nine awards with the Seattle Mariners and the Cleveland Indians in the American League. Luis Aparicio, with nine wins, and Mark Belanger, with eight, follow closely behind. Dave Concepción and Derek Jeter have each been awarded five times, while Tony Fernández and Alan Trammell have been honored four times. Among the Hall of Famers who have won Gold Glove Awards at shortstop are Smith, Aparicio, Ernie Banks, Robin Yount, Barry Larkin, and Cal Ripken, Jr., who is also known as "The Iron Man" for his record-breaking 2,632 consecutive games played.

Despite playing only twelve seasons and 657 games (of which only his first nine seasons, totaling 621 games, were full seasons), and only playing 47 NHL games after his 27th birthday, Orr accomplished many records and achievements, a number of which still stand today, and are listed below.

In his eleven seasons with Seattle (1989â€“1999) Griffey established himself as one of the most prolific and exciting players of the era, racking up 1,752 hits, 398 home runs, 1,152 RBIs, and 167 stolen bases. He led the American League in home runs for four seasons (1994, 1997, 1998, and 1999), was voted the A.L. MVP in 1997, and maintained a .297 career batting average. In his first major league at-bat, he doubled.[16]

Since the Top 30 scoring system was implemented in 1991–92., the number of completed men's or women's World Cup races each year has ranged from 30 to 44, so the maximum possible point total for an individual racer is about 3000–4400 under the current scoring system. However, very few racers actually ski in all events; for example, Bode Miller was "the only skier to have competed in every World Cup race"[18] during the three seasons from 2003–2005.  The current record for total World Cup points in a season is Tina Maze's 2414 points in 2012–13, with the men's record of 2000 points set by Hermann Maier in 1999–2000. The fewest points for an overall champion under the current system thus far have been 1009 for men by Aksel Lund Svindal in 2008–09 and 1248 for women by Vreni Schneider in 1994–95.  The largest margin of victory in the overall has been Maze's 1313 points in 2012–13, more than doubling second-place finisher Maria Höfl-Riesch's total, while the largest men's margin was 743 points by Hermann Maier in 2000–01. Note that in the early days of World Cup (when the first place was awarded only 25 points), even larger relative margins of victory were recorded in 1967 by Jean-Claude Killy with 225 points over Heinrich Messner with 114 points and in 1973–74 by Annemarie Moser-Pröll with 268 points over Monika Kaserer with 153 points. The closest finishes since 1992 have been minuscule margins of 6 points in 1994–95 (Vreni Schneider over Katja Seizinger), 3 points in 2004–05 (Anja Pärson over Janica Kostelić) and in 2010–11 (Maria Riesch over Lindsey Vonn), and only 2 points in 2008–09 (Aksel Lund Svindal over Benjamin Raich). The current men's record for total World Cup points in one month of the season is Ivica Kostelić's 999 points from January 2011.

The Warriors began the 2013–14 season showing flashes of brilliance and also plenty of lapses. In early December their record was 12–9, as compared to 17–4 the year before. One challenging factor was a tough starting schedule that saw them play 14 of their first 22 games on the road, including 10 games against teams holding playoff spots in the standings. A stream of injuries also held the team back, including injuries to Festus Ezeli (off-season surgery to repair the right knee, out for the season), Toney Douglas (left tibia stress reaction, out nearly a month from mid-November to December), and Jermaine O'Neal (right wrist injury and surgery, out from mid-November to early February). Stephen Curry and Harrison Barnes were also out for at least four games before the all-star break, each with minor injuries. Most prominently of all, Iguodala suffered a hamstring pull in late November that kept him out for over a month, during which time the Warriors' performance suffered significantly on both the defensive and offensive ends of the court, and the team posted a losing 5–7 record while revealing a lack of depth on their bench. With Iguodala back in the lineup, the Warriors went on a 10-game winning streak, which included six consecutive wins on a single road trip, tying an NBA record. The winning streak was the longest for the franchise since the 1975 championship year, and just one short of the team record of 11 consecutive wins, set in the 1971–72 season.

The Yankees won the World Series every year from 1936 to 1939 with a team that featured Gehrig and outfielder Joe DiMaggio, who recorded a record hitting streak during New York's 1941 championship season. New York set a major league record by winning five consecutive championships from 1949 to 1953, and appeared in the World Series nine times from 1955 to 1964. Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, and Whitey Ford were among the players fielded by the Yankees during the era. After the 1964 season, a lack of effective replacements for aging players caused the franchise to decline on the field, and the team became a money-loser for owners CBS while playing in an aging stadium.

The P72 model bat was created in 1954 for professional baseball player Leslie Wayne Pinkham. It became one of baseball's most popular bats. Baseball Hall of Famers Cal Ripken Jr. and Robin Yount are among the players who used the P72 over the years. New York Yankee Derek Jeter used the P72 for every at bat in his 20 MLB seasons, with over 12,500 plate appearances. On September 25, 2014, in honor of Jeter's impending retirement, the P72 designation was retired, and the bat was renamed the DJ2 (Jeter wore #2).[4] However descendants of Les Pinkam will still be allowed to get the bat with its P72 designation.

The highest paid player in Major League Baseball (MLB) from the 2013 season is New York Yankees' third baseman Alex Rodriguez with an annual salary of $29,000,000, $4 million higher than the second-highest paid player, Cliff Lee. MLB does not have a hard salary cap, instead employing a luxury tax which applies to teams whose total payroll exceeds certain set thresholds for a given season.[1][2] Free agency did not exist in MLB prior to the end of the reserve clause in the 1970s, allowing owners before that time to wholly dictate the terms of player negotiations and resulting in significantly lower salaries. Babe Ruth, widely regarded as one of the greatest baseball players ever, earned an estimated $910,696 ($14,341,967 inflation-adjusted from 1931 dollars) over his entire playing career.[3] When asked whether he thought he deserved to earn $80,000 a year ($1,146,932 inflation-adjusted), while the president, Herbert Hoover, had a $75,000 salary, Ruth famously remarked, "What the hell has Hoover got to do with it? Besides, I had a better year than he did."[4][5]

Special double-doubles are rare. One such double-double is called double double-double (also referred to as 20–20 or Double-20). It occurs when a player accumulates 20 or more in two different statistical categories in a game.[4][5][6] Another such double-double is called a triple double-double (also referred to as 30–30).[7] The only player in NBA history to record a 40-40 is Wilt Chamberlain, who achieved the feat eight times in his career. Of the five instances, four were recorded in his rookie season, and the fifth was achieved the following year where he recorded 78 points and 43 rebounds in a game. Wilt Chamberlain also holds the record for most career double-doubles (regular season and playoffs) with 1111. Tim Duncan is second with 1005, followed by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar with 1004.

A double-double is the accumulation of a double-digit number total in two of the statistical five categories in a game. The most common double-double combination is points-rebounds, followed by points-assists. Since the 1983–84 season, Tim Duncan leads the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the points-rebounds combination with 840, and John Stockton leads the points-assists combination with 714.

Heading into the 2008 season, Ellsbury was ranked 13th-best prospect in baseball by Baseball America,[38] the 16th-best prospect by Baseball Prospectus,[39] and the 19th-best prospect by ESPN Scouts Inc.[40] Ellsbury hit .224, with .291 on-base percentage (OBP), and a .347 slugging percentage in 16 spring training games and started in center field on Opening Day of the 2008 Major League Baseball season against the Oakland Athletics on March 25 at the Tokyo Dome in Tokyo, Japan.[41] Ellsbury had his first career multi-home run game against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on April 22.[citation needed] Ellsbury stole 25 consecutive bases without being caught, until he was caught stealing in a game on May 18. He was two stolen bases shy of the major league record held by Tim Raines in 1979.[42] With three stolen bases against the Baltimore Orioles on May 30, he became the first Red Sox player to steal more than two bases in a game since Jerry Remy stole four in 1980.[43] Ellsbury stole his 32nd base of the season on June 15, breaking the Red Sox' rookie record, set 100 years earlier by Amby McConnell.[44] He finished the season with 50 steals to lead the American League,[36] putting him third on the list of Red Sox all-time stolen base leaders for a single season, behind Tommy Harper (54) in 1973 and Tris Speaker (52) in 1912.[36] Ellsbury finished third in the AL Rookie of the Year voting, behind Evan Longoria of Tampa Bay and Alexei Ramírez of the Chicago White Sox.[45]


Question:
Who wore number 7 for the Green Bay Packers? (The provided question is already in a similar and correct format)

Another example:

**Question**: what is the most popular video game of all time

**Similar Question**: What's the most popular video game of all time?

During the 2013 Green Bay Packers training camp and pre-season games, rookie wide receiver Alex Gillett donned jersey number 1, while rookie wide receiver Omarius Hines wore number 5. Notably, quarterback Don Majkowski initially wore number 5 during his rookie season in 1987 before changing to number 7.

In Week 15 against the Oakland Raiders, Peppers recorded 4 tackles and 2.5 sacks which moved him past fellow North Carolina alumni and former New York Giants legendary linebacker Lawrence Taylor into tenth place on the all-time NFL sacks list, giving him 135 career sacks. The Packers beat the Raiders by a score of 30-20.

One of the most remembered moments in Monday Night Football history occurred on December 8, 1980, yet had nothing to do with the game or football in general. During a game between the Miami Dolphins and New England Patriots, Howard Cosell broke the news of famed Beatle John Lennon's assassination,[2] news that stunned a nationwide audience.

In time, this game would be nearly forgotten, lost in the middle of Lombardi's great triumphs.Â ... This was both unfair and fitting in a sense, because the game was best considered on its own, a faded dream played in the mist and slop, a transitory moment between football past and future.

On January 15, 2012, the Giants defeated the Green Bay Packers 37–20. Eli Manning threw for 330 yards and 3 touchdowns, two of which to wide receiver Hakeem Nicks. This earned the Giants a spot in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2012, against the San Francisco 49ers. They won this game 20–17, in overtime, with Tynes scoring the winning field goal as he did four years earlier in the same game against the Packers.

USC has had more players (493,[79] not counting a disallowed stunt pick of former USC Trojan John Wayne in 1972[80]), and more first round NFL Draft picks (77) than any other college.[81][82] Trojan players have been selected[when?] the NFL Pro Bowl 162 times,[citation needed] while a Trojan has played in all but two Super Bowls.[citation needed]

The game was well received by critics, being considered one of the greatest of all time, with praise given to its visuals, audio, and gameplay. It was also commercially successful, establishing the Genesis as a key player in the 16-bit era and allowing it to compete with Nintendo and their Super Nintendo Entertainment System console. The game has been ported a number of times, and inspired several clones, a successful franchise, and adaptations into other media.

Charles Richard LeBeau (/ləˈboʊ/ lə-BOH; born September 9, 1937) is an American football coach and former cornerback, who was last being an assistant head coach and defensive coordinator for the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League (NFL). He has been active at field level in the NFL for 59 consecutive seasons – 14 as a player with the Detroit Lions and 45 as a coach.[1] He is considered to be one of the greatest defensive coordinators of all time.[2] Considered an “innovator” and “defensive football genius”,[3][4] LeBeau popularized the "zone blitz" when he was defensive coordinator of the Cincinnati Bengals in the late 1980s.

After winning the NFC championship game, the Packers earned a trip to Super Bowl XLV—a game in which they won, 31–25, against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In the game, Rodgers completed 24 of 39 pass attempts for 304 yards and three touchdowns in the win, and was named Super Bowl MVP for his performance.[87][88]

While the game received acclaim for its gameplay, graphics, and its attention to detail, critics were initially divided on the protagonist and the philosophical nature and execution of the game's storyline, which explores themes such as memetics, social engineering, political conspiracies, censorship, artificial intelligence, existentialism, postmodernism and post-truth politics. Metal Gear Solid 2 has since been considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time, as well as a leading example of artistic expression in video games. By 2003, the game had sold over seven million copies worldwide.

Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for longest time spent playing Grand Theft Auto IV or the number of hot dogs that can be consumed in ten minutes, although eating and alcohol consumption entries are no longer accepted, possibly for fear of litigation. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts as the heaviest tumour, the most poisonous plant, the shortest river (Roe River), the two longest-running dramas (General Hospital and Guiding Light) in the US, and the world's most successful salesman (Joe Girard), among others. Many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano.[11]


Question: A system of defenses situated along France's border?

The Maginot Line, named after French Minister of War André Maginot, was a series of fortifications, obstacles, and weapon installations constructed by France during the 1930s. Its purpose was to deter a German invasion and channel any attack around the fortifications. Built along France's borders with Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Luxembourg, the line was part of a strategic plan that involved moving into Belgium to counter a German offensive.

In 1961, the East German government under Walter Ulbricht erected a barbed-wire barrier around West Berlin, officially called the antifaschistischer Schutzwall (anti-fascist protective barrier). The East German authorities argued that it was meant to prevent spies and agents of West Germany from crossing into the East. However, it was universally known as the Berlin Wall and its real purpose was to keep East German citizens from escaping to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, and buildings were demolished to create a "death zone" in view of East German guards armed with machine guns. The Wall closed the biggest loophole in the Iron Curtain, and Berlin went from being one of the easiest places to cross from East Europe to West Europe to being one of the most difficult.[1]

German forces invaded Poland from the north, south, and west the morning after the Gleiwitz incident. Slovak forces advanced alongside the Germans in northern Slovakia. As the Wehrmacht advanced, Polish forces withdrew from their forward bases of operation close to the Polishâ€“German border to more established lines of defence to the east. After the mid-September Polish defeat in the Battle of the Bzura, the Germans gained an undisputed advantage. Polish forces then withdrew to the southeast where they prepared for a long defence of the Romanian Bridgehead and awaited expected support and relief from France and the United Kingdom.[16] While those two countries had pacts with Poland and had declared war on Germany on 3 September, in the end their aid to Poland was very limited.

11. Safety Quarters were built near the major fortifications so fortress (ouvrage) crews could reach their battle stations in the shortest possible time in the event of a surprise attack during peacetime.

In the 1860s, what remains in real terms the most expensive ever government spending project saw fortifications built on the island and in the Solent, as well as elsewhere along the south coast, including the Palmerston Forts, The Needles Battery and Fort Victoria, because of fears about possible French invasion.[29]

Initially the Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, was not keen on the idea and still hoped to avoid war, but following his appeasement of Hitler at Munich in September 1938, which was widely seen as a stopgap measure to buy time, he too began to realise the need for urgent preparations for war. During the last 12 months of peace, Britain and France carried out a vigorous buildup of their armed forces and weapons production. The long-awaited Spitfire fighter began to enter service, the first of the new naval vessels ordered under the 1936 emergency programme began to join the fleet, and the Air Ministry made the final touches to the Chain Home early warning network of radio direction-finding (later called radar) stations, to bring it up to full operational readiness.

Following several German-staged incidents (like the Gleiwitz incident, a part of Operation Himmler), which German propaganda used as a pretext to claim that German forces were acting in self-defence, the first regular act of war took place on 1 September 1939, at 04:40, when the Luftwaffe attacked the Polish town of Wieluń, destroying 75% of the city and killing close to 1,200 people, most of them civilians. Five minutes later, the old German pre-dreadnought battleship Schleswig-Holstein opened fire on the Polish military transit depot at Westerplatte in the Free City of Danzig on the Baltic Sea. At 08:00, German troops—still without a formal declaration of war issued—attacked near the Polish village of Mokra. The Battle of the Border had begun. Later that day, the Germans attacked on Poland's western, southern and northern borders, while German aircraft began raids on Polish cities. The main axis of attack led eastwards from Germany through the western Polish border. Supporting attacks came from East Prussia in the north, and a joint German-Slovak tertiary attack by units (Field Army "Bernolák") from the German-allied Slovak Republic in the south. All three assaults converged on the Polish capital of Warsaw.

The regiment of Gardes Françaises (French Guards) formed the permanent garrison of Paris and, with many local ties, was favourably disposed towards the popular cause.[17] This regiment had remained confined to its barracks during the initial stages of the mid-July disturbances. With Paris becoming the scene of a general riot, Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (Marshal of the Camp, Proprietor of the Royal Allemand-Dragoons), not trusting the regiment to obey his order, posted sixty dragoons to station themselves before its dépôt in the Chaussée d'Antin. The officers of the French Guards made ineffectual attempts to rally their men. The rebellious citizenry had now acquired a trained military contingent. As word of this spread, the commanders of the royal forces encamped on the Champ de Mars became doubtful of the dependability of even the foreign regiments.[18] The future "Citizen King", Louis-Philippe, duc d'Orléans, witnessed these events as a young officer and was of the opinion that the soldiers would have obeyed orders if put to the test. He also commented in retrospect that the officers of the French Guards had neglected their responsibilities in the period before the uprising, leaving the regiment too much to the control of its non-commissioned officers.[19] However, the uncertain leadership of Besenval led to a virtual abdication of royal authority in central Paris. On the morning of 13 July the electors of Paris met and agreed to the recruitment of a "bourgeois militia" of 48,000 men[20]from the sixty voting districts of Paris, to restore order.[21]

According to Theodor Mommsen, the imperial Roman army relied on a "forward" or "preclusive" defence strategy, a view generally accepted by modern scholarship: cf. Edward Luttwak's Grand Strategy of the Roman Army (1977). Forward-defence aimed at neutralizing imminent barbarian incursions before they reached the imperial borders. This was achieved by stationing units (both legions and auxilia) on or near the border. Luttwak argued that annexations such as the Agri Decumates and Dacia were aimed at providing the Roman Army with "strategic salients", which could be used to attack enemy formations from more than one direction, although this has been doubted by some scholars. According to Luttwak, the Roman response to any threat would be a pincer movement into barbarian territory: large infantry and cavalry forces from the border bases would immediately cross the border to intercept the coalescing enemy army; simultaneously the enemy would be attacked in the rear by elite Roman cavalry (alae) advancing from the strategic salient(s).[226] In any event, forward-defence obviously required the army to maintain first-rate and timely intelligence of events in the barbarian borderlands, which was provided by a system of small forts and fortified watch-towers in the cross-border regions, and by continuous cross-border patrols and scouting-operations (explorationes).

By now the V1 and V2 launch sites were being increasingly overrun, and with the Allies moving towards the Rhine and the Soviet armies rapidly closing in from the east, large numbers of refugees began to congregate in the cities, creating utter chaos. When severe frost and snow came in January, food was declared the main priority,[16] although Germany still maintained the ability to defend its vital installations with formidable numbers of anti-aircraft cannons. From early February 1945 railheads, marshalling yards and transport systems of over 200 small towns, such as Hildesheim and Meiningen in West Germany and Jenbach in Austria were attacked in Operation Clarion.

The subject of the emergence of castles is a complex matter which has led to considerable debate. Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings and a need for private defence.[54] The breakdown of the Carolingian Empire led to the privatisation of government, and local lords assumed responsibility for the economy and justice.[55] However, while castles proliferated in the 9th and 10th centuries the link between periods of insecurity and building fortifications is not always straightforward. Some high concentrations of castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.[56]


Question: What does the term social roles refer to?

A social role, often simply referred to as a role, encompasses a set of behaviors, responsibilities, expectations, and norms that are associated with a particular status or position within a social context. This concept is central to understanding societal function and interaction, as it outlines the expected or freely chosen patterns of behavior for individuals in various social settings. The notion of social roles is fundamental to both functionalist and interactionist perspectives on society, emphasizing the dynamic and sometimes evolving nature of these roles.

Sheldon Stryker, an influential social constructionist on social interactionism, emphasizes that the sociology world at large is the most viable and vibrant intellectual framework.[27] By being made up of our thoughts self-belief, the social interactionism theory is the purpose of all human interaction, and is what causes society to exist. This fuels criticisms of the symbolic interactionist framework for failing to account for social structure, as well as criticisms that interactionist theories cannot be assessed via quantitative methods, and cannot be falsifiable or tested empirically. Framework is important for the symbolic interaction theory because for in order for the social structure to form, there are certain bonds of communication that need to be established to create the interaction. Much of the symbolic interactionist framework's basic tenets can be found in a very wide range of sociological and psychological work, without being explicitly cited as interactionist, making the influence of symbolic interactionism difficult to recognize given this general acceptance of its assumptions as "common knowledge".

A similar concept is the lone wolf of a particular group, who spends enough time with a group to be considered a member but not enough time to be very close to the other members. Such people tend to not take part in the group activities or "get-togethers". Part of this concept arises from the fact that the lone wolf has been pushed away from the group but still has a very strong bond to the "pack". He or she will use the traits of the former pack to find and develop a new one if possible. This may involve establishing mating dominance of a certain member of another pack.[3] This refreshes the idea that this behavior is suggestive of rejected inbreeding within a social system.

Relating to social communication studies, power in social influence settings has introduced a large realm of research pertaining to persuasion tactics and leadership practices. Through social communication studies, it has been theorized that leadership and power are closely linked. It has been further presumed that different forms of power affect one's leadership and success. This idea is used often in organizational communication and throughout the workforce. In a notable study of power conducted by social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven in 1959, power is divided into five separate and distinct forms.[1] They identified those five bases of power as coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, and expert. This was followed by Raven's subsequent identification in 1965 of a sixth separate and distinct base of power: informational power.[2] Furthermore, French and Raven defined social influence as a change in the belief, attitude, or behavior of a person (the target of influence) which results from the action of another person (an influencing agent), and they defined social power as the potential for such influence, that is, the ability of the agent to bring about such a change using available resources.[3]

The role of religion in a culture may influence a child's moral development and sense of moral identity. Values are transmitted through religion, which is for many inextricably linked to a cultural identity. Religious development often goes along with moral development of the children as it shapes the child's concepts of right and wrong. Intrinsic aspects of religion may have a positive impact on the internalization and the symbolism of moral identity. The child may internalize the parents' morals if a religion is a family activity or the religious social group's morals to which the child belongs. Religious development mirrors the cognitive and moral developmental stages of the children. Nucci and Turiel (1993), on the other hand, proposed that the development of morality is distinct from the understanding of religious rules when assessing individuals' reactions to whether moral and nonmoral religious rules was contingent to God's word and whether a harmful act could be justified as morally right based on God's commands.[63] Children form their own understanding of how they see the world, themselves or others and are able to understand that not all religious rules are applied to morality, social structures or different religions.

To distinguish "capitalist" and "socialist" types of property ownership further, two different forms of individual property were recognized: private property (частная собственность, chastnaya sobstvennost) and personal property (личная собственность, lichnaya sobstvennost). The former encompassed capital (means of production), while the latter described everything else in a person's possession. This distinction has been a source of confusion when interpreting phrases such as "socialism (communism) abolished private property"; one might conclude that all individual property was abolished, when this was in fact not the case.

Reflected appraisal is a term used in psychology to describe a person's perception of how others see and evaluate him or her. The reflected appraisal process concludes that people come to think of themselves in the way they believe others think of them (Mead, 1934; Cooley, 1902; Sullivan, 1947). This process has been deemed important to the development of a person's self-esteem, especially because it includes interaction with people outside oneself,[1] and is considered one of the main influences on the development of self-concept.[2]

An example of impersonal reward relates to promises of promotions, money and rewards from various social areas.[4]

The ideas posited by the theory have been researched and re-examined by scholars when looking at organizational communication. Some scholars explored the arena of company policy making, demonstrating that the effect company policies have on the employees, ranging from slight attitudinal responses (such as dissatisfaction) to radical behavioral reactions (such as conflicts, fights and resignation). In this way, sophisticated implementation of controversial policies is required (Baack, 1991). Social penetration theory offers a framework allowing for an explanation of the potential issues.

Anti-social behaviours are actions that harm or lack consideration for the well-being of others.[1]  It has also been defined as any type of conduct that violates the basic rights of another person[2] and any behaviour that is considered to be disruptive to others in society.[3] This can be carried out in various ways, which includes but is not limited to intentional aggression, as well as covert and overt hostility.[3] Anti-social behaviour also develops through social interaction within the family and community. It continuously affects a child's temperament, cognitive ability and their involvement with negative peers, dramatically affecting children's problem solving skills.[4] Many people also label behaviour which is deemed contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct as anti-social behaviour.[5] However, researchers have stated that it is a difficult term to define, particularly in the United Kingdom where there are an infinite number of acts that fall into its category.[6]  The term is especially used in British English.[7]

In sociology and anthropology, an age grade or age class is a form of social organization based on age, within a series of such categories, through which individuals pass over the course of their lives.


Question: Who wrote "Ain't Living Long Like This"?

Ain't Living Long Like This, the debut studio album by American country music artist Rodney Crowell, was released in 1978 under Warner Bros. Records. Despite not charting on the Top Country Albums list and having singles "Elvira," "Baby Better Start Turnin' 'Em Down," and "(Now and Then, There's) A Fool Such as I" fail to make the top 40, the album is considered one of Crowell's best and most influential works. Brett Hartenbach of Allmusic praised the album for showcasing Crowell's songwriting skills and his ability to perform songs, whether his own or written by others. Many of the songs from this album were later covered by other artists, including The Oak Ridge Boys and Alan Jackson. The album's cover font was enlarged for better legibility when it was re-released in 2002.

"The Day the World Gets 'Round" is a song by English musician George Harrison, released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World. Harrison was inspired to write the song following the successful Concert for Bangladesh shows, which were held in New York on 1 August 1971 as a benefit for refugees from the country formerly known as East Pakistan. The lyrics reflect his disappointment that such a humanitarian aid project was necessary, given the abundance of resources available across the planet, and his belief that if all individuals were more spiritually aware, there would be no suffering in the world. Adding to Harrison's frustration while writing the song, the aid project became embroiled in financial problems, as commercial concerns delayed the release of the Concert for Bangladesh album, and government tax departments failed to embrace the goodwill inherent in the venture.

Writing for Allmusic, critic Michael B. Smith wrote the album "ranks as one of Prine's finest works, a scrapbook of country classics, interpreted by some of the genres best female vocalists, in duet with one fine American singer and a great songwriter."[1] Music critic Bill Frater wrote "To begin with, long-time John Prine fans might be a little put off by this new release. There is only one Prine-penned song in the bunch, In Spite of Ourselves, the title track... I love this album, and I applaud Prine proclaiming his love for these kinds of songs."[3] Robert Christgau gave the album an A rating, and had particular praise for Iris DeMent, writing "... the costar is Iris DeMent, who kills on both the Bobby Braddock cornpone of "(We're Not) The Jet Set" (rhymes with "Chevro-let set") and the conflicted spouse-swapping of the impossible old George & Melba hit "Let's Invite Them Over"â€”as well as Prine's only new copyright, the title track, in which a husband and wife who love each other to death paint totally different pictures of their marriage. "[2]

Carrie Jacobs-Bond began to write songs in 1894 to supplement the income of her husband, Frank Bond.[1] When he died in 1895, she returned briefly to her hometown of Janesville, Wisconsin, where "I Love You Truly" was written.[2]  She then moved to Chicago where she painted china and rented out rooms to make ends meet.[1]  There she continued to write songs and eventually sought to publish them herself.  With the encouragement and assistance of friends, including a loan from contralto Jessie Bartlett Davis, in 1901 she published a sheet music collection of her compositions called Seven Songs as Unpretentious as the Wild Rose, one of which was "I Love You Truly".[1]  She published it again as a separate song in 1906, at the same time correcting an oversight and filing for copyright.  It sold over a million copies,[3] one of the earliest songs composed by a woman to achieve that distinction.[a]

"Wasn't Born to Follow", also known as "I Wasn't Born to Follow", is a song written by Gerry Goffin and Carole King. Goffin wrote the lyrics and King provided the music. The song was first recorded by The Byrds on their 1968 album The Notorious Byrd Brothers and King's short lived band The City also recorded the song on their 1968 album Now That Everything's Been Said. It has also been covered by many other artists, including The Monkees, Dusty Springfield and a solo recording by King. The Byrds recording was featured in the 1969 film Easy Rider and was released as a single.

"Death of a Clown" is a song by Dave Davies, member of British rock group The Kinks, released as his debut solo single in 1967. The song was co-written with his brother Ray Davies, who contributed the 5-bar "La la la" hook; Ray's first wife, Rasa, sings this phrase as well as descant in the second verse, while Ray himself sings harmony in the refrain. Nicky Hopkins played the distinctive introduction, using fingerpicks on the strings of a piano. The single was credited to Dave Davies but the song also appeared on the Kinks' album Something Else by The Kinks, released later in 1967.

The For Everyman liner notes thanked Gregg Allman for the arrangement. While Allman was most associated with the emerging Southern rock scene, he had spent considerable time in Los Angeles before The Allman Brothers Band came together; he and Browne had become friends, and the brothers' early band had recorded Browne's "Cast Off All My Fears" on their 1967 self-titled album The Hour Glass. Allman decided to record his own version of "These Days" for his debut solo album, Laid Back, released like For Everyman in October 1973[1] (and following by a year or two the loss of bandmates Duane Allman and Berry Oakley in motorcycle accidents).[1] Allman's version kept to Browne's revised lyric until the end, when he changed "Don't confront me with my failures / I had not forgotten them," to "Please don't confront me with my failures / I'm aware of them." Rolling Stone praised the treatment, saying Allman "does full justice to the quietly hurting lyrics, double-tracking the vocal over a sad steel guitar," and calling the vocal quality "resigned" and "eternally aching."[8] In 1999, writer Anthony DeCurtis called Allman's version "definitive",[9] and in 2012, American Songwriter magazine said that Allman's recording had overshadowed Browne's in the same way that the Eagles had for Browne's co-written "Take It Easy".[1]

Jimmy Webb's inspiration for the lyric came while driving through Washita County in rural southwestern Oklahoma. At that time, many telephone companies were county-owned utilities, and their linemen were county employees. Heading westward on a straight road (arguably Country Road 152) into the setting sun, Webb drove past a seemingly endless line of telephone poles, each looking exactly the same as the last. Then, in the distance, he noticed the silhouette of a solitary lineman atop a pole.[12] He described it as "the picture of loneliness". Webb then "put himself atop that pole and put that phone in his hand" as he considered what the lineman was saying into the receiver.[13] Glen Campbell added in a statement to the Dallas Observer that Webb wrote the song about his first love affair with a woman who married someone else.[13]

To alleviate financial pressure on the band, Lambert arranged a song-writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album. Entwistle contributed "Boris the Spider" and "Whiskey Man" and found a niche role as second songwriter.[67] The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes, and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece, "A Quick One, While He's Away". The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away, but is ultimately forgiven. The album was titled A Quick One[68] (Happy Jack in the US),[69] and reached No.Â 4 in the UK charts.[70] It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single "Pictures of Lily".[71]

Country music historian Bill Malone wrote that Wynette's own tumultuous life (five marriages) "encompassed the jagged reality so many women have faced." Therefore, he asserts that Wynette identified so well with "D-I-V-O-R-C-E"; her rendition, Malone wrote, is "painfully sincere—there is no irony here—and if there is a soap opera quality to the dialogue, the content well mirrors both her own life and contemporary experience."[2]

"Thriller" serves as an autobiographical recap of the two years following From Under the Cork Tree's release, referencing the band's mediocre CD reviews and breakout success, as well as thanking their "diehard" fans.[29] The song discusses the band's Best New Artist Grammy loss, and Wentz calls it the "most narcissistic song on the album".[21] The line "Fix me in forty-five" is a reference to the length of a therapy session.[21] On "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race", Wentz uses wartime-inspired metaphors to discuss their newfound popularity; he called the song "kind of a tongue-in-cheek look at the way we are so addicted and obsessed with new arts, cultures and loves â€“ to the point where it just becomes oversaturated."[20][29] "I'm Like a Lawyer..." has been described as "about as close to a love song as you'll get from this band, a rare moment of tenderness among songs about blog entries, guest lists, and therapy sessions."[29] In a tribute to the politicized Chicago hardcore scene, Wentz describes the story of a rigged court case of African-American civil rights activist Fred Hampton, Jr. in "You're Crashing, But You're No Wave".[21] The song has been described as a "very well-written track, a welcome respite from the one-liners which permeate the majority of the record."[24]


Question: What's the name of the skin that separates your nostrils?

The visible part of the human nose, which includes the protruding facial feature that houses the nostrils, is shaped by the ethmoid bone and the nasal septum. The septum, primarily made of cartilage, separates the nostrils and contributes to the nose's form. Typically, a male's nose is larger than a female's. However, the specific name for the skin between the nostrils is the columella, which is the strip of tissue that separates the two external nares or nostrils.

The trachea, colloquially called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi. At the top of the trachea the cricoid cartilage attaches it to the larynx. This is the only complete tracheal ring, the others being incomplete rings of reinforcing cartilage. The trachealis muscle joins the ends of the rings and these are joined vertically by bands of fibrous connective tissue â€“ the annular ligaments of trachea. The epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing.

Loose connective tissue is a category of connective tissue which includes areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and adipose tissue. Loose connective tissue is the most common type of connective tissue in vertebrates. It holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. For example, it forms telae, such as the tela submucosa and tela subserosa, which connect mucous and serous membranes to the muscular layer. It also surrounds the blood vessels and nerves. Cells called fibroblasts are widely dispersed in this tissue; they are irregular branching cells that secrete strong fibrous proteins and proteoglycans as an extracellular matrix. The cells of this type of tissue are generally separated by quite some distance by a gelatinous substance primarily made up of collagenous and elastic fibers.

A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function essentially as normal, via a plastron. Note that despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).[citation needed]

According to the Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, the term derives from the Middle English brusket which comes from the earlier Old Norse brjósk, meaning cartilage. The cut overlies the sternum, ribs, and connecting costal cartilages.

The term Anasa occurs in Rig Veda V.29.10. What does the word mean? There are two interpretations. One is by Prof. Max Muller. The other is by Sayanacharya. According to Prof. Max Muller, it means 'one without nose' or 'one with a flat nose' and has as such been relied upon as a piece of evidence in support of the view that the Aryans were a separate race from the Dasyus. Sayanacharya says that it means 'mouthless,' i.e., devoid of good speech. This difference of meaning is due to difference in the correct reading of the word Anasa. Sayanacharya reads it as an-asa while Prof. Max Muller reads it as a-nasa. As read by Prof. Max Muller, it means 'without nose.' Question isÂ : which of the two readings is the correct one? There is no reason to hold that Sayana's reading is wrong. On the other hand there is everything to suggest that it is right. In the first place, it does not make non-sense of the word. Secondly, as there is no other place where the Dasyus are described as noseless, there is no reason why the word should be read in such a manner as to give it an altogether new sense. It is only fair to read it as a synonym of Mridhravak. There is therefore no evidence in support of the conclusion that the Dasyus belonged to a different race.[29]

In turn, the nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits are configured as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments; each segment comprehends a nasal area greater than that comprehended by a nasal subunit.

Two or more of the cartilages often unite, partially or completely, and they are sometimes bifurcated at their extremities. The rings are generally highly elastic but they may calcify with age.

All organisms consist of structural units called cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and others contain many units (multicellular). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions. A group of such cells is a tissue, and in animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium, nervous tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an organ to produce a particular function (such as the pumping of the blood by the heart, or as a barrier to the environment as the skin). This pattern continues to a higher level with several organs functioning as an organ system such as the reproductive system, and digestive system. Many multicellular organisms consist of several organ systems, which coordinate to allow for life.

The surgical nose as nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits

and these measurements are in his buildings". The second paragraph reads: "if you open your legs enough that your head is lowered by one-fourteenth of your height and raise your hands enough that your extended fingers touch the line of the top of your head, know that the centre of the extended limbs will be the navel, and the space between the legs will be an equilateral triangle".


Question: What's the name of the skin separating your nostrils?

The nasal septum is the wall that divides the nasal cavity into two halves. It is composed of bone and cartilage and separates the nostrils. The lateral nasal wall and the paranasal sinuses form the passages known as the superior, middle, and inferior meatuses. These meatuses serve as drainage areas for the ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal sinuses, as well as the nasolacrimal duct. However, the specific term for the skin between the nostrils is the nasal septum, which is the focus of the question. In this context, the nasal septum is the structure that separates the two nostrils and is covered by skin and mucous membrane.

The frenulum (Latin for little bridle) is an elastic band of tissue attached by its one end to the clitoral shaft and glans and by its other end to the prepuce. It allows two-way shifting of the clitoral hood: firstly, it can extend to let the hood be moved upwards to expose the glans for stimulation or hygienic cleansing, and secondly, it contracts to pull the hood back to protect it.

The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tissue and this gives structure to the heart. It forms the atrioventricular septum which separates the atria from the ventricles, and the fibrous rings which serve as bases for the four heart valves.[19] The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart's electrical conduction system since collagen cannot conduct electricity. The interatrial septum separates the atria and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles.[7] The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum, since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract.[7]

A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function essentially as normal, via a plastron. Note that despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).[citation needed]

The trachealis muscle connects the ends of the incomplete rings and contracts during coughing, reducing the size of the lumen of the trachea to increase the rate of air flow.[3] The esophagus lies posteriorly to the trachea, adjoining along the tracheoesophageal stripe. Circular horizontal bands of fibrous tissue called the annular ligaments of trachea join the tracheal rings together. The cartilaginous rings are incomplete to allow the trachea to collapse slightly so that food can pass down the esophagus. A flap-like epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing to prevent swallowed matter from entering the trachea.

The pertinent nasal lymphatic system arises from the superficial mucosa, and drains posteriorly to the retropharyngeal nodes (in back), and anteriorly (in front), either to the upper deep cervical nodes (in the neck), or to the submandibular glands (in the lower jaw), or into both the nodes and the glands of the neck and the jaw.

Like the whole area of the vulval vestibule, the mucus secreted by those glands protects the labia from dryness and mechanical irritation.

In turn, the nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits are configured as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments; each segment comprehends a nasal area greater than that comprehended by a nasal subunit.

The thyroid cartilage is the largest of the nine cartilages that make up the laryngeal skeleton, the cartilage structure in and around the trachea that contains the larynx. It does not completely encircle the larynx; only the cricoid cartilage does.

The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.

In human physiology there are two main types of epithelia using distinct types of barrier mechanism. Epidermal structures such as skin form a barrier from many layers of keratinized squamous cells. Internal epithelia on the other hand more often rely on tight junctions for their barrier function. This kind of barrier is mostly formed by only one or two layers of cells. It was long unclear whether tight cell junctions also play any role in the barrier function of the skin and similar external epithelia but recent research suggests that this is indeed the case.[5]


Question: When does Monday Night Raw become available on Hulu?

WWE Raw
Hulu Plus inked a multi-year agreement with WWE on September 24, 2012, to stream all of the company's television programs and select web series, including Raw. The episodes of Raw become accessible for streaming the day after their initial airing, but only a condensed 90-minute version is offered, not the complete broadcast as seen on the USA Network the previous night.

For the 1998 season, ABC pushed Monday Night Football back an hour (it has usually aired at 9:00 p.m. Eastern Time). A special pre-game show was created, Monday Night Blast, hosted by Chris Berman from the ESPN Zone restaurant in Baltimore. The game would start around 8:20 p.m. Eastern for this particular season. Despite leaving the booth, Frank Gifford stayed on one more year as a special contributor to the pre-game show, usually presenting a single segment.

With the reveal of The CW's fall 2011 schedule, it was announced that Hart of Dixie would air on Monday at 9:00 pm Eastern/8:00 pm Central, following Gossip Girl.[14] It premiered on Monday, September 26, 2011.[15] On October 12, 2011 the series was picked up for a full season, which will consist of twenty-two episodes. Along with pick-up for all other CW dramas, Mark Pedowitz said "We believe in the creative strength of these dramas, and by giving them back nine orders we can give our audience the chance to enjoy complete seasons of all three of them."[16] On May 11, 2012, The CW renewed the show for a second season,[17] which premiered on October 2, 2012. The CW renewed the show for a third season on April 26, 2013.[18]

The show premiered in April 2015. Its normal broadcast schedule is on Saturday and Sunday nights.

Grumpy Cat has appeared on NBC News's Today,[15] ABC News's Good Morning America,[16] CBS Evening News, Anderson Live,[17] VH1's Big Morning Buzz Live, The Soup[18] and FOX's American Idol. Grumpy Cat appeared on the "Garage Logic" radio broadcast the day of the Minnesota State Fair live Internet Cat Film Festival. Grumpy Cat promoted Grumpy Cat: A Grumpy Book at BookExpo America.[13] She attended her book's launch at Kitson and The Grove's Barnes & Noble in Los Angeles.[19][20] In 2014, she appeared in a television commercial for Honey Nut Cheerios.[21] She also appeared on the season finale of The Bachelorette and was a special guest on the November 17 edition of WWE Monday Night Raw.[22]

The miniseries was later released as aired on a three disc DVD set in October 2000. A two disc set followed in May 2002, which utilized one double sided disc and one single sided disc and included the special feature "The 10th Kingdom: The Making of an Epic", hosted by John Larroquette. The complete 5 episode series was made available for instant streaming on Netflix as of the 3rd week of August 2012. This is the first time the series was presented in individual episode format since the initial broadcast on NBC.

For its first American broadcast on January 18, 2007 on NBC, "The Return" aired to an estimated 10.15 million viewers according to Nielsen Media Research. It was positively received by television critics, with several focusing on the character development of Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey). Along with "Traveling Salesmen", NBC later re-broadcast "The Return" as a combined hour-long episode as part of their sweeps week. As a result, both episodes underwent editing which included the addition of four minutes of previously unseen footage.

The channel is available in two time shifted feeds, East (operating from the Eastern Time Zone) and West (operating from the Pacific Time Zone).

On the June 7 episode of Raw, Sheffield along with the other NXT season one rookies, interfered in the main event match between John Cena and CM Punk, attacking both competitors as well as the announcing team before dismantling the ring area and surrounding equipment.[23] On the June 14 Raw, the rookies attacked General Manager Bret Hart, when he refused to give them contracts.[24] The following week on Raw, Vince McMahon fired Hart and announced the hiring of an anonymous General Manager, who had signed all seven season one NXT rookies to contracts.[25] The following week, the group was named The Nexus.[26] On the July 12 Raw, The Nexus (without Darren Young) competed in their first match together, defeating John Cena in a six-on-one handicap match.[27] The feud continued at SummerSlam, where Team WWE fought the Nexus in a seven-on-seven elimination tag team match. Sheffield eliminated both John Morrison and R-Truth from the match before becoming the third member of the Nexus to be eliminated. Ultimately, the Nexus lost the match.[28] On August 18, during a live event in Honolulu, Hawaii, Reeves broke his ankle in a tag team match with David Otunga against The Hart Dynasty.[29]

Some networks, such as GSN, have even begun cutting off the credits before they finish, most likely to allow more time for commercials,[citation needed] though GSN has begun to squeeze the production company closing credits to the bottom third of the screen and show the entire credits during that time; Spike (only on its original programming and certain syndicated shows), Oxygen and Hallmark Channel also squeeze the production company credits to the lower third of the screen. Some cable channels mix use of generic and the actual production company credits depending on the show, ABC Family currently airs generic credits on most acquired programs where most episodes have no tag scene, while acquired programs where most episodes do feature one, the tag scene and/or production company credits are aired full-screen, and since June 2010, the channel's original series have the closing credits overlaid on the final scene of the episode (though these were separated in airings of their original programs via its website and VOD service until 2012).

Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County episodes aired regularly on MTV in the United States. Most episodes are approximately thirty minutes, and were broadcast in standard definition. The series' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store.[35] Episodes were previously available for viewing through the official MTV website, though they have since become unavailable since the series' conclusion.[36] The series, in addition to The Hills, were premiered in syndication in fall 2009.[37] Since its debut, Paramount Pictures has released the first two seasons of Laguna Beach onto DVD, to regions 1, 2, and 4. Each product includes all episodes of the respective season, in addition to deleted scenes and interviews of series personnel.[38]


Question: When does Monday Night Raw become available on Hulu?

As of December 9, 2016, WWE Network offers on-demand streaming of all WWE Raw episodes. Recently aired episodes become available for on-demand viewing approximately 30 days after their initial broadcast. However, for Hulu subscribers, new episodes of WWE Raw are typically uploaded to the platform the day after they air on television, allowing fans to catch up on the latest action without waiting for the 30-day delay that applies to the WWE Network.

The second season was released on January 27, 2017,[2] and the third season was released on August 11, 2017.

The series aired in Japan between April 8 and June 30, 2018,[b][13][12] and is airing on Tokyo MX, BS11, Tochigi TV, Gunma TV, MBS, and TV Aichi.[7]  The series will be released on 6 home video sets with 2 episodes each, for a total of 12 episodes.[14] Aniplex of America has licensed the series and simulcast the series on Crunchyroll and Hulu.[15]

Often, the network-to-local transition between the end of the network primetime schedule and late local news on broadcast networks will feature the network show credits on the bottom of the screen, while the local news teaser sequence, station identification, news opening, and then the top story will take place. Once the credits end, the local news broadcast zooms in to fill the screen, creating a seamless hand-off.[citation needed] Despite some objections by television production unions, some programs, such as those that air on Discovery Networks and the U.S. version of the National Geographic Channel only air the credits during a program's premiere broadcast, referring viewers to a website to view the credits in subsequent broadcasts.[citation needed]

On October 29 at 8:00 pm EDT, the Obama campaign's 30-minute infomercial "American Stories, American Solutions" was simulcast on NBC, CBS, Fox, Univision, MSNBC, BET and TV One, focusing on a wide range of issues including health care and taxation. The infomercial then showed an Obama speech live from Florida.[95] Fox asked for the second part of Game Five of the 2008 World Series to be delayed by 15 minutes in order to show the commercial, and that request was granted.[96] ABC was the only major US network not to show the ad after being indecisive during the initial approach and the Obama campaign later declined the offer. The Obama ad got 30.1 million viewers across networks compared to ABC's Pushing Daisies which garnered 6.3 million viewers.[97] Prior to this, the last presidential candidate to purchase a half-hour ad was H. Ross Perot, who ran as an independent candidate in 1992.[98] The Obama campaign also bought a channel on Dish Network to screen Obama ads 24/7.[99] Wyatt Andrews reported on a "Reality Check" on the CBS Evening News the next day with doubts over the factual accuracy of some of the promises Obama made in the advertisement, given the government's enormous financial deficit.[100]

It was announced that the release of the album would be pushed back from October 30, 2012 to sometime in January 2013.[26] On October 8, the album cover and album name were released, along with the announcement that pre-orders would be launched from iTunes on Halloween, October 31.[27][28] The song "In the End" became available for purchase on the same date of the pre-order. On December 12, the music video for "In the End" was released on YouTube and has been viewed over 89 million times. On October 29, the band announced the official track list and release date for the album: Wretched and Divine: The Story of the Wild Ones was eventually released on January 8, 2013.[29]

In India Jimmy Kimmel Live! premiered with its 14th season, and has aired on weeknights since at 11pm (IST) and 9:30pm (PST) on Star World and Star World HD. The show airs 12 hours after the U.S. broadcast since September 23, 2015.[49]

Hanna began uploading skits to Vine in late 2013, but only in 2014 she first gained recognition for her comedy on the app Vine, where she managed to accumulate just under five million followers.[2] In 2014, she also set up her main YouTube channel, Gabbie Hanna (formerly The Gabbie Show prior to her rebranding of her public image), which became popular for her 'Storytime' videos. She has now acquired over 5.6 million subscribers and over 680 million views.[3] In 2015, she competed and won season 4 of Dance Showdown with Matt Steffanina as her partner.[4]

On March 19, 2013, after several years of unavailability, Mill Creek Entertainment reissued the complete miniseries on 3 DVDs, retaining the making-of featurette and presents the miniseries as five separate parts. Also on that date, it was made available on Amazon Video.[9]

On 26 October 2015, ABC TV renewed the show for a second series of six episodes. Series two began shooting in January 2017. The second season was co-produced by Netflix, which currently streams it globally outside Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.[2][3] In addition, the first series was made available to stream on Netflix globally on 15 October 2016. Series 2 premiered on 14 September 2017 in Australia and premiered on 28 November 2017 internationally on Netflix.[4][5][6]

On May 12, 2012, a 90-second clip of the song "At Transformation", the first single from the band's new album, premiered during Hockey Night in Canada. The full song premiered on Toronto radio station CFNY-FM (102.1 The Edge) on May 16. The song was released to radio stations on May 17 and was officially released on iTunes on May 18. Band member Johnny Fay revealed that the title for the album is Now for Plan A. The second single, "Streets Ahead," was released on August 24. The album (their 12th studio album), produced by Gavin Brown, was released on October 2, 2012. The band played several live "Nashville" style shows that week at the Supermarket bar in Kensington market to promote the release of this record. On the evening of October 2, they played a full set to a packed bar with a live webcast through tdsmultimedia to livestream, and an audio simulcast on Sirius XM.


Question: Who became the CEO of Wipro Company in 2016?

In early 2016, Abid Ali Neemuchwala succeeded T.K. as the CEO of Wipro, following T.K.'s resignation. As of December 31, 2015, Wipro had a workforce of 170,664 employees.

On June 14, 2013, Toyota Motor Corp. announced the appointment of external board members; this was a first for the corporation and occurred following approval from general shareholders at a meeting on the same day. Additionally, Vice Chairman Takeshi Uchiyamada replaced Fujio Cho as chairman, as the latter became an honorary chairman while Toyoda remains in the post of President.[17]

In 1990, he became the Executive Director for his wife's company, Ballet Magnificat!. In 2017 the couple pioneered Ballet Magnificat! Brasil dance company and trainee program headquartered in Curitiba, Brazil.

Howard Schultz served as the company's CEO until 2000.[63] Orin C. Smith was President and CEO of Starbucks from 2001 to 2005.

Polaris has its origins in Nucleus Software,[6] founded by Arun Jain, now Chairman and Managing Director of Intellect Design Arena, a software products enterprise in the financial technology space.

Listing: Wipro's equity shares are listed on Bombay Stock Exchange where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index,[78] and the National Stock Exchange of India where it is a constituent of the S&P CNX Nifty.[79] The American Depositary Shares of the company are listed at the NYSE since October 2000.[80]

In November 2012 Guide to Greener Electronics, Greenpeace ranked Wipro first with a score of 7.1/10.[77]

The roots of the company date back to 1923, when William Warder Norton founded the firm with his wife Mary Norton, and became its first president.[3] In the 1960s, Mary Norton offered most of her stock to its leading editors and managers.[4] Storer D. Lunt took over in 1945 after Norton's death, and was succeeded by George Brockway (1957–1976), Donald S. Lamm (1976–1994), W. Drake McFeely (1994–2017),[5] and Julia A. Reidhead (2017–present). Reidhead was vice president and publishing director of Norton's College division and a former editor of the Norton Anthologies.[6]

In April 2016, two black female employees in their sixties filed a federal class action lawsuit against The New York Times Company CEO Mark Thompson and chief revenue officer Meredith Levien, claiming age, gender, and racial discrimination. The plaintiffs claim that the Times advertising department favored younger white employees over older black employees in making firing and promotion decisions.[246][247] The Times said that the suit was "entirely without merit" and was "a series of recycled, scurrilous and unjustified attacks."[247]

Josiah (J. K.), Colonel Lilly's son and Eli and Joe's father, inherited the company after Colonel Lilly died and became its president in 1898.[9] At the time of Colonel Lilly's death the company had a product line of 2,005 items and annual sales of more than $300,000 ($8,547,600 in 2015 chained dollars).[27] Colonel Lilly was a pioneer in the modern pharmaceutical industry, with many of his early innovations later becoming standard practice. His ethical reforms in a trade that was marked by outlandish claims of miracle medicines began a period of rapid advancement in the development of medicinal drugs.[28] J. K. Lilly continued to advocate for federal regulation on medicines.[29] Under J. K.'s leadership, the company introduced scientific management concepts, organized the company's research department, increased its sales force, and began international distribution of its products.[30] In addition J. K. oversaw a large expansion of the company. By 1905 the company reached sales of $1 million ($26,381,481 in 2015 chained dollars).[9]

On October 12, 2017, the company received a "significant investment" from the Virgin Group founder Richard Branson, leading to a rebrand of the name.[78]


Question:
What is the breakdown product formed when one phosphate group is removed from ATP? (The capitalization of ATP can be considered a minor formatting change, but the question remains essentially the same in terms of length, text complexity, and semantic style.)

Alternatively, if you're looking for a more significantly altered question that still maintains the same length, text complexity, and semantic style:

**Question**: what is the breakdown product formed when one phosphate group is removed from atp

**Similar Question**: What results when a single phosphate is taken away from ATP?

ATP hydrolysis, the process of breaking down ATP, results in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (orthophosphate, Pi) when one phosphate group is removed. This reaction releases stored chemical energy in the phosphoanhydride bonds of ATP, which can be utilized for various cellular activities such as muscle contraction, maintenance of electrochemical gradients, and biosynthesis essential for life. Further hydrolysis of ADP yields adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and another orthophosphate (Pi), providing additional energy for cellular functions.

Even when the enzyme reaction does not result in a change in the absorbance of light, it can still be possible to use a spectrophotometric assay for the enzyme by using a coupled assay. Here, the product of one reaction is used as the substrate of another, easily detectable reaction. For example, figure 1 shows the coupled assay for the enzyme hexokinase, which can be assayed by coupling its production of glucose-6-phosphate to NADPH production, using glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

The oxygenâ€“hemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve (ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of hemoglobin in its saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis against the prevailing oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. This curve is an important tool for understanding how our blood carries and releases oxygen. Specifically, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relates oxygen saturation (SO2) and partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (PO2), and is determined by what is called "hemoglobin affinity for oxygen"; that is, how readily hemoglobin acquires and releases oxygen molecules into the fluid that surrounds it.

An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out.[13] Many cells also possess calcium ATPases, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important second messenger.[14] But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables rapid recovery.[15] This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.

Likewise, the names of chemical compounds are considered common nouns which are capitalized at the beginning of a sentence or title, but not elsewhere. Prefixes such as sec-, tert-, ortho-, meta-, para-, alpha-, beta-, D-, L-, (+)-, (âˆ’)-, (R)-, (S)- and the numerical prefixes are not considered part of the name: the first letter of the main part of the name should still be capitalized where appropriate. Exceptions are cyclo, iso, neo, and spiro which are considered part of the name and therefore not italicized or hyphenated. Substituent groups do form part of the name: hence we use 2-Aminoethanol at the start of a sentence and 2-aminoethanol if not at the start of a sentence. Note that in this case the two wikilinks refer to separate redirects to the actual article. The article title itself is capitalized.

Anaerobic digestion is a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen.[1] The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion.

A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. They form the building blocks of the DNA double helix, and contribute to the folded structure of both DNA and RNA. Dictated by specific hydrogen bonding patterns, Watson-Crick base pairs (guanine-cytosine and adenine-thymine) allow the DNA helix to maintain a regular helical structure that is subtly dependent on its nucleotide sequence.[1] The complementary nature of this based-paired structure provides a backup copy of all genetic information encoded within double-stranded DNA. The regular structure and data redundancy provided by the DNA double helix make DNA well suited to the storage of genetic information, while base-pairing between DNA and incoming nucleotides provides the mechanism through which DNA polymerase replicates DNA, and RNA polymerase transcribes DNA into RNA. Many DNA-binding proteins can recognize specific base pairing patterns that identify particular regulatory regions of genes.

A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).

Malonyl-CoA is formed by carboxylating acetyl-CoA using the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase. One molecule of acetyl-CoA joins with a molecule of bicarbonate,[1] requiring energy rendered from ATP.

The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of Hydroxylapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological membranes).[5] It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.[6]

During hibernation, respiration also dramatically decreases, resulting in conditions of relative anoxia in the tissues. Anoxic conditions inhibit gluconeogenesis, and therefore FBPase, while stimulating glycolysis, and this is another reason for reduced FBPase activity in hibernating animals.[17] The substrate of FBPase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, has also been shown to activate pyruvate kinase in glycolysis, linking increased glycolysis to decreased gluconeogenesis when FBPase activity is decreased during hibernation.[13]


Question: What does a tooth from a bull shark look like?

Shark tooth morphology
Bull shark teeth, like those of other shark species, are adapted to their feeding habits. Typically, bull shark teeth are triangular in shape with a serrated edge, designed for tearing flesh. They are similar in appearance to the teeth of great white sharks but are generally smaller. Bull sharks use their teeth to catch and consume a variety of prey, including fish, rays, and smaller sharks. The distinctive shape and serrated edge of their teeth make them highly effective for capturing and consuming their diverse prey.

The original part of the museum, the first floor is home to a life-size Bowhead Whale that guests can walk through and view a large fish tank from the mezzanine or the always popular "Puking Pig." Also on the first floor, are a number of tunnels that run across the ceiling, hiding above a sea of fiberglass insulation cut to give the impression of icicles. To get into these, one can climb up a Slinky, which is an old refrigerating coil (donated by Anheuser-Busch), or through a tree house which leads into a giant hollowed out tree that leads to a cabin on the other side of the floor. The floor itself is covered with the largest continuous mosaic piece in the US, which then morph their way up columns, consuming every section of this floor. In one area is a tunnel known as the "Underground Whaleway" which runs beneath the floor and into the "Original Caves."

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman â€¦ was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.[98]

Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs.[41] Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth.[42]

Vertebrates /ˈvɜːrtɪbrɪts/ comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata /-eɪ/ (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 66,000 species described.[4] Vertebrates include the jawless fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish (sharks, rays, and ratfish) and the bony fish.

Unlike most bony fish, sharks are K-selected reproducers, meaning that they produce a small number of well-developed young as opposed to a large number of poorly developed young. Fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per reproductive cycle.[57] Sharks mature slowly relative to many other fish. For example, lemon sharks reach sexual maturity at around age 13â€“15.[58]

Most sharks are "cold-blooded" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark) are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete mirabile ("miraculous net"). The common thresher shark has a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature, which is thought to have evolved independently[not in citation given].[36]

Until recently, only a few benthic species of shark, such as hornsharks, leopard sharks and catsharks, had survived in aquarium conditions for a year or more. This gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport, were difficult to care for. More knowledge has led to more species (including the large pelagic sharks) living far longer in captivity, along with safer transportation techniques that have enabled long distance transportation.[86] For a long time, the great white shark had never been successfully held in captivity for long, but in September 2004, the Monterey Bay Aquarium successfully kept a young female for 198 days before releasing her.

Sharks have the ability to determine the direction of a given scent based on the timing of scent detection in each nostril.[44] This is similar to the method mammals use to determine direction of sound.

Zhu Ziyan, a history professor from Shanghai University, felt that Cao Ding's tooth alone cannot be used as evidence to determine Cao Cao's ancestry. He was sceptical about whether those who claim to be Cao Cao's descendants are really so, because genealogical records dating from the Song dynasty (960–1279) are already so rare in the present day, much less those dating from the Three Kingdoms era (220–280). Besides, according to historical records, Cao Ding was a younger brother of the eunuch Cao Teng, who adopted Cao Cao's biological father, Cao Song. Therefore, Cao Cao had no known blood relations with Cao Ding. In other words, Cao Ding was not Cao Cao's real granduncle (this assuming that there was no intra-family adoption, which was actually common in China). Zhu Ziyan mentioned that Fudan University's research only proves that those self-proclaimed descendants of Cao Cao are related to Cao Ding; it does not directly relate them to Cao Cao.[35]

The Hobbit describes him as thin, with only six teeth sharpened into points.[14] Comparing him to Shelob, one of the Orcs describes him as "rather like a spider himself, or perhaps like a starved frog."