Question: When did Italy join the Second World War?

On June 10, 1940, during the German invasion of France, with the French government retreating to Bordeaux and Paris declared an open city, Benito Mussolini, sensing the imminent end of the conflict, declared war against Britain and France. This decision was communicated to the Chief-of-Staff of the Italian Army, Marshal Badoglio.

Historian Ian Kershaw suggests that this declaration of war against the United States was a serious blunder made by Germany and Italy, as it allowed the United States to join the war in Europe and North Africa without any limitation.[189] On the other hand, American destroyers escorting convoys had already been de facto at war for months with German and Italian ships and submarines in the Atlantic, and the immediate war declaration made the Second Happy Time possible for U-boats.[190] The US had officially abandoned its neutral stance in March 1941 with the beginning of Lend-Lease. Franklin D. Roosevelt had said in his Fireside Chat on 9 December 1941 that Germany and Italy considered themselves to be in a state of war with the United States.[191] The US destroyer Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine U-552 on 31 October 1941. Plans for Rainbow Five had been published by the press early in December 1941,[192] and Hitler could no longer ignore the amount of economic and military aid the US was giving Britain and the USSR.[193] Americans played key roles in financing and supplying the Allies, in the strategic bombardment of Germany, and in the final invasion of the European continent.

In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, and immediately sought an alliance with Italy.[12] Gömbös sought to alter Hungary's post–Treaty of Trianon borders, but knew that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy.[12] Mussolini was elated by Gömbös' offer of alliance with Italy, and they cooperated in seeking to persuade Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss to join a tripartite economic agreement with Italy and Hungary.[12] At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the predicted rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party.[12] Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the short term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state.[12] Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German-populated territories of the South Tyrol (also known as Alto-Adige) within Italy, which bordered Austria on the Brenner Pass. Gömbös responded to Mussolini that as the Austrians primarily identified as Germans, the Anschluss of Austria to Germany was inevitable, and advised that it would be better for Italy to have a friendly Germany across the Brenner Pass than a hostile Germany bent on entering the Adriatic.[12] Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938.[12]

In 1929, Mussolini, on behalf of the King, signed the Lateran Treaty. The treaty was one of the three agreements made that year between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. On 7 June 1929, the Lateran Treaty was ratified and the "Roman Question" was settled.

This is a timeline of events over the period of World War II. Because of length it is subdivided into pages by year, as well as events preceding the war:

In the opening days of Operation Barbarossa, Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, Finland permitted German planes returning from mine dropping runs over Kronstadt and Neva River to refuel at Finnish airfields before returning to bases in East Prussia. In retaliation, the Soviet Union launched a major air offensive against Finnish airfields and towns, which resulted in a Finnish declaration of war against the Soviet Union on 25 June 1941. The Finnish conflict with the Soviet Union is generally referred to as the Continuation War.

These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.[166] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States[167] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.[125][168]

On 25 July 1943, following the Allied invasion of Sicily, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini, placed him under arrest, and began secret negotiations with the Western Allies. An armistice was signed on 8 September 1943, and Italy joined the Allies as a co-belligerent. On 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans in Operation Oak and placed in charge of a puppet state called the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana/RSI, or Repubblica di SalÃ²) in northern Italy. The war went on for months as the Allies, the Italian Co-Belligerent Army and the partisans contended the Social Republic's forces and its German allies. Some areas in Northern Italy were liberated from the Germans as late as May, 1945. Mussolini was killed by Communist partisans on 28 April 1945 while trying to escape to Switzerland.[111]

The British blockade of the Mediterranean immediately cut Italy off from 80% of its imports. Essential items such as pasta, flour and rice were severely rationed, leading to riots, and any farmer withholding his crops from compulsory storage could be imprisoned for a year. Following their disastrous invasion of Greece from occupied Albania on 28 October, Italian reserves of rubber, cotton, wool and other commodities began to dwindle, and the high prices charged by Germany to haul coal across the Alps from Trieste made heat a luxury. On 11 November Britain scored a major victory against the Italian navy at Taranto, which secured British supply lines in the Mediterranean.

The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers (Italy and Nazi Germany). It began with a large amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign, and initiated the Italian Campaign.

The first May Day celebration in Italy took place in 1890. It started initially as an attempt to celebrate workers' achievements in their struggle for their rights and for better social and economic conditions. It was abolished under the Fascist Regime and immediately restored after the Second World War. (During the fascist period, a "Holiday of the Italian Labour" (Festa del lavoro italiano) was celebrated on 21 April, the date of Natale di Roma, when ancient Rome was allegedly founded.) May Day is now an important celebration in Italy and is a national holiday regardless of what day of the week it falls. The Concerto del Primo Maggio ("1st of May Concert"), organised by Italian labour unions in Rome in Piazza di Porta San Giovanni has become an important event in recent years. Every year the concert is attended by a large audience of mostly young people and involves participation of many famous bands and songwriters, lasting from 3 p.m. till midnight. The concert is usually broadcast live by Rai 3.


Question: Who pilots the number 95 vehicle in NASCAR?

Michael McDowell, an American professional stock car racing driver, is the one behind the wheel of the No. 95 Chevrolet SS in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, representing Leavine Family Racing.

On 19 June 2003, NASCAR announced at the NASDAQ MarketSite a new deal with Nextel Communications starting in the 2004 season, as the familiar red was replaced with Nextel yellow (Nextel's new colours were announced after the deal had been signed) and by the end of the first season, it was acquired by Sprint. Starting in September 2005, NASCAR began replacing Nextel logos with Sprint logos started appearing in reference to the new sponsor.

Busch also competed on a limited basis in the Busch Series and Craftsman Truck Series in 2005; in Busch Series competition he ran fourteen races, winning at Lowe's Motor Speedway in May;[33] he won three races in eleven starts in the Craftsman Truck Series for Billy Ballew Motorsports;[34] his first career win, at Lowe's Motor Speedway on May 20, made Busch the youngest winner in series history at the time.[35][N 2]

Six weeks after the incident, NASCAR imposed a minimum age of 18 years starting in 2002 to prevent incidents of the sort from happening again;[10] this was partially because Winston was the series sponsor of its premier Winston Cup Series at the time.[11] When the age requirements were put in place, Busch switched from NASCAR to the American Speed Association (ASA) National Tour, finishing 8th in points.[12]

In 2002, EA purchased the license to NASCAR for six years, ending competition from Papyrus and Infogrames. They lost the NASCAR license in 2009 and the NASCAR license would be owned by Polyphony Digital for the Gran Turismo series starting with Gran Turismo 5, and also Eutechnyx for NASCAR The Game series until its inception in 2015.

At Charlotte in the All-Star Race, Busch controlled the race early. He won $50,000 for winning segment No. 1 but got into an early accident in the second segment collecting Joey Logano. While racing hard with older brother Kurt, Kyle got into Clint Bowyer and spun out; came back down and was hit hard by Logano. It resembled his 2013 spring Kansas wreck. Busch famously climbed out and tried to walk to the infield hospital by himself to gain his composure but an ambulance picked him up escorting him to the hospital.

Busch clinched his spot in the Chase with 1 race left. Busch, with 2 top tens during the first round of the Chase advanced to round 2. However his hopes to advance to the next round took a heavy hit during the race at Charlotte. After running second to teammate Matt Kenseth for most of the race, Busch and Kyle Larson collided while entering pit road, spinning Larson and eliminating both from contention for the race win. Busch hit the wall several times during the final 50 laps due to oil on the race-track from the No. 51 driven by Justin Allgaier who had lost a transmission after an on-track collision. After the race Busch and several other competitors such as Dale Earnhardt, Jr. criticized NASCAR for allowing the drivers to race in oil during the final 50 laps.

Days of Thunder is a 1990 American sports action drama film released by Paramount Pictures, produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer and directed by Tony Scott. The cast includes Tom Cruise, Nicole Kidman, Robert Duvall, Randy Quaid, Cary Elwes, Caroline Williams, and Michael Rooker. The film also features appearances by real life NASCAR racers, such as Rusty Wallace, Neil Bonnett, and Harry Gant. Commentator Dr. Jerry Punch, of ESPN, has a cameo appearance, as does co-producer Don Simpson.

Over the many years of their relationship with NASCAR, Winston sponsored several races and prize programs including the Winston 500, The Winston all-star race, the Winston Western 500 and the 1985â€“97 Winston Million, which awarded a million dollars to a driver who could win a "small slam" of the sport's four Grand Slam events in the same year. From 1998 to 2002, the Winston No Bull 5, a more complex award system, was used. Each year, there were five races (initially the four majors and Indianapolis) selected to be a part of this promotion. Each driver who finished in the top 5 in the previous No Bull 5 race was eligible to win in the next race selected, along with a fan. If one of the eligible drivers won that race, they were awarded with a million dollar bonus.

In 2018, Dillon returned to the No. 3 car in the Cup Series. He drove this car to win the 2018 Daytona 500, after coming from a lap down within 20 to go to being 2nd on the final lap. He hit Aric Almirola in the right rear after Almirola tried blocking him, sending him into the outside wall. The win happened 20 years after Dale Earnhardt's only Daytona 500 win,[38] and it was also 17 years to the day of Earnhardt's death. This win also clinches Dillon into the 2018 Playoffs.

Most of the first drivers in the series were veteran short track drivers who had not made it[10] or struggled to thrive in the other NASCAR national series; for example, 1991 Featherlite Southwest Tour champion Rick Carelli[18] had failed to qualify twelve times for Cup races across 1991â€“1994, with only nine career Cup starts, but he finished sixth in the inaugural Truck Series championship.[19] It is worth noting that most of the early champions have become NASCAR Cup Series regulars later in their careers, such as 1995 champion Skinner, who joined Richard Childress Racing's Cup team in 1997,[20] competing on a full-time basis until 2003.[21] As the years went on, a number of younger drivers debuted in the series, using the series as a springboard for their racing careers. Current NASCAR stars Greg Biffle, Kevin Harvick, Jamie McMurray, Kurt Busch, Carl Edwards, and Kyle Busch each started in the series.[10] Kyle Busch was 16 when he was ejected from a 2001 Craftsman Truck Series race in Fontana, California, by CART (which sanctioned the Marlboro 500 that weekend) because of violations in the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, the tobacco agreement prohibited competitors under 18 in any race during the meet. The issue resulted in a 2002 rule change that mandated that any driver competing in a NASCAR national touring series (Truck, Busch, Cup) or any regional series race on the weekend of a national series race must be at least 18 in order to comply with the Master Settlement Agreement.[22] After NASCAR phased out tobacco sponsorships, the minimum age for regional touring series was changed to 16, and the Truck Series' rule regulated a minimum age of 16 for any circuit one mile or shorter (Rockingham Speedway included, despite it being 1.017 miles), and Canadian Tire Motorsport Park.[23]


Question: Who drives the number 95 car in NASCAR races?

In 2014, Michael McDowell became the driver of the No. 95 Ford for Leavine Family Racing in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. Although he did not qualify for the Daytona 500, McDowell achieved a career-best seventh-place finish in the Coke Zero 400.

After a second-place finish in the Nationwide Series race at Atlanta Motor Speedway, Busch won the Sprint Cup Series AdvoCare 500 at the track, taking the lead with thirty laps to go and beating Joey Logano for the victory, securing a spot in the Chase for the Sprint Cup.[160] This was Busch's 28th career win tying him with Rex White for 23rd place on the all-time wins list.

Busch ran the entire 2009 NASCAR Nationwide Series schedule, making it the first time he had done so since his rookie year in 2004. In the 2009 Nationwide Series finale at Homestead-Miami Speedway on November 21, Busch won the race, clinching his first NASCAR Championship; having won nine races over the course of the season, he was the first driver since Sam Ard in 1983 to win the season finale and the championship in the same year.[86][87] He tallied nine wins, twenty five top fives, and thirty top tens. Busch also won seven races in the Camping World Truck Series during the 2009 season.[88] He also competed in a single Camping World East Series event at Iowa Speedway, winning the race from the pole.[89]

In the Nationwide Series he won 13 races in 2010, breaking the all-time record for most Nationwide Series wins in a season previously held by Sam Ard with 10.[96] Busch also won three Cup Series and eight Truck Series races in 2010,[96] including a win at Talladega Superspeedway over Aric Almirola by 0.002 seconds, the closest finish in Camping World Truck Series history since the introduction of electronic scoring;[97] his No. 18 Truck Series team won the 2010 owners' championship in the series.[92]

In the 2008 film adaptation, the car makes an appearance but is not named. The car was the only car built in addition to the Mach Five for the movie, and features weapons like machine guns mounted above the cockpit and under the chassis. In addition to this car, Racer X also drives a car built for the competitions in the film, a T180. This car was entitled the "Augury" in the film's video game counterpart. Like Racer X's unnamed street car, it features a number 9 and has the black and yellow color scheme, with a large black "X" on the front bumper. The T180 only makes one appearance in the film, when Racer X competes to protect Speed in the Fuji race after he has rejected Royalton's offer.

During his first few races, Cole has difficulty adjusting to the larger NASCAR stock cars and communicating with his crew while being intimidated on the track by Winston Cup Champion Rowdy Burns; this results in Cole not finishing the races, mostly due to crashes and blown engines. After discovering that Cole does not understand the common terminology used by NASCAR teams, Harry puts him through rigorous training. This pays off at the Darlington race, when Cole uses a slingshot maneuver from the outside line to overtake Rowdy and win his first race.

In 2001, NASCAR moved the series exclusively to cable, first with ESPN, and in 2003, switched to Speed, a network which provided supplemental coverage for Fox's coverage of NASCAR events. Network television returned to the series from 2007 to 2010 when two races per season (the Kroger 250 at Martinsville and the City of Mansfield 250 at Mansfield, with a race at Fontana replacing Mansfield) airing on Fox as NASCAR on Fox events. These broadcasts were discontinued in 2009.

The scene where Big John tells Cole and Rowdy they will drive to dinner together is based on an actual meeting Bill France, Sr. had in the 1980s between Dale Earnhardt, Sr. and Geoff Bodine.[15] One scene in which Cole deliberately blows his engine by over-revving it reflects upon an incident in which Tim Richmond was said to have done so at Michigan in 1987.[17]

Busch's quest for redemption began at the 2018 Daytona 500, Busch wrecked after blowing a tire; however, he was able to make it down to pit road to fix his car, finishing in 25th place. Busch was able to win the truck series race at Las Vegas in his first time competing there in the truck series since 2001. With the win, Busch has now won at his home track in all 3 major touring series of NASCAR. Busch followed the win with back to back runner up finishes at Las Vegas and Phoenix in the cup series to Kevin Harvick, even leading the most laps in the latter. He later finished third at Auto Club Speedway to Martin Truex Jr and finished second at Martinsville to Clint Bowyer. Busch won his first race of the season at Texas in April. He followed that win with another win at Bristol on a Monday after using a bump and run against Kyle Larson in the closing laps. Busch won his third straight race at Richmond after starting the race in 32nd, marking the first time he has won three in a row since July 2015 when he won Kentucky, New Hampshire, and the Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis.[185] Next at Talladega, he went as high as second, but went on to finish 13th. At the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte in May, Busch dominated the race and scored his first career win at Charlotte, making him the first driver to win a race at every racetrack in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series at which he has competed.[186] The next week at Pocono, Busch led the most laps and won the Xfinity Series race, meaning he has now won at every active Xfinity Series track he has competed at.

NASCAR uses a knockout qualifying system across the three series. The sessions are three rounds long, In round one, all drivers have 20 minutes to set a time, while the 24 fastest advance to the second round. In the second round, the drivers have 10 minutes to run, and the top 12 advance to the final round; the final round, a five-minute session, determines the starting lineup of the top 12.[28] The pole position winner receives the Keystone Light Pole Award,[29] though if the pole-sitter is younger than 21 years, the award is renamed the 21 Means 21 Pole Award.[30] At the restrictor plate there are two rounds, each car takes one timed lap, while the top 12 advance to run for the pole the cars go out starting from slowest to fastest.[31]

Busch's 2011 Sprint Cup Series season began with a wreck in the Budweiser Shootout at Daytona International Speedway.[98] Busch also raced in all three NASCAR points events at Daytona, with a best finish of fifth in the Truck Series event; the next week at Phoenix, Busch dominated the Truck Series race,[99] and led every lap of the race in the Nationwide Series Bashas' Supermarkets 200.[100] He was close to sweep all 3 races at Phoenix again, but Jeff Gordon overtook him with 9 laps to go and took the trophy. Busch swept the March weekend at Bristol, his second sweep of a Bristol weekend.[101] On April 30, 2011, Busch won his third straight spring race at Richmond International Raceway, capturing his second win of the 2011 season.[102]


Question: Who was the renowned Islamic scholar and mathematician that passed away in 1131 CE?

Omar Khayyam, a renowned Islamic scholar and mathematician, passed away in 1131 CE. Known for his contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and poetry, Khayyam's legacy continues to influence various fields to this day.

Historical sources mentions the settlement of Arab tribes and the establishment of new settlements in the 7th century, although little archaeological records have been preserved.[79] However some Arabian settlements like Khirbet Suwwwana, located on outskirts of Jerusalem provides archaeological records of Islamic nomadic settlement and sedentarization among local population. The establishment of new Arab settlements during 7th and 8th century was relatively rare. The religious transformation of the land is evident with large congregation style mosques built in cities like Tiberias, Jarash, Beth Shean, Jerusalem and possibly Cesarea. However the establishment of these mosques point to the influx of Muslim newcomers, rather than to conversion of Jews and Christians to Islam.[80] The settlement map of the land changed dramatically between 6th and 11th century. The sixth century map revealed an urban and rural society at its height, while the 11th century map shows a society that was economically and phiscally stagnant veering toward total collapse.[81]

Ayyubid Sultan Saladin had conquered most of the Frankish, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, including the ancient city itself, in 1187. The Kingdom had been established 88 years before, after the capture and sack of Jerusalem in the First Crusade, which had been a Byzantine holding prior to the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The city was sacred to Christians, Muslims and Jews, and returning it to Christian hands had been a primary purpose of the First Crusade. Saladin led a Muslim dynasty, and his incorporation of Jerusalem into his domains shocked and dismayed the Catholic countries of Western Europe. Legend has it that Pope Urban III literally died of the shock, but the timing of his death makes that impossible.[1] The crusader states had been reduced to three cities along the sea coast: Tyre, Tripoli, and Antioch.[2]

The concept of "Islamic economics" appeared as a rainbow on the revolutionary horizon and disappeared soon after the revolutionary heat dissipated (the end of the 1980s and after the death of Ayatollah Khomeini). It disappeared from Iranian political discourse for fifteen years. In the June 2005 presidential elections, neither the populist-fundamentalist winning candidate, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, nor any of his reformist or conservative opponents said a word about Islamic economy.[101] However, after the establishment of Ahmadinejad's government, his neoconservative team opened the closed file of Islamic economy. For instance, Vice-President Parviz Davoudi said in 2006:

According to military historian Victoria Schofield, Sabuktagin, the Turkish ruler of Ghazni and father of Mahmud, "set as his goal the expulsion of the Hindus from the Kabul valley and Gandhara (Khandar), as the vale of Peshawar was still called. His son and successor, the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, continued his work, carrying the so called, 'holy war' against the Hindus into India".[26] Till the year 980 CE, this area of Gandhara was under Hindus until Sabuktagin from Ghazni invaded it and displaced its last Hindu Shahi king Jaya Pala.[27] Hindu Shahi was an important kingdom in Northwest India at that time.  According to some sources (like Ibn Batuta[28]) the name of the Hindu Kush mountains of the region means "Hindu killer",[29][30] because raiders would capture Hindu slaves – all Indians were termed Hindu in Islamic literature – from the plains and take them away to West Asia, with large numbers of boys and girls dying from icy cold weather in these mountains.[31][32][33]

Asad meant to devote two years to completing the translation and the commentary but ended up spending seventeen. In the opening, he dedicates his effort to "People Who Think." The author returns to the theme of Ijtihad - The use of one's own faculties to understand the Divine text, again and again.[2] The spirit of the translation is resolutely modernist, and the author expressed his profound debt to the reformist commentator Muhammad Abduh.[3] In the foreword to the book, he writes "...although it is impossible to 'reproduce' the Quran as such in any other language, it is none the less possible to render its message comprehensible to people who, like most Westerners, do not know Arabic...well enough to find their way through it unaided."[4]

While connections between the Norse and Eastern Islamic lands (particularly around the Caspian) were well-established (in the form of the Rus') along the Volga, relations with the Western edge of Islam were more sporadic and haphazard.[61] Islamic Iberia, the first navy of the Emirate of Córdoba[61] was built after the humiliating Viking ascent of the Guadalquivir in 844 when they sacked Seville.[62] Nevertheless, in 859, Danish pirates sailed through Gibraltar and raided the little Moroccan state of Nekor. The king's harem had to be ransomed back by the emir of Córdoba. These and other raids prompted a shipbuilding program at the dockyards of Seville. The Andalusian navy was thenceforth employed to patrol the Iberian coastline under the caliphs Abd-ar-Rahman III (912–961) and Al-Hakam II (961–976). Córdoba was too heavily defended to be considered a target for all but the most ambitious Vikings.[63] By the next century, piracy from North Africans superseded Viking raids.

The Jiuzhang suanshu was perhaps the most groundbreaking of the three surviving Han treatises. It is the first known book to feature negative numbers, along with the Bakhshali manuscript (200 CE? – 600 CE?) of India and the book of the Greek mathematician Diophantus (fl. 3rd century) written in about 275 CE.[87] Negative numbers appeared as black counting rods, while positive numbers appeared as red counting rods.[88] Although the decimal system existed in China since the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BCE), the earliest evidence of a decimal fraction (i.e. the denominator is a power of ten) is an inscription on a standard volume-measuring vessel dated 5 CE and used by the mathematician and astronomer Liu Xin (46 BCE – 23 CE).[89] Yet the first book to feature decimal fractions was the Jiuzhang suanshu, as a means to solve equations and represent measurements.[89] Gaussian elimination, an algorithm used to solve linear equations, was known as the Array Rule in the Jiuzhang suanshu.[90] While the book used continued fractions to find the roots of equations, Liu Hui built on this idea in the 3rd century when he increased the decimals to find the cube root of 1,860,867 (yielding the answer 123), the same method used in the Horner scheme named after William George Horner (1786–1837).[91]

In the 12th century, Arzachel departed from the ancient Greek idea of uniform circular motions by hypothesizing that the planet Mercury moves in an elliptic orbit,[26][27] while Alpetragius proposed a planetary model that abandoned the equant, epicycle and eccentric mechanisms,[28] though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate.[29] Alpetragius also declared the Ptolemaic system as an imaginary model that was successful at predicting planetary positions but not real or physical. His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.[30]

Another testimony from Ibn Khaldun describes the grand pilgrimage of Mansa Musa consisting of 12,000 slaves:

Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi ("Alkindus") and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.


Question: Where does the action of "Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie" occur?

Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie
The story of Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie revolves around Scott Hudson, a freshman at J.P. Zenger High School. The novel explores the differences between middle school and high school, as upperclassmen can be intimidating and prone to stealing lunch money from younger students. Scott is placed in advanced classes, including Honors English, where he develops a close relationship with his teacher, Mr. Franka. Despite being in different classes from his friends, Scott tries to gain the attention of Julia Baskins, a girl he knew from kindergarten who has recently become popular. He joins the school paper, runs for student council, and auditions for the school play, all in an attempt to get closer to Julia. Along the way, he meets Louden, also known as Mouth, and a new girl named Lee, who shares his interests. Scott's life becomes even more complicated when his mother announces her pregnancy and he starts to lose touch with his best friends. The novel follows Scott's journey to find his place in high school and the lessons he learns about the impact of his words and actions on others. Ultimately, Scott's mother gives birth to a baby boy named Sean, and Julia starts dating a nicer guy, although she still shares a close relationship with Scott.

Hap Shaughnessy (Gordon Pinsent) is the water-taxi captain of Possum Lake, but he is much better known at Possum Lodge for his self-aggrandizing tall tales. In virtually every appearance he makes on the show, he makes a ridiculous claim to have been a significant person in history, or to have accomplished some incredible feat. Nobody else on the show believes him, but he will go to great lengths to tell his stories anyway. For example, he has claimed that he owns a coat that belonged to Santa Claus himself, that he once filled in for Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, that he once raised tigers in Kenya, had a magnetized metal plate in his head, drove the Aston Martin featured in Goldfinger which he used as an actual spy, and that he even died and came back to life at the 1988 Summer Olympics. In one episode, it is hinted that he lies about his past because he has a poor self-image.

James starts investigating his house for any possible intruders. When he hears a noise, he begins to search all over the kitchen while a panicked Bridget stands over by the dishes. After James checks the oven and looks behind the fridge, he notices the cherry pie with a slice cut out. When he realizes that Bridget is allergic to cherries, he turns to her and moves slowly to a scared Bridget. After demanding Bridget to move from her spot, which she eventually does, he sees the cabinet and slowly approaches it. Just as he opens it, the video suddenly stops and the narrator exits out of a closet and, breaking the fourth wall, tells the audience that the man, hiding in the cabinet, is a midget.

Anna and Declan reach a railway station and decide to wait for the next train. While waiting, they hike up a hill to the ruins of a nearby castle. They ask each other what they would grab if their homes were on fire and they had only 60 seconds to flee. Declan also tells her of an old Irish legend about a woman promised to a lord she did not love, who gave her wedding guests a sleeping potion so she could run away with the man she does love. During the story telling they lose track of time and miss the train. That night they stay at a bed and breakfast, where they pretend to be married, taking the name "O'Bradycallaghan," They do this so that their conservative hosts will allow them to stay. During dinner, when the other couples kiss to show their love, Anna and Declan are "forced" to kiss as well. This stirs feelings that each had not expected. That night, they sleep in the same bed, but do not admit their feelings for each other.

Pink enters his hotel room with an American groupie, played by actress Jenny Wright. The groupie tries to be friendly to Pink (Wright performs nearly the same monologue as Trudy Young did on the album). Pink is oblivious to the groupie as he watches the film The Dam Busters on television. When the groupie tries to make contact with Pink saying "Are you feeling okay?", he explodes into a violent fit of rage and begins to destroy his hotel room. Pink then chases the groupie around the room throwing various objects at her, cutting his own hand after he throws a television set out his window onto the street below, shouting "Take that, fuckers!", his only non-lyrical line spoken in the film.

In the scene outside of the school where a few students are walking between two buildings shows "The Mall" area that's located in Lincoln Park High School, in Chicago, Illinois. Some of the students that attend Buckner were Max, Bob, and Agnes. Carey would come sit outside of the detention area while Zack was being punished. She said when she was outside the principal's office at Cheevers High that, "Thanks to Zack, I knitted 32 sweaters and an afghan."

Colin finds Lindsey at her secret hideout in a cave, where he tells her the story of every Katherine he has ever loved. Lindsey tells him how she does not feel sad but instead slightly relieved by TOC's affair. They discuss what it means to them to "matter" and eventually confess their love for each other. As their relationship continues, Colin decides to use his dating formula to determine whether or not he and Lindsey will last. The graph reveals that they will only last for four more days. Lindsey then slips a note under his door, four days later, stating that she cannot be his girlfriend because she is in love with Hassan. But she leaves a P.S. stating that she is joking. Colin realizes that his theorem cannot predict the future of a relationship; it can only shed light on why a relationship failed. Despite this, Colin is content with not "mattering". Hassan also states that he is applying for two college classes, which Colin has been trying to convince him to do throughout the book. The story ends with the trio driving past the restaurant they were originally planning on going to, because Colin, Lindsey, and Hassan realize that they can just keep driving; there is nothing stopping them from continuing on.

The lyrics to "You Belong with Me" alternate between narrative modes, where she speaks of herself, a male friend whom she has an unrequited crush on, and his girlfriend. Greenblatt described Swift's role as a storyteller, the song being a narrative set to music, which describes concerning about love and boys "just [being] very hard to catch".[10] Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter believes "You Belong with Me"'s plot is "confessional" and regards scenarios themed with high school, while Swift "is the girl next door who's had her heart broken and takes refuge in music".[13] Lucy Davies of the BBC noted, "Swift deals in the prosaic imagery of high school boys".[14] In one verse, Swift contrasts herself with her friend's girlfriend and states, "She wears high heels, I wear sneakers / She's cheer captain, I'm on the bleachers", which Davies interpreted as the song's protagonist feeling envy towards cheerleaders, in particular, the one dating her male friend.[14] In the choruses, Swift attempts "to persuade some boy to come to his senses and submit to her everygirl charms".[12]

Scenes also take place in several other places in Boston, including Fenway Park, a movie theater, Maddie's apartment, the local shopping mall, a bowling alley (The same bowling alley was used to film a scene from the Hannah Montana episode, "People Who Use People"),[12] a miniature golf course, Kurt's apartment, Mr. Moseby's condo, the Goose Lodge, Liberty Park, an apartment where Maddie and her friends painted for a poor family for community service, Arwin's apartment, camp Knock-a-Number, the forest that has Merele's cabin, Kurt's tour bus, the shop where Maddie demanded London give her inhaler, an art museum, a dance club, an alley with a garbage container, a pizza restaurant, Theo's home, the "Risk It All" studio, the Cluck Bucket, an aptitude company, and the restaurant where Wayne "dates" London. There are even two episodes that take place in Hollywood, which includes a movie studio, LAX, a beach, Sunset Blvd, Hollywood Blvd, and the Tipton Los Angeles.

Alex Browning was born on September 25, 1982 in the fictional town of Mt. Abraham, New York to Ken and Barbara Browning.[4] He has been friends with siblings Tod and George Waggner since childhood and had been his classmates through high school since then.[4] He is studying at Mt. Abraham High and is the rival of Carter Horton. He frequently fights with Carter whenever they're together and often can't control his actions. He is one of the students qualified to travel to Paris, France for the school's annual field trip.[2]

The book is about Sam Gribley, a 15-year-old boy who intensely dislikes living in his parents' cramped New York City apartment with his eight brothers and sisters. He decides to run away to his great-grandfather's abandoned farm in the Catskill Mountains to live in the wilderness. The reader meets Frightful, Sam's pet peregrine falcon, and The Baron, a weasel that Sam befriends. Roughly the first 80 percent of the novel is Sam's reminiscences during a snowstorm about how he came to be in a home made out of a hollowed-out tree, while the remainder of the novel is a traditional linear narrative about what happens after the snowstorm.


Question: Where was "The Witch of Blackbird Pond" published?

"The Witch of Blackbird Pond," a children's novel written by Elizabeth George Speare, was published in 1958. Set in the late 17th century in New England, the book was honored with the Newbery Medal in 1959.

Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values (ZAMM), by Robert M. Pirsig, is a book that was first published in 1974. It is a work of fictionalized autobiography, and is the first of Pirsig's texts in which he explores his Metaphysics of Quality.

The Making of the Wizard Of Oz, written by film historian Aljean Harmetz, is a book about the production of the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. It was the second book ever published documenting the making of this film, released a year after Doug McClelland's 1976 work Down the Yellow Brick Road.

"The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerBalls" portrays young children as almost entirely uninterested in reading. The South Park boys only exhibit excitement for their reading assignment based on the promise of offensive and controversial material in the book.[1][2] Rather than finding any merit in the book, the boys are angry when they find the material inoffensive, prompting Cartman to declare he has been "tricked" into reading an entire book. Through the rise and fall of Butters' career as an author, the episode also demonstrates the perils of literary success and hoaxes.[1] The episode also lampoons the notion that a book can be identified as the sole reason for a reader to kill somebody, particularly through Butters' reaction to The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs. Butters experiences blackouts after reading The Catcher in the Rye and chanting "Kill John Lennon/Ronald Reagan!", until he disappointedly learns they are already dead. Later, a reader of Butters' book The Poop That Took a Pee goes out and murders the Kardashians.[3]

The series first began when publisher HarperCollins asked Victoria Holmes to write a fantasy series about feral cats. Initially, Holmes was not very enthusiastic, since she "couldn't imagine coming up with enough ideas". She worked with the concept, however, expanding the storyline with elements of war, politics, revenge, doomed love, and religious conflict.[75] Although the original plan was a stand-alone novel, enough material was created for several books, and the publisher decided on a six-volume series.[75] The first volume, Into the Wild, was written by Kate Cary under the pseudonym "Erin Hunter" and was completed in about three months.[76] Holmes then began to work behind the scenes, editing and supervising details.[77] Cherith Baldry joined the team to write the third book, Forest of Secrets. Later, after she wrote the first Warriors field guide, Tui Sutherland became the fourth Erin Hunter.[78]

Ariel was the second book of Sylvia Plath's poetry to be published, and was originally published in 1965, two years after her death by suicide. The poems in the 1965 edition of Ariel, with their free flowing images and characteristically menacing psychic landscapes, marked a dramatic turn from Plath's earlier Colossus poems.[1]

William Henry Rhodes published in 1871 the tale The Case of Summerfield in the Sacramento Union newspaper, and introduced weapon of mass destruction. A mad scientist and villain called Black Bart makes an attempt to blackmail the world with a powder made of potassium, able to destroy the planet by turning its waters into fire.

A short story by Peter Leslie entitled "What's a Ghoul Like You Doing in a Place Like This?" appeared in The Television Crimebusters Omnibus, a hardback anthology edited by Peter Haining, first published by Orion in 1994.(This Steed and Tara story first appeared in the 1969 UK Avengers annual, from Atlas publications.) Both of the Macnee/Leslie UK paperback titles were translated and published in Portugal in 1967 as 'Os Vingadores: O Dia Depois De Amanha' (deadline) and 'Os Vingadores: O Pato Morto' (dead duck) by Deaga. All four UK John Garforth Panther book paperbacks were translated and published by Roman in France (1967), a paperback omnibus edition was published in 1998 by Fleuve Noir. Three of the Garforth paperbacks were also translated and published by Heyne in Germany (1967/68) ('Heil Harris!' was not translated for obvious reasons.) and a German hardback omnibus edition of the three titles was published by Lichtenberg (1968), reprinted in paperback by Heyne in 1998. All four titles were also translated and published in the Netherlands by Bruna (1967) and in Chile by Zig-Zag (1968).[citation needed]

Supply Belcher, born in Stoughton, Massachusetts, though later based out of Farmington, Maine, is also especially well known. His only published tunebook was 1794's The Harmony of Maine, which included anthems, fuging pieces, psalms and hymns, a number of which were secular. His songs were distinctively folky and down-to-earth. His contemporary Daniel Read, a Massachusetts-born musician who later moved to New Haven, Connecticut, was a popular musician who supported himself almost entirely off the sale of tunebooks. His first publication was entitled The American Singing Book; or, a New and Easy Guide to the Art of Psalmody Devised for the Use of Singing Schools in America. The title's use of psalmody is here referring to singing societies which were spreading across the country, and is used without religious connotations.

Three Men in a Boat by Jerome K. Jerome, first published in 1889, is a humorous account of a boating holiday on the Thames between Kingston and Oxford. The book was intended initially to be a serious travel guide, with accounts of local history of places along the route, but the humorous elements eventually took over. The landscape and features of the Thames as described by Jerome are virtually unchanged, and the book's enduring popularity has meant that it has never been out of print since it was first published.

Pride and Prejudice is a romantic novel by Jane Austen, first published in 1813. The story charts the emotional development of the protagonist, Elizabeth Bennet, who learns the error of making hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between the superficial and the essential. The comedy of the writing lies in the depiction of manners, education, marriage, and money during the British Regency period.


Question: When does the president get sworn into office (date and time for odd or even years)?

According to the Twentieth Amendment of the United States Constitution, the President and Vice President's terms conclude at noon on January 20th. This is also when their successors' terms officially commence, ensuring a seamless transition of power. This date is fixed, regardless of whether it falls in an odd or even year.

Objections to the electoral vote count are rarely raised, although it did occur during the vote count in 2001 after the close 2000 presidential election between Governor George W. Bush of Texas and the vice president of the United States, Al Gore. Gore, who as vice president was required to preside over his own Electoral College defeat (by five electoral votes), denied the objections, all of which were raised by only several representatives and would have favored his candidacy, after no senators would agree to jointly object. Objections were again raised in the vote count of the 2004 elections, and on that occasion the document was presented by one representative and one senator. Although the joint session was suspended, the objections were quickly disposed of and rejected by both Houses of Congress. If there are no objections or all objections are overruled, the presiding officer simply includes a state's votes, as declared in the certificate of vote, in the official tally.

The first Alabama Constitution, ratified in 1819, provided that a governor be elected every two years, limited to serve no more than four out of every six years.[4] This limit remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years.[5] The current constitution of 1901 increased terms to four years,[6] but prohibited governors from succeeding themselves.[7] Amendment 282 to the constitution, passed in 1968, allowed governors to succeed themselves once; a governor serves two consecutive terms can run again after waiting out the next term.[8] The constitution had no set date for the commencement of a governor's term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election.[7]

The monarch is expected to execute their duties and responsibilities for the good of the nation. The monarch must therefore swear to uphold the constitution and execute the office faithfully. The monarch must be sworn in as soon as possible after assuming the throne during a joint session of the States-General held in Amsterdam. Article 32 of the Dutch constitution describes a swearing-in in "the capital Amsterdam", which incidentally is the only phrase in the constitution that names Amsterdam as the capital of the Kingdom.[Cons 11] The ceremony is called the inauguration (inhuldiging).

The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.[93]

The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today[update]. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet-level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.

As applause and cheering begins, the President slowly walks toward the Speaker's rostrum, followed by members of his Congressional escort committee.[21] The President's approach is slowed by pausing to shake hands, hug, kiss, and autograph copies of his speech for Members of Congress.[20] After he takes his place at the House Clerk's desk,[21] he hands two manila envelopes, previously placed on the desk and containing copies of the speech, to the Speaker and Vice President.

Note: The common year numbering system follows the ordinal numbers rather than the cardinal numbers, thus there was no year "zero". The date January 1, 1 CE immediately followed the date December 31, 1 BCE. Thus, while the 2000s began on Saturday, January 1, 2000 CE, the official Third Millennium began on Monday, January 1, 2001 CE.

The succession follows the order of vice president, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as president are also ineligible to succeed the president by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural-born U.S. citizen.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker.[34] Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.


Question: When did the US cease trade with Cuba?

Relations between Cuba and the United States were severed in 1961 during the Cold War and were not restored until July 20, 2015. Despite the re-establishment of diplomatic ties, the U.S. continues to enforce a commercial, economic, and financial embargo against Cuba, prohibiting American businesses from engaging in trade with the country. This embargo has been a point of contention, with the Cuban government advocating for its repeal, while leaders in the U.S. Congress and President Donald Trump have expressed support for maintaining it.

With the entire island south of the Tropic of Cancer, the local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterly trade winds that blow year-round. The temperature is also shaped by the Caribbean current, which brings in warm water from the equator. This makes the climate of Cuba warmer than that of Hong Kong, which is at around the same latitude as Cuba but has a subtropical rather than a tropical climate. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (69.8 °F) in January and 27 °C (80.6 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make the country prone to frequent hurricanes. These are most common in September and October.

Although most South American republics were sympathetic to the Allied cause, the US State Department was frustrated by the attitude of Argentina from the very beginning.[63] Her government refused to cooperate with US economic warfare measures or to sever financial ties with Germany, her main trading partner.[citation needed] Though during the war she doubled her exports of bully beef to the US and to Britain, with whom she had a history of close ties, the government was openly pro-Nazi, particularly after June 1943, and even conspired to overthrow other Latin American governments and replace them with fascist regimes. German agents were permitted to operate and spread propaganda freely and subsidiaries of IG Farben, Staudt and Co. and Siemens also operated in Argentinian territory, maintaining their links with Germany and supporting Nazi espionage operations in the region. Although the naval blockade, now heavily reinforced by US warships, restricted their efforts, merchants in the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires smuggled important quantities of platinum, palladium, drugs, and other chemicals to Germany, and a major aim of the US contraband control was to use US exports to Argentina to put pressure on her government to turn away from Nazi influence and break financial ties.

After the death of Fidel Castro on 25 November 2016 the Cuban government put in place a nine-day mourning period. During the mourning period Cuban citizens were prohibited from playing loud music, partying, and drinking alcohol.[139]

Although the railroads lifted the embargo in May 1926, the boom nevertheless fizzled out.[4] Disaster then followed in the shape of the September 1926 Miami Hurricane, which drove many developers into bankruptcy. The 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and the Wall Street Crash of 1929 continued the catastrophic downward economic trend, and the Florida land boom was officially over as the Great Depression began. The depression and the devastating arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly a year later destroyed both the tourist and citrus industries upon which Florida depended. In a few years, an idyllic tropical paradise had been transformed into a bleak humid remote area with few economic prospects. Florida's economy would not recover until World War II.[citation needed]

On October 21, 2011, President Obama signed into law three of the following United States free trade agreements: Free trade agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Korea, Panama–United States Trade Promotion Agreement and the United States–Colombia Free Trade Agreement. In the House of Representatives, Democratic Representatives largely opposed these agreements, while Senate Democrats were split on the agreements. This was a continuation of President Bill Clinton's policy of support for free trade agreements.

However, the sinking of the Spanish cruisers did not mean the end of the war. Battles continued in and around Santiago. By July 17, 1898, the Spanish forces in Santiago surrendered to General Shafter and the United States military. Various battles in the region continued on and the United States was continuously victorious. On August 12, 1898, the Spanish Government surrendered to the United States and agreed to an armistice that relinquished their control of Cuba. The armistice also gained the United States the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This large acquisition of land elevated the United States to the level of an imperial power. The Spanishâ€“American War also began a trend of United States intervention in foreign affairs which has lasted to the present day.[13]

In response, President John F. Kennedy quarantined the island, and after several intense days the Soviets decided to retreat in return for promises from the U.S. not to invade Cuba and to pull missiles out of Turkey. After this brush with nuclear war, the two leaders banned nuclear tests in the air and underwater after 1962. The Soviets also began a huge military buildup. The retreat undermined Khrushchev, who was ousted soon afterwards and replaced by Leonid Brezhnev.

After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union.

In 1763, Spain traded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years' War. Florida was home to about 3,000 Spaniards at the time, and nearly all quickly left. Britain occupied Florida, but did not send many settlers to the area, and control was restored to Spain in 1783 by the Peace of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War. Spain sent no more settlers or missionaries to Florida during this second colonial period. The inhabitants of West Florida revolted against the Spanish in 1810 and formed the Republic of West Florida, which was quickly annexed by the United States. The United States took possession of East Florida in 1821 according to the terms of the Adams–Onís Treaty.[14][15]

On 3 June 2009, the Organization of American States adopted a resolution to end the 47-year ban on Cuban membership of the group.[122] The resolution stated, however, that full membership would be delayed until Cuba was "in conformity with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS".[109] Fidel Castro restated his position that he was not interested in joining after the OAS resolution had been announced.[123]


Question: When did the U.S. cease trade relations with Cuba?

Following the Cuban Revolution in 1959, relations between the United States and Cuba became increasingly strained. In 1961, the U.S. government severed diplomatic ties with Cuba and initiated covert operations aimed at overthrowing the Communist government. Additionally, the U.S. imposed and progressively tightened a wide range of restrictions and embargoes against Cuba in response to the nationalization of U.S. corporate assets by the Cuban government. These actions have been widely criticized, with numerous international bodies, including a near-unanimous United Nations General Assembly, advocating for the termination of the U.S.'s long-standing economic, commercial, and financial embargo against Cuba.

Two ad hoc constitutions were adopted in the course of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain (1895–1898). On 16 September 1895, delegates representing the rebel forces adopted a constitution in Jimaguayu, the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba in Arms,[4] and set it to be reviewed in two years by a representative assembly. It described relations between civil and military authority. It named key officials and outlined the requirements of a peace treaty with Spain. In September 1897, the assembly met in La Yaya (es), adopted a new document on 30 October, and named a new president and vice-president.[5]

In March 1960, Eisenhower gave his approval to a CIA plan to arm and train a group of Cuban refugees to overthrow the Castro regime.[108] The invasion (known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion) took place on 14 April 1961.[106] About 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked at the Bay of Pigs, but failed in their attempt to overthrow Castro.[106]

The University of Havana was founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well-established colleges and universities. In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was fourth in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, higher than in Spain.[90][284] Castro created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education.[285] Cuba's literacy rate of 99.8 percent[201][286] is the tenth-highest globally, due largely to the provision of free education at every level.[287] Cuba's high school graduation rate is 94 percent.[288]

In 1961, the Cuban government nationalized all property held by religious organizations, including the dominant Roman Catholic Church. Hundreds of members of the church, including a bishop, were permanently expelled from the nation, as the new Cuban government declared itself officially atheist. Education also saw significant changes â€“ private schools were banned and the progressively socialist state assumed greater responsibility for children.[64] The Cuban government also began to expropriate from mafia leaders and taking millions in cash. Before Meyer Lansky fled Cuba, he was said to be worth an estimated $20M, that would be $163,685,121 in 2016. When he died in 1983, his family was shocked that his estate was worth less than $10K. Before he died Lansky said Cuba "ruined" him.[65]

The end of the long-held animosity between Moscow and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the Soviet Union, China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of military technology for China, as well as for raw materials and trade. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the United States. Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, generally have been friendly in the early 21st century, and, indeed, close political and trade relations with the European Union nations have been a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s. In November 2005, President Hu Jintao visited the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain and announced China's eagerness to enter into greater political and economic cooperation with its European partners.

The Castro Regime overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista[4] ,who came to power through a military revolution, and then again through another military coup. Batista's first revolt was called the "Revolt of the Sergeants". After the revolt Batista ran the government through a number of puppet rulers.[47] However, after a series of failed puppet presidents Batista himself became president from 1940â€“1944.[48] Batista's first term as president went peacefully and saw large amounts of economic growth due to public works [5] programs he implemented. After his term as president Batista moved to Florida where he lived until he decided to come back to Cuba run for president in 1952. But, just three months before election day, a military coup put Batista back in power. He justified this coup by claiming the sitting president was planning his own coup in order to remain in power.[49] The Batista dictatorship lasted seven years until 1959 when it was overthrown by Fidel Castro.

Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.â€“Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it.[citation needed] Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.

In February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his resignation as President of Cuba.[118] On 24 February his brother, Raúl Castro, was declared the new President.[119] In his inauguration speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions on freedom in Cuba would be removed.[120] In March 2009, Raúl Castro removed some of his brother's appointees.[121]

On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo, attempted to assassinate President Harry S. Truman at his temporary residence of Blair House. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President Jimmy Carter commuted his sentence to times served and he was released in 1979.

In general, fuels, metals, and timber were exported. Machinery, consumer goods, and sometimes grain were imported. In the 1980s trade with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) member states accounted for about half the country's volume of trade.


Question: When did the U.S. cease trade with Cuba?

In 1962, President John F. Kennedy expanded the trade restrictions initially placed by President Eisenhower after the Cuban revolution, imposing a total embargo on trade with Cuba, excluding non-subsidized sales of food and medicine. This was followed by a ban on travel and financial transactions by U.S. citizens to Cuba, initiating a long-standing embargo that persisted in different forms over the years.

Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis; on taking office he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding; despite his hard line against Castro, Nixon agreed. The process had not yet been completed when the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles. The final round of diplomatic notes, reaffirming the 1962 accord, were exchanged in November.[156]

In 1961, the Cuban government nationalized all property held by religious organizations, including the dominant Roman Catholic Church. Hundreds of members of the church, including a bishop, were permanently expelled from the nation, as the new Cuban government declared itself officially atheist. Education also saw significant changes â€“ private schools were banned and the progressively socialist state assumed greater responsibility for children.[64] The Cuban government also began to expropriate from mafia leaders and taking millions in cash. Before Meyer Lansky fled Cuba, he was said to be worth an estimated $20M, that would be $163,685,121 in 2016. When he died in 1983, his family was shocked that his estate was worth less than $10K. Before he died Lansky said Cuba "ruined" him.[65]

Largely self-sufficient, the Soviet Union traded little in comparison to its economic strength. However, trade with noncommunist countries increased in the 1970s as the government sought to compensate gaps in domestic production with imports.

Meanwhile, Napoleon's Continental System (beginning 1806) and the British Orders in Council (1807) established embargoes that made international trade precarious. From 1807 to 1812, about 900 American ships were seized as a result.[61] The U.S. responded with the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from sailing to any foreign ports and closed American ports to British ships. Jefferson's embargo was especially unpopular in New England, where merchants preferred the indignities of impressment to the halting of overseas commerce. This discontent contributed to the calling of the Hartford Convention in 1814.

About 1,202 members of Brigade 2506 were captured, of whom nine died from asphyxiation during transfer to Havana in a closed truck. In May 1961, Fidel Castro proposed to exchange the surviving Brigade prisoners for 500 large farm tractors, valued at US$28,000,000.[165] On 8 September 1961, 14 Brigade prisoners were convicted of torture, murder and other major crimes committed in Cuba before the invasion, five being executed and nine jailed for 30 years.[3] Three confirmed as executed were Ramon Calvino, Emilio Soler Puig ("el Muerte") and Jorge King Yun ("el Chino").[49][87] On 29 March 1962, 1,179 men were put on trial for treason. On 7 April 1962, all were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison. On 14 April 1962, 60 wounded and sick prisoners were freed and transported to the US.[3]

In spite of strained relations between the two countries, the United States has been Venezuela's most important trading partner. U.S. exports to Venezuela have included machinery, agricultural products, medical instruments, and cars. Venezuela is one of the top four suppliers of foreign oil to the United States. About 500 U.S. companies are represented in Venezuela.[16] According to Central Bank of Venezuela, between 1998 and 2008 the government received around 325 billion USD through oil production and exports in general.[17] Also, according to the International Energy Agency, as of August 2015 the production of 2.4 million barrels per day supplied 500,000 barrels to the United States of America.[18]

After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors, and never resumed it, but they insisted they still had the right to resume it. Americans believed they had regained their honour[2] and proclaimed victory in what they called a "second war of independence" for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America (although this had at no time during the war been either plausible or a British intention).[3] The threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention.

Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba.[153] China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalisation of Cuban transport infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.

The US government was becoming increasingly critical of Castro's revolutionary government. At an August 1960 meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS) held in Costa Rica, the US Secretary of State, Christian Herter, publicly proclaimed that Castro's administration was "following faithfully the Bolshevik pattern" by instituting a single-party political system, taking governmental control of trade unions, suppressing civil liberties, and removing both the freedom of speech and freedom of the press. He furthermore asserted that international communism was using Cuba as an "operational base" for spreading revolution in the western hemisphere, and called on other OAS members to condemn the Cuban government for its breach of human rights.[60] In turn, Castro lambasted the treatment of black people and the working classes he had witnessed in New York, which he lampooned as that "superfree, superdemocratic, superhumane, and supercivilized city". Proclaiming that the US poor were living "in the bowels of the imperialist monster", he attacked the mainstream US media and accused it of being controlled by big business.[61] It must be noted that, on the surface, the US was trying to improve its relationship with Cuba. Several negotiations between representatives from Cuba and the US took place around this time. Repairing financial international relations was the focal point of these discussions.[62] Political relations were another hot topic of these conferences. The US stated that they would not interfere with Cuba's choice of government or its domestic structure; however, the US also ordered the Cubans to sever all ties with the Soviet Union.[62]

Before the revolution 1959, the agricultural sector in Cuba was largely oriented towards and dominated by the US economy. After the Cuban Revolution, the revolutionary government nationalised farmland, and the Soviet Union supported Cuban agriculture by paying premium prices for Cuba's main agricultural product, sugarcane, and by delivering fertilizers. Sugar was bought by the Soviets at more than five times the market price. 95% of its citrus crop was exported to the COMECON. On the other hand, the Soviets provided Cuba with 63% of its food imports and 90% of its petrol.[6]


Question: What's the difference between piccalilli and chow chow?

In the Southern United States, piccalilli isn't typically served; instead, chow-chow, a relish primarily made from chopped green tomatoes, is a popular choice. This relish may also incorporate ingredients like onions, bell peppers, cabbage, green beans, and other vegetables. Though not identical to piccalilli, chow-chow is sometimes referred to as piccalilli, and the terms might be used synonymously. Piccalilli is not a common dish in the Western United States.

The British also influenced food in a somewhat different way. Many British families in India hired local cooks, and through them discovered local foods. The foods had to be toned down or modified to suit the tastes of the "memsahibs". The most distinct influence is seen in the desserts, many of which were created specifically to satisfy the British—most notably the very popular sweet leđikeni named after the first Vicereine Lady Canning; it is a derivative of the pantua created for an event hosted by her.

West Coast Cooler is an alcoholic beverage made from white wine and fruit flavourings. It is owned and produced by Pernod Ricard's Irish subsidiary, Irish Distillers. It has an alcohol content of 3.5%.

Lo mein (simplified Chinese: 捞面; traditional Chinese: 撈麵/撈麪; Cantonese Yale: lou1 min6; pinyin: lāo miàn) is a Chinese dish with wheat flour noodles. It often contains vegetables and some type of meat or seafood, usually beef, chicken, pork, shrimp or wontons. It can also be eaten with just vegetables.

The nature and variety of dishes found in Bengali cooking are unique even in India. Fresh sweet water fish is one of its most distinctive features; Bengal's rivers, ponds and lakes contain varieties of fish such as roui, ilish, koi or pabda. Prawns, shrimp and crabs also abound. Almost every village in Bengal has ponds used for pisciculture, and at least one meal a day is certain to have a fish course.

In Nigeria, leaves of Corchorus olitorius are prepared in sticky soup called ewedu together with ingredients such as sweet potato, dried small fish or shrimp.[15] The leaves are rubbed until foamy or sticky before adding to the soup. Amongst the Yoruba of Nigeria, the leaves are called Ewedu, and in the Hausa-speaking northern Nigeria, the leaves are called turgunuwa or lallo. The jute leaves are cut into shreds and added to the soup which would normally contain other ingredients such as meat and/or fish, pepper, onions, and other spices. Likewise, the Lugbara of Northwestern Uganda eat the leaves as soup, locally called pala bi. Jute is also a totem for Ayivu, one of the Lugbara clans.

The Frozen Kung Pao-style dishes have ingredients such as chicken, red pepper spice and peanut products which are foods that are involved in outbreaks, for this reason they are in the pilot project.[34] In addition, it is supplied to diverse food chain distribution channels which could be involved in imported and domestic products.[34] To increase the intricacy of the pilot project, the jarred peanut butter and dry, packaged spice peanut were included.[34] This summer, the pilot projects results will be accomplished with hopes of developing a complete product tracing system with the information received.[34]

A tin can, tin (especially in British English, Australian English and Canadian English), steel can,[1] steel packaging or a can, is a container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal. Many cans require opening by cutting the "end" open; others have removable covers. Cans hold diverse contents: foods, beverages, oil, chemicals, etc. Steel cans are made of tinplate (tin-coated steel) or of tin-free steel. In some dialects, even aluminium cans are called "tin cans".

The nutrient content of mayonnaise (> 50% edible oil, 9–11% salt, 7–10% sugar in the aqueous phase) makes it suitable as a food source for many spoilage organisms. A set of conditions such as pH between 3.6 and 4.0, and low water activity aw of 0.925, restricts the growth of yeasts, a few bacteria and molds.[47] Yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces, Lactobacillus fructivorans, and Zygosaccharomyces bailii are the species responsible for the spoilage of mayonnaise. The characteristics of spoilage caused by Z. bailli are product separation and a "yeasty" odor. A study suggests that adding encapsulated cells of Bifidobacterium bifidum and B. infantis prolongs the life of mayonnaise up to 12 weeks without microorganism spoilage.

The Sunday roast is a traditional British main meal that is typically served on Sunday (hence the name), consisting of roasted meat, roast potato, and accompaniments such as Yorkshire pudding, sausages, stuffing, vegetables and gravy. Vegetables such as roast parsnips, sweetcorn, Brussels sprouts, peas, carrots, runner beans, and broccoli are included and can be cooked in different styles; for example, cauliflower or leeks accompanied by a cheddar cheese sauce are popular, in addition to gravy. The Sunday roast is also popular in many parts of Ireland, especially in most of Ulster (chiefly in Northern Ireland and County Donegal).

Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef), galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), and samgyeopsal (pork belly) are popular meat entrees. Fish is also a popular commodity, as it is the traditional meat that Koreans eat. Meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such as galbitang (stewed ribs) or doenjang jjigae (fermented bean paste soup). The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes called banchan.


Question: Who wrote "How Do You Do It," a song by Gerry and the Pacemakers?

"How Do You Do It?" was penned by Mitch Murray, who initially offered it to Adam Faith and Brian Poole, but they declined.[2] George Martin, an EMI executive, selected the song for the Beatles, a new group he was producing, as their debut single's A-side.[4] The Beatles recorded the track but were against its release, believing it was incompatible with their musical style. They made modifications to Murray's demo-disc version, incorporating a new intro, vocal harmony, an instrumental break, slight lyric alterations, and omitting the half-step modulation for the final verse.[4] The recording took place in September 1962, and while Murray disapproved of their changes, the decision to withhold the Beatles' version was primarily for commercial reasons.[5] Instead, "Love Me Do" was their first single. The Beatles' rendition was officially unveiled in November 1995 on the Anthology 1 retrospective album.

"What the World Needs Now Is Love" is a 1965 popular song with lyrics by Hal David and music composed by Burt Bacharach. First recorded and made popular by Jackie DeShannon, it was released on April 15, 1965, on the Imperial label after a release on sister label Liberty records the previous month was canceled. It peaked at number seven on the US Hot 100 in July of that year.[1] In Canada, the song reached number one.

"Puppy Love" is a popular song written by Paul Anka in 1960 for Annette Funicello, whom he was dating at the time.[1] Anka's version reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 behind Percy Faith's "Theme from A Summer Place"[2] and #33 on the UK Singles Chart.[3]

The theme song, "Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow", was written by Dave Grusin and Morgan Ames; initially an instrumental, lyrics were added in later seasons that were sung by Sammy Davis, Jr. Every episode of Baretta began with the song, which contained the motto, "Don't do the crime if you can't do the time." The song was released as a single in Europe in 1976, reaching number one in the Dutch Top 40 as "Baretta's Theme". The music for the theme song was performed by Los Angeles-based Latin influenced Rock band El Chicano from Los Angeles, California. El Chicano also released the song as a 45 and also as a track on one of their albums. The "Baretta" theme song by El Chicano was a huge hit in many countries including Turkey, Malaysia, Singapore, France and The Philippines.

"It's My Party" is a pop song recorded by multiple artists since the 1960s. In 1963, American singer Lesley Gore's version hit #1 on the pop and rhythm and blues charts in the United States.[1] It was the first hit single for producer Quincy Jones.

Byrds producer Gary Usher acquired "Wasn't Born to Follow" before it was released or recorded by anyone else through his connections at the Screen Gems production company and his personal acquaintance with Carole King.[4][3] The Byrds recorded the song on November 30, 1967 as one of the last songs recorded in the sessions for The Notorious Byrd Brothers.[4] Roger McGuinn sings the lead vocal.[2] The Byrds' instrumentalists are augmented by Red Rhodes on pedal steel guitar and Clarence White on guitar.[3][4] As Byrds' drummer Michael Clarke had left the group during the recording of the album, Jim Gordon, who also performed on the City's version, plays drums.[4] The album recording ends with the sound of a door slamming.[3]

Besides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton,[2] Frank Sinatra, Gerry and the Pacemakers, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Andy Williams, Johnny Maestro and The Brooklyn Bridge, Olivia Newton-John and Doris Day. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and "interpolated" it into their own song, "Fearless", on their 1971 album Meddle.

"Happy Days Are Here Again" is a song copyrighted in 1929 by Milton Ager (music) and Jack Yellen (lyrics) and published by EMI Robbins Catalog, Inc./Advanced Music Corp.[1] The song was recorded by Leo Reisman and His Orchestra, with Lou Levin, vocal (November 1929),[citation needed] and was featured in the 1930 film Chasing Rainbows.[2] The song concluded the picture, in what film historian Edwin Bradley described as a "pull-out-all-the-stops Technicolor finale, against a Great War Armistice show-within-a-show backdrop."[3] This early example of 2-strip Technicolor footage was, along with another Technicolor sequence, later cut from the 1931 re-edited release of the otherwise black-and-white film, and is believed to have been lost in the 1967 MGM Vault 7 fire.[4][5]

"I Just Fall in Love Again" is a song written by Larry Herbstritt, with co-writers Steve Dorff, Harry Lloyd, and Gloria Sklerov. Herbstritt had composed the melody and chords for the chorus and a chord progression for the verse, which he took to his friend Steve Dorff. Harry Lloyd and Gloria Sklerov completed the lyrics. The song was originally recorded by the Carpenters and later covered by Dusty Springfield, whose version inspired Anne Murray to record her own cover.

That album, titled 5th and released in 1971, produced a surprise US Top 10 hit (#6 in the fall of 1971), "Do You Know What I Mean." It was an autobiographical homage to the loss of a girlfriend. Michaels's Top 40 follow-up, a cover version of the Motown standard, "Can I Get a Witness," peaked at #39 on Christmas Day of 1971, eight years to the week after Marvin Gaye's version peaked at #22. Billboard ranked "Do You Know What I Mean" as the No. 19 song for 1971.[4] Michaels recorded two more albums for A&M before signing a recording contract with Columbia Records in 1973. But his Columbia recordings failed to generate much interest, and Michaels had gone into semi-retirement from the music industry by the end of the decade.

"Fly Me to the Moon", originally titled "In Other Words", is a song written in 1954 by Bart Howard. Kaye Ballard made the first recording of the song in 1954. Since then it has become a frequently recorded jazz standard often featured in popular culture; Frank Sinatra's 1964 version was closely associated with the Apollo missions to the Moon, and the Japanese animated series Neon Genesis Evangelion played the song (as covered by various artists) at the end of every episode.


Question: When was the reaper, invented by Cyrus McCormick, created?

The McCormick Reaper, an innovative horse-drawn device for harvesting small grain crops, was perfected and patented by Cyrus McCormick in 1837. Initially conceptualized by his father, Robert McCormick, in Walnut Grove, Virginia, the project was taken over by Cyrus after his father encountered difficulties in finalizing the design. The successful invention by Cyrus McCormick introduced several unique features to the agricultural machinery industry.

The eminent inventor Frederick William Lanchester recognized the potential of the motorboat and over the following 15 years, in collaboration with his brother George, perfected the modern motorboat, or powerboat. Working in the garden of their home in Olton, Warwickshire, they designed and built a river flat-bottomed launch with an advanced high-revving engine that drove via a stern paddle wheel in 1893. In 1897, he produced a second engine similar in design to his previous one but running on benzene at 800 r.p.m. The engine drove a reversible propeller. An important part of his new engine was the revolutionary carburettor, for mixing the fuel and air correctly. His invention was known as a "wick carburetor", because fuel was drawn into a series of wicks, from where it was vaporized. He patented this invention in 1905.[5]

In 1921, peanut farmers and industry representatives planned to appear at Congressional hearings to ask for a tariff. Based on the quality of Carver's presentation at their convention, they asked the African-American professor to testify on the tariff issue before the Ways and Means Committee of the United States House of Representatives. Due to segregation, it was highly unusual for an African American to appear as an expert witness at Congress representing European-American industry and farmers. Southern congressmen, reportedly shocked at Carver's arriving to testify, were said to have mocked him.[citation needed] As he talked about the importance of the peanut and its uses for American agriculture, the committee members repeatedly extended the time for his testimony. The Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 was passed including one on imported peanuts. Carver's testifying to Congress made him widely known as a public figure.

Paid agents organized local Granges and membership in the Grange increased dramatically from 1873 (200,000) to 1875 (858,050). Many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions, especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual at this time because women and any teen old enough to draw a plow were encouraged to participate. The importance of women was reinforced by requiring that four of the elected positions could be held only by women.[4]

As the first man to set up public showrooms for displaying sanitary ware, he became known as an advocate of sanitary plumbing, popularising the notion of installation inside peoples homes. He also helped refine and develop improvements to existing plumbing and sanitary fittings. As a part of his business he maintained a foundry and metal shop which enabled him to try out new designs and develop more efficient plumbing solutions.[7] He won a patent as the original inventor for using a "floating ball cock" as a part of a water closet arrangement. He invented improvements on existing water closets, and he owned the patent for the siphonic flush toilet. He invented the manhole cover enabling easy maintenance access. As well as various improvements to plumbing fittings, not least improvements to the developing the plumbing trap (U-bend). While it's true that Alexander Cummings invented an S-shaped trap (the S-bend) in 1775, it had reliability problems. Once invented (despite its simplicity and reliability) widespread use of it in sewage systems was slow to catch on; coming, only when the Great Stink of the Thames in 1858, forced  Parliament to pass laws in the 1860s for closed sewers to be installed. It would eventually be replaced by Crapper's improved bend trap in 1880. The new U-bend was a significant improvement on the "S" as it could not jam, and unlike the S-bend, it did not have a tendency to dry out, and did not need an overflow.[8] The BBC was to nominate the S-bend as one of the 50 Things That (have) Made the Modern Economy[9]

The latifundia quickly started economic consolidation as larger estates achieved greater economies of scale and senators did not pay land taxes. Owners re-invested their profits by purchasing smaller neighbouring farms, since smaller farms had a lower productivity and could not compete, in an ancient precursor of agribusiness. By the 2nd century AD, latifundia had replaced many small and medium-sized farms in some areas of the Roman Empire. As the small farms of the Roman peasantry were bought up by the wealthy and with their vast supply of slaves, the landless peasantry were forced to idle and squat around the city of Rome, relying greatly on handouts. Overall, the latifundia increased productivity so the moralists complained. The fact is free farmers hadn't disappeared: many had become tenants on estates that were two parts: the part directly controlled by the owner and worked by slaves and the other leased to tenants by legal contract. It was one of the greatest levels of worker productivity before the 19th century. Such consolidation was not universally approved, as it consolidated more and more land into fewer and fewer hands, mainly Senators and the Roman emperor. Efforts to reverse the trend by agrarian laws were generally unsuccessful. Pliny the Elder argued that the latifundia had ruined Italy and would ruin the Roman provinces as well. He reported that at one point just six owners possessed half of the province of Africa.[3] which may be a piece of rhetorical exaggeration as the North African cities were filled with flourishing landowners who filled the town councils.

Since medieval times the Exchequer had used tally sticks, pieces of carved, notched wood, normally willow, as part of their accounting procedures.[17][18] The parliamentary historian Caroline Shenton has described the tally sticks as "roughly as long as the span of an index finger and thumb".[19] These sticks were split in two so that the two sides to an agreement had a record of the situation.[20] Once the purpose of each tally had come to an end, they were routinely destroyed.[18] By the end of the eighteenth century the usefulness of the tally system had likewise come to an end, and a 1782 Act of Parliament stated that all records should be on paper, not tallies. The Act also abolished sinecure positions in the Exchequer, but a clause in the act ensured it could only take effect once the remaining sinecure-holders had died or retired.[21] The final sinecure-holder died in 1826 and the act came into force,[18] although it took until 1834 for the antiquated procedures to be replaced.[17][22] The novelist Charles Dickens, in a speech to the Administrative Reform Association, described the retention of the tallies for so long as an "obstinate adherence to an obsolete custom"; he also mocked the bureaucratic steps needed to implement change from wood to paper. He said that "all the red tape in the country grew redder at the bare mention of this bold and original conception."[23] By the time the replacement process had finished there were two cart-loads of old tally sticks awaiting disposal.[18]

Reid next turned his attention to self-propelled vehicles. Between 1903 and 1906 he produced three steam-driven cars. The engines and boilers were imported from America, with modifications and bodywork completed in Stratford. The cars were two-cylinder, chain-driven and powered by kerosene, and had a rating of about four horsepower. Before general vehicle registration was introduced Reid's personal car carried the number plate SD1 (Stratford District 1). He stopped working on the cars' development as he thought petrol engines were more likely. He sold two of the cars and kept one for himself.

The tin canning process was allegedly created by Frenchman Philippe de Girard and the idea passed to British merchant Peter Durand who was used as an agent to patent Girard's idea in 1810.[2] The canning concept was based on experimental food preservation work in glass containers the year before by the French inventor Nicholas Appert. Durand did not pursue food canning, but, in 1812, sold his patent to two Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product, and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813 they were producing their first tin canned goods for the Royal Navy. By 1820, tin canisters or cans were being used for gunpowder, seeds, and turpentine.

The earliest mining activities were concentrated along and adjacent to the outcrops of the main reef. Initially the diggers could perform the work themselves, using relatively little equipment. As the pits grew deeper, they needed additional labourers and machinery. Black Africans were recruited to perform the unskilled work. Machinery had to be imported from Europe and fuel had to be found to power the machinery.[7] The discovery of coal on the far east Rand at Springs and Boksburg, as well as the construction of the Rand Steam Tram from the colliery to the gold fields and into Johannesburg facilitated the growth of the industry in its early years.[8] Soon, too, the railway arrived from the coast: in September 1892 the Cape railway reached the Rand. Two years later the line from Lourenço Marques (now Maputo) arrived in the Republic and a third route was opened from Durban the next year.[9] In 1890 the MacArthur-Forrest cyanidation process successfully overcame the problems of treating the refractory ore from deeper levels.[10]

Railroads are credited with creating the modern business enterprise by scholars such as Alfred Chandler. Previously, the management of most businesses had consisted of individual owners or groups of partners, some of whom often had little daily hands-on operations involvement. Centralized expertise in the home office was not enough. A railroad required expertise available across the whole length of its trackage, to deal with daily crises, breakdowns and bad weather. A collision in Massachusetts in 1841 led to a call for safety reform. This led to the reorganization of railroads into different departments with clear lines of management authority. When the telegraph became available, companies built telegraph lines along the railroads to keep track of trains.[86]