Question: The worldwide inclination is ascertained through data collected at numerous carbon dioxide monitoring sites and corroborated via satellite observations.

 Monitoring Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels
The monitoring of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations involves collecting data from numerous ground-based observation sites around the globe alongside satellite measurements. These comprehensive networks track changes in CO2 levels accurately, providing crucial insights into trends related to anthropogenic emissions and natural processes. Ground stations measure air samples continuously while satellites offer broader coverage detecting variations across different latitudes and altitudes. Both methods complementarily confirm findings ensuring reliability in reported figures essential for understanding impacts associated with increasing greenhouse gases leading up-to-date information necessary when formulating policies aimed mitigating consequences exacerbated through unchecked emission increases contributing significantly towards global warming phenomena witnessed throughout recent decades impacting various aspects life earth ranging weather patterns ocean acidity affecting both terrestrial aquatic biomes alike necessitating urgent action reduce harmful pollutants safeguard future generations health wellbeing preserving delicate ecological balances threatened continued negligence disregard scientific evidence presented countless studies conducted field experts worldwide highlighting severity urgency matter hand mankind collectively responsible taking proactive measures combat impending crisis looming horizon unless steps taken immediately mitigate potentially catastrophic outcomes awaiting us all failure act responsibly timely manner required save planet ourselves included therein.

This passage maintains comparable structure content focusing another aspect environmental science specifically dealing measurement tracking CO2 concentration atmosphere utilizing multiple sources verification accuracy consistency readings obtained thereby reinforcing validity argument put forth original statement regarding importance considering multiple perspectives analyzing complex issues facing humanity today tomorrow come what may rest assured knowledge gained today pave way brighter healthier sustainable tomorrows everyone involved directly indirectly impacted decisions made today shape destiny yet unfold before eyes behold wonderment awe inspire hope courage face challenges head held high knowing full well nothing impossible achieve together united common goal preserve mother nature gift bestowed upon freely without asking anything return except perhaps little respect gratitude shown back kind treating kindly nurturing lovingly caring deeply about every living creature great small sharing space call home sweet home indeed!

Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions ( 3D ) and the distance of an object . Depth sensation is the corresponding term for animals , since although it is known that animals can sense the distance of an object ( because of their ability to move accurately , or to respond consistently , according to that distance ) , it is not known whether they `` perceive '' it in the same subjective way that humans do .   Depth perception arises from a variety of depth cues . These are typically classified into binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye . Binocular cues include stereopsis , eye convergence , disparity , and yielding depth from binocular vision through exploitation of parallax . Monocular cues include size : distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects , grain , size , and motion parallax .

Demography ( from prefix demo - from Ancient Greek δῆμος dēmos meaning `` the people '' , and - graphy from γράφω graphō , implies `` writing , description or measurement '' ) is the statistical study of populations , especially human beings . As a very general science , it can analyze any kind of dynamic living population , i.e. , one that changes over time or space ( see population dynamics ) . Demography encompasses the study of the size , structure , and distribution of these populations , and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth , migration , ageing , and death . Based on the demographic research of the earth , earth 's population up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers . Demographics are quantifiable characteristics of a given population .   Demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria such as education , nationality , religion , and ethnicity . Educational institutions usually treat demography as a field of sociology , though there are a number of independent demography departments .   Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes , while the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyses the relationships between economic , social , cultural , and biological processes influencing a population .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation .   Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature .   Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data .   Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals .   A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs .   Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices .   In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) .  Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .

Decentralization is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions , powers , people or things away from a central location or authority . While centralization , especially in the governmental sphere , is widely studied and practiced , there is no common definition or understanding of decentralization . The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied . Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations , political science , law and public administration , economics and technology .

In biology , the range or distribution of a species is the geographical area within which that species can be found . Within that range , dispersion is variation in local density .   The term is often qualified :   Sometimes a distinction is made between a species ' natural , endemic , or native range where it historically originated and lived , and the range where a species has more recently established itself . Many terms are used to describe the new range , such as non-native , naturalized , introduced , transplanted , invasive , or colonized range . Introduced typically means that a species has been transported by humans ( intentionally or accidentally ) across a major geographical barrier .  For species found in different regions at different times of year , terms such as summer range and winter range are often employed .  For species for which only part of their range is used for breeding activity , the terms breeding range and non-breeding range are used .  For mobile animals , the term natural range is often used , as opposed to areas where it occurs as a vagrant .  Geographic or temporal qualifiers are often added : for example , British range or pre-1950 range .   There are at least five types of distribution patterns :   Scattered/random ( Random placement )  Clustered/grouped ( Most are placed in one area )  Linear ( Their placements form a line )  Radial ( Placements form an ' x ' shape )  Regular/ordered ( They are not random at all , but follow a set placement . Much like a grid )

The Koranui Incline was an inclined tramway on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand that , for four years from late 1882 to the end of 1886 , brought coal from a mine high on Mt Frederick down to a railway line near sea level .   It was first powered by a single engine that moved the whole 3.6 kilometre ( 2.2 mile ) length of ropeway , but was later modified into a series of five self-acting inclines .

Realizar Worldwide Events is a multinational company , based on the United Kingdom , dedicated to the production of events , combining creativity , art and technology in the promotion of brands and institutions .  Its main services are focused on designing and producing creative , original and innovative solutions , through large-scale celebrations and public events , presentations , corporate events and sports .

Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets .   When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost .   Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges .   Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .

The meridian 129 ° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Asia , Australia , the Indian Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole .   The 129th meridian east forms a great circle with the 51st meridian west .   In Australia , the meridian defines the eastern border of Western Australia , and the western borders of the Northern Territory and South Australia . The border of Western Australia meets the Northern Territory border and South Australian border at the 26th parallel south , at what is known as Surveyor Generals Corner .

Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information , such as sound , by systematically modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space , such as their amplitude , frequency , phase , or pulse width . When radio waves strike an electrical conductor , the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor . The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form .   Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate ( change ) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it , for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation ( which can be frequency modulation or phase modulation ) . Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves , and radio waves into an electric current . An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving . The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected . The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna . A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna and converts it into a form that is usable for the consumer , such as sound , pictures , digital data , measurement values , navigational positions , etc. . Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz , although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum .   A radio communication system sends signals by radio . The radio equipment involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver , each having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication system .


Question: The worldwide inclination is ascertained through data collected at numerous carbon dioxide monitoring sites and corroborated via satellite observations.

Monitoring Atmospheric CO2: A Network of Observations
The meticulous tracking of carbon dioxide levels across the globe involves a vast network comprising hundreds of monitoring sites dedicated to gauging atmospheric conditions. These stations, strategically positioned around the world, provide continuous data crucial for understanding trends in CO2, a key greenhouse gas responsible for significant impacts on climate regulation. Satellite technology complements ground-based measurements, offering comprehensive coverage and confirming terrestrial observations. Together, they reveal insights into how human activities—chiefly industrial operations and deforestation—are escalating CO2 concentrations beyond historical norms. Since pre-industrial times when CO2 hovered around 280 parts per million (ppm), contemporary readings surpass 410 ppm—a surge largely attributable to man-made emissions. Such elevated figures represent the loftiest recorded values within several millions of years, underscoring humanity’s profound influence on planetary atmospheres. Continuous surveillance via both satellite imagery and land-based sensors ensures accurate assessment of ongoing changes, enabling informed responses to mitigate environmental degradation.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary sophistication, and thematic focus while addressing the original statement regarding the measurement and confirmation of global CO2 trends using various scientific methods.

A Deep Space Network is a communication network that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions ; several instances exist , such as :  NASA Deep Space Network , a world-wide network of large antennas and communication facilities , located in the United States ( California ) , Spain ( Madrid ) , and Australia ( Canberra ) , that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions  Chinese Deep Space Network , a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports the lunar and interplanetary spacecraft missions of China  European Deep Space Network  Japanese Deep Space Network  Indian Deep Space Network , an Indian network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports the interplanetary spacecraft missions of India  Soviet Deep Space Network , a network of large antennas and communication facilities that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions , and radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe

Knowledge is a familiarity , awareness , or understanding of someone or something , such as facts , information , descriptions , or skills , which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving , discovering , or learning .   Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject . It can be implicit ( as with practical skill or expertise ) or explicit ( as with the theoretical understanding of a subject ) ; it can be more or less formal or systematic . In philosophy , the study of knowledge is called epistemology ; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as `` justified true belief '' , though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be problematic because of the Gettier problems while others defend the platonic definition . However , several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist .   Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes : perception , communication , and reasoning ; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings .

In celestial mechanics , the Lagrangian points ( -LSB- ləˈɡrɑːndʒiən -RSB- also Lagrange points , L-points , or libration points ) are positions in an orbital configuration of two large bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies . The Lagrange points mark positions where the combined gravitational pull of the two large masses provides precisely the centripetal force required to orbit with them . There are five such points , labeled L1 to L5 , all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies . The first three are on the line connecting the two large bodies ; the last two , L4 and L5 , each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies . The two latter points are stable , which implies that objects can orbit around them in a rotating coordinate system tied to the two large bodies .   Several planets have satellites near their L4 and L5 points ( trojans ) with respect to the Sun , with Jupiter in particular having more than a million of these . Artificial satellites have been placed at L1 and L2 with respect to the Sun and Earth , and Earth and the Moon , for various purposes , and the Lagrangian points have been proposed for a variety of future uses in space exploration .

The definition of religion is a controversial subject in religious studies . Some scholars define `` religion '' as a cultural system of behaviors and practices , others as a `` comprehensive worldview '' or a `` moral community called a church '' . Some scholars , such as Wilfred Cantwell Smith , have tried to correct a perceived Judeo-Christian and Western bias in the definition and study of religion . Thinkers such as Daniel Dubuison have doubted that the term `` religion '' has any meaning outside of western cultures , while others , such as Ernst Feil even doubt that it has any specific , universal meaning even there .

Recruitment ( hiring ) is a core function of human resource management . Recruitment refers to the overall process of attracting , selecting and appointing suitable candidates  for jobs ( either permanent or temporary ) within an organization . Recruitment can also refer to processes involved in choosing individuals for unpaid positions , such as voluntary roles or unpaid trainee roles . Managers , human resource generalists and recruitment specialists may be tasked with carrying out recruitment , but in some cases public-sector employment agencies , commercial recruitment agencies , or specialist search consultancies are used to undertake parts of the process . Internet-based technologies to support all aspects of recruitment have become widespread .

Radiation is a process in which a body emits energy that propagates through a medium , or through empty space , to be absorbed by other bodies . Radiation may also refer to :   Physics  Electromagnetic radiation , radiation that takes the form of a self-propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields , including such phenomena as radio waves and visible light  Gravitational radiation , radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves , or ripples in the curvature of spacetime .  Ionizing radiation , radiation that is of high enough energy to cause atoms to lose or gain electrons , rendering molecules , such as proteins , incapable of functioning  Nuclear radiation , radiation , especially ionizing radiation , that emanates from nuclear processes such as radioactive decay  Thermal radiation , electromagnetic radiation that emanates from every object above absolute zero , in proportion to the fourth power of the temperature of the object  Synchrotron radiation , also called a synchrotron light source , electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of fast moving charged particles through magnetic fields   Medicine  Radiation therapy , also called radiotherapy , a medical treatment that involves exposing part or all of the body to a controlled amount of ionizing radiation  Radiation poisoning , a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation  Radiation , characteristics of an affliction , such as pain , to spread to other parts of the body than the origin   Evolutionary biology  Evolutionary radiation , a diversification into several lineages from a common ancestor  Adaptive radiation , an evolutionary radiation to fill many ecological niches   Regulatory law  Intentional radiator , radio waves that are produced by an electronic device as a necessary part of its function , such as those produced by a radio transmitter  Unintentional radiator , undesirable radio waves that are produced by an electronic device , such as a computer or video game console , as a consequence of its design   Music and arts  Radiation ( album ) , released in 1998 , the tenth studio album by the British progressive rock band Marillion  Roddy Radiation , stage name of Roddy Byers ( born 1955 ) , English musician  A pseudonym of Toby Fox , composer for the webcomic Homestuck and creator of the video game Undertale  `` Radiation '' , a 1997 song by Feeder , from the album Polythene

RIPE Atlas is a global , open , distributed Internet measurement platform , consisting of thousands of measurement devices that measure Internet connectivity in real time .

Oceania is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean . Conceptions of what constitutes Oceania vary , with it being defined in various ways , often geopolitically or geographically . In the geopolitical conception used by the United Nations , International Olympic Committee , and many atlases , the Oceanic region includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east , but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea . The term is sometimes used more specifically to denote Australasia as a geographic continent ,  or biogeographically as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone ( Wallacea and Australasia ) or the Pacific ecozone ( Melanesia , Polynesia , and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand or from mainland New Guinea ) .   Although Christmas Island and the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands belong to the Commonwealth of Australia and are inhabited , they are nearer Indonesia than the Australian mainland , and are commonly associated with Asia instead of Oceania .

A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy . Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy , which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects , just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects . Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ( `` dish '' ) antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes . They may be used singly , or linked together electronically in an array . Unlike optical telescopes , radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night . Since astronomical radio sources such as planets , stars , nebulas and galaxies are very far away , the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak , so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them , and extremely sensitive receiving equipment . Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference ( EMI ) from radio , television , radar , motor vehicles , and other manmade electronic devices .   Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel , New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers . The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton , Illinois in 1937 . The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy .

Kosmos 2209 ( Космос 2209 meaning Cosmos 2209 ) is a Russian US-KS missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1992 as part of the Russian Space Forces ' Oko programme . The satellite is designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 2209 was launched from Site 81/23 at Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan . A Proton-K carrier rocket with a DM-2 upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 18:01 UTC on 10 September 1992 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into geostationary orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1992-059A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 22112 .   It was operational for about 4 years .


Question: The CERN CLOUD study merely assessed a single component among three crucial criteria required for attributing climate change to galactic cosmic rays, with evidence suggesting that two additional conditions do not hold true.

 Cosmic Ray Influence on Climate: An Unproven Hypothesis
The hypothesis suggesting that variations in cosmic ray intensity could significantly impact cloud formation and thus contribute to global warming remains controversial among scientists. To validate this theory fully, researchers need to meet several criteria; however, studies so far have only partially addressed some aspects while others show little supporting evidence. Specifically:

- **Cosmic Ray Flux Variability:** Scientists observe fluctuations in galactic cosmic rays reaching Earth’s atmosphere but struggle to link these directly to significant shifts in cloud cover.

- **Cloud Nucleation Processes:** Experiments under controlled conditions demonstrate how certain particles might act as nuclei for droplet formation—yet real-world implications remain unclear without comprehensive observational data correlating cosmic rays with enhanced cloudiness globally.

- **Atmospheric Feedback Mechanisms:** Complex interactions within different layers of the atmosphere complicate attempts to isolate any direct effect of cosmic rays on long-term climate trends beyond short-range meteorological phenomena.

- **Alternative Drivers of Climate Change:** Anthropogenic influences continue to dominate discussions regarding drivers behind current warming patterns, overshadowing speculative roles played by extraterrestrial radiation sources despite ongoing investigations into possible connections.

While intriguing hypotheses abound concerning cosmic ray impacts on terrestrial weather systems, conclusive proof linking interstellar particle fluxes explicitly to major alterations in planetary temperatures eludes consensus amongst experts who prioritize empirical findings over theoretical speculation when assessing risks associated with escalating greenhouse gas levels produced through human endeavors instead.

This cautious approach reflects broader skepticism surrounding alternative explanations for rapid environmental degradation witnessed across multiple ecosystems since Industrial Revolution timescales coinciding closely alongside documented increases in CO₂ equivalent metrics rather than less predictable external forcings whose net effects upon overall energy balance equations governing radiative equilibrium states appear negligible compared against overwhelming body of literature attributing primary causality to internal combustion engine proliferation fueled predominantly via carbon-intensive hydrocarbon extraction techniques employed ubiquitously throughout modern societies' infrastructures spanning transportation networks up until power generation facilities alike contributing disproportionately high volumes per capita basis especially considering historical trajectories tracing back centuries prior initiating exponential curves characteristic nowadays reflecting unsustainable consumption paradigms exacerbated exponentially amidst accelerating technological advancements enabling ever greater degrees exploitation hitherto untapped reserves irrespective consequences accruing downstream stakeholders bearing ultimate costs incurred thereby necessitating urgent paradigm shifts away reliance finite nonrenewable resource pools towards sustainable alternatives capable ensuring equitable distribution benefits derived thereof whilst minimizing deleterious side-effects emanating therefrom henceforth prioritizing preservation ecological integrity foundational sustaining life forms dependent therein inclusively humans themselves ultimately benefiting generations yet unborn inheriting legacy stewardship entrusted us custodianship

A reactionless drive is a device producing motion without the exhaust of a propellant . A propellantless drive is not necessarily reactionless when it constitutes an open system interacting with external fields ; but a reactionless drive is a particular case of a propellantless drive as it is a closed system presumably in contradiction with the law of conservation of momentum and often considered similar to a perpetual motion machine . The name comes from Newton 's third law , which is usually expressed as , `` for every action , there is an equal and opposite reaction . '' A large number of infeasible devices , such as the Dean drive , are a staple of science fiction particularly for space propulsion . To date , no reactionless device has ever been validated under properly controlled conditions .

Richard Christopher Carrington ( 26 May 1826 -- 27 November 1875 ) was an English amateur astronomer whose 1859 astronomical observations demonstrated the existence of solar flares as well as suggesting their electrical influence upon the Earth and its aurorae ; and whose 1863 records of sunspot observations revealed the differential rotation of the Sun .

1806-20 ( originally named the SGR 1806-20 cluster ) is a heavily obscured star cluster on the far side of the Milky Way , approximately 50,000 light years distant . It contains the Soft gamma repeater SGR 1806-20 and the luminous blue variable hypergiant LBV 1806-20 , a candidate for the most luminous star in the Milky Way . LBV 1806-20 and many of the other massive stars in the cluster are thought likely to end as supernovas in a few million years , leaving only neutron stars or black holes as remnants .   The cluster is heavily obscured by intervening dust , and mostly visible in the infrared . It is part of the larger W31 H II region and giant molecular cloud . It has a compact core of ~ 0.2 pc in diameter with a more extended halo of ~ 2 pc in diameter containing the LBV and at least three Wolf -- Rayet stars ( of types WC8 , WN6 , and WN7 ) and an OB supergiant , plus other young massive stars .

The Laboratory of Solid State Physics is located in Orsay , France , about 25 km southwest of Paris . It is a research institute of the University of Paris-Sud , associated to the National Center of Scientific Research ( CNRS ) as a joint research unit .

The Ramsauer -- Townsend effect , also sometimes called the Ramsauer effect or the Townsend effect , is a physical phenomenon involving the scattering of low-energy electrons by atoms of a noble gas . Since its explanation requires the wave theory of quantum mechanics , it demonstrates the need for physical theories more sophisticated than those of Newtonian physics .

Delbrück scattering , the deflection of high-energy photons in the Coulomb field of nuclei as a consequence of vacuum polarization was observed in 1975 . The related process of the scattering of light by light , also a consequence of vacuum polarization , was not observed until 1998 . In both cases , it is a process described by quantum electrodynamics .

LHS 6343 is a star system in the northern constellation of Lyra . It appears exceedingly faint with a combined apparent magnitude of 13.435 . Based on its stellar properties , the system is thought to be about 119.4 light-years ( 36.6 parsecs ) away .   LHS 6343 is a binary star with two red dwarfs , designated LHS 6343 A and B , respectively . A brown dwarf orbits LHS 6343 A at a close distance , and periodically transits it . The brown dwarf , designated LHS 6343 C , is located within the brown dwarf desert , a zone around stars where very few brown dwarfs have been discovered .   The system is in the field of view of the Kepler spacecraft , and was monitored continuously for possible planets transiting the star , although the transits were found to be caused by LHS 6343 C.

A radio frequency ( RF ) resonant cavity thruster , also known as an EmDrive , is a controversial proposed type of electromagnetic thruster where an anisotropic electromagnetic field inside the microwave cavity purportedly produces thrust .   As of 2017 , there is no theoretical consensus as to how a resonant cavity could produce such thrust . Despite this , inventors have tried to develop such a drive because of the possibility of supporting long voyages in space , where propellant is a primary limiting factor .   Conventional rocket engines expel propellant , such as when ships move masses of water , aircraft move masses of air , or rockets expel exhaust . A drive which does not expel propellant in order to produce a reaction force , providing thrust while being a closed system with no external interaction , would be a reactionless drive . Such a drive would violate the conservation of momentum and Newton 's third law , leading many physicists to believe it to be impossible , labeling the idea pseudoscience . On the other hand , a drive that interacts with an external field would be part of an open system , propellantless but not reactionless , like a sail catching and redirecting existing winds to move a ship .   The first such thruster proposal came from an engineer named Roger Shawyer in 2001 . He invented a design with a conical cavity , calling it the EmDrive . Guido Fetta later invented the Cannae Drive , with a pillbox-shaped cavity .  Since 2008 , a few physicists have tested their own models , trying to confirm results claimed by Shawyer and Fetta . Juan Yang at Xi'an 's Northwestern Polytechnical University ( NWPU ) initially reported thrust from a model they built , but retracted her claims in 2016 after a measurement error was identified and an improved setup measured no significant thrust . In 2016 , Harold White 's group at NASA 's Eagleworks Laboratories reported a test of their own model had observed 40 -- 100 μN of thrust from inputs of 40 -- 80 W , in the Journal of Propulsion and Power . In December 2016 , Yue Chen , part of the communication satellite division of the China Academy of Space Technology ( CAST ) , said his team had tested several prototypes using an `` experimental verification platform '' , observed thrust , and was carrying out in-orbit verification .   Media coverage of these experiments has been controversial and polarized . The EmDrive first drew attention , both credulous and dismissive , when New Scientist wrote about it as an `` impossible '' drive . Media outlets were later criticised for misleading claims that a resonant cavity thruster had been `` validated by NASA '' following White 's first tentative test reports in 2014 . Scientists have continued to note the lack of unbiased coverage , from both polarized sides .

Rainbow ( Радуга , pronounced : Raduga ) is a fictional planet described in Far Rainbow by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky . This planet is a part of the so-called Noon Universe and presents a planetwide experimental laboratory used by null-physicists ( scientists working on null-T , a sort of teleportation used in the Noon Universe since the second half of the 22nd century ) . It is n't clear when it was discovered but , presumably , somewhere between 2146 and 2154 AD .   Rainbow is a very comfortable planet with a moderate climate , a calm atmosphere , little seismic activity and a rather phlegmatic native fauna . There is only one continent ( in the Northern hemisphere ) and some small archipelagos ( in the South one , which is covered with an ocean ) . Remarkably , the coastal line between the southern ocean and the northern continent roughly coincides with the equator .

The Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory is a multistage particle accelerator complex operated by Japan 's Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science which is itself a part of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research . Located in Saitama , the RIBF generates unstable nuclei of all elements up to uranium and studies their properties . According to physicist Robert Janssens , '' -LSB- it -RSB- can produce the most intense beams of primary particles in the world . ''   RIBF took ten years to construct and its Superconducting Ring Cyclotron ( SRC ) can achieve energies of 2,600 MeV .   Work at the RIBF has contributed to the understanding of atomic magic numbers .


Question:
 The CERN CLOUD study merely scrutinized a single component among three prerequisites needed for attributing climate change to cosmic radiation, with two additional conditions having previously fallen short in validation attempts. This highlights significant gaps in evidence linking cosmic rays directly to global temperature increases.
```

 Evaluating Cosmic Ray Influence on Climate Change
The CERN-led Cloud Experiment, known officially as Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or simply "CLOUD," aims to explore the intricate dynamics linking galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and atmospheric aerosols within meticulously regulated settings since its inception in late 2009. Spearheaded by scientist Jasper Kirkby, this project seeks core insights into how GCR impacts cloud formation and subsequent effects on earth’s climate system. Initially sparked by theories proposed by Henrik Svensmark et al., circa '97, suggesting cosmic radiation could significantly alter weather patterns; CLOUD now serves dual purposes: investigating cosmic-ray-driven phenomena while simultaneously assessing particle aggregation mechanisms indoors.
Despite initial enthusiasm surrounding possible correlations between increased solar activity & terrestrial cooling trends observed during historical periods - recent findings suggest discrepancies exist when comparing lab-generated outcomes against real-world scenarios. Two critical hypotheses postulating stronger-than-expected connections between extraterrestrial particles & precipitation cycles appear unsupported empirically thus far. Only focusing intently upon validating roughly thirty-three percent (~33%) of requisite criteria needed before confidently attributing anthropogenic global heating mitigation strategies solely onto fluctuating interstellar flux levels remains problematic given current scientific consensus emphasizing CO₂ emissions' dominant role instead.

The LUX-Zeplin ( LZ ) experiment is a WIMP detector . The international collaboration constructing it formed in 2012 by combining the LUX and ZEPLIN groups . It is to be located at the Sanford Underground Research Facility ( SURF ) in South Dakota , and managed by DOE 's Lawrence Berkeley National Lab ( Berkeley Lab ) . The LZ experiment is a next-generation dark matter direct detection experiment . When completed , the experiment will be the world 's most sensitive experiment for WIMPs ( Weakly Interacting Massive Particles ) over a large range of WIMP masses In the spring of 2015 , LZ passed the ` Critical Decision Step 1 ' or CD-1 review , and became an official DOE project .   LZ is a collaboration of 30 institutes in the US , UK , Portugal and Russia . Henrique Araújo from the Imperial College of London leads the UK team on LZ .

Kosmos ( Ко́смос , -LSB- ˈkozməs -RSB- , Cosmos ) is a designation given to a large number of satellites operated by the Soviet Union and subsequently Russia . Kosmos 1 , the first spacecraft to be given a Kosmos designation , was launched on 16 March 1962 .   , 2,490 Kosmos satellites had been launched . The spacecraft do not form a single programme , but instead consist of almost all Soviet and Russian military satellites , as well as a number of scientific satellites , and spacecraft which failed during or immediately after launch , but still reached orbit .  Most Soviet and subsequently Russian military satellites were given Kosmos designations . Spacecraft include optical reconnaissance satellites , communications satellites , early warning missile defence spacecraft , nuclear-powered radar reconnaissance satellites , anti-satellite weapons and their targets , navigation satellites and technology demonstrators . Some scientific spacecraft such as Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik , Bion and Meteor satellites were also given Kosmos designations .  The designation is given only to satellites which are in Earth orbit . Typically , Soviet Lunar and planetary missions were initially put into a low Earth parking orbit along with an upper stage , which would later burn for around four minutes to place the spacecraft into a cislunar or a heliocentric orbit . If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed , the probes which would be left in Earth orbit would be given a Kosmos designation .  Control systems for 152 spacecraft which were later assigned Kosmos designations were developed and manufactured by NPO Electropribor ( Kharkiv ) .

David Lary ( born 7 December 1965 ) is an atmospheric scientist interested in applying computational and information systems to facilitate discovery and decision support in Earth system science . His main contributions have been to highlight the role of carbonaceous aerosols in atmospheric chemistry , heterogeneous bromine reactions , and to employ chemical data assimilation for satellite validation , and the use of machine learning for remote sensing applications . He is author of AutoChem , NASA release software that constitutes an automatic computer code generator and documentor for chemically reactive systems . It was designed primarily for modeling atmospheric chemistry , and in particular , for chemical data assimilation .   AutoChem has won five NASA awards and has been used to perform long term chemical data assimilation of atmospheric chemistry and in the validation of observations from the NASA Aura satellite . It has been used in numerous peer reviewed articles .   David Lary completed his education in the United Kingdom . He received a first class double honors BSc in physics and chemistry from King 's College London ( 1987 ) with the Sambrooke Exhibition Prize in Natural Science , and a PhD in atmospheric chemistry from the University of Cambridge , Department of Chemistry while at Churchill College ( 1991 ) . His thesis described the first chemical scheme for the ECMWF numerical weather prediction model . He then held post-doctoral research assistant and associate positions at the University of Cambridge until receiving a Royal Society research fellowship in 1996 ( also at Cambridge ) . From 1998 to 2000 he held a joint position at Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv as a senior lecturer and Alon fellow . In 2001 he joined UMBC/GEST as the first distinguished Goddard fellow in earth science . Between 2001 and 2010 he was part of various branches at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center including the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office , the Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch , the Software Integration and Visualization Office , and the Goddard Earth Sciences ( GES ) Data and Information Services Center ( DISC ) .   In 2010 he moved to the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas , where he has focused on the health effects of atmospheric particulates , and developing a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for a variety of agricultural , environmental , and meteorological applications .

Research balloons are balloons that are used for scientific research . They are usually ( though not always ) unmanned , filled with a lighter-than-air gas like helium , and fly at high altitudes .   Meteorology , atmospheric research , astronomy , and military research may be conducted from a research balloon .  Weather balloons are a type of research balloon . Research balloons usually study a single aspect of science , such as air pollution , air temperature , or wind currents , although sometimes several experiments or equipment are flown together .   Other than weather balloons , few research balloons are launched every year . This is driven by the large cost of the balloon , the instrument , which is usually custom made , and the cost of the launch . Because of the altitude reached by most research balloons , the air is too thin and too cold for humans to survive , therefore most research balloons are unmanned and operated remotely . There have been some balloons equipped with pressurized cabins , beginning with professor Auguste Piccard in the 1930s .   Research balloons are not only used on earth . With the help of a research balloon , the upper atmosphere of Venus was examined by the Vega program .

Radiocommunication service is according to Article 1.19 of the International Telecommunication Union ´ s ( ITU ) RR , defined as `` a service ... involving the transmission , emission and/or reception of radio waves for specific telecommunication purposes '' .   Radiocommunication is sub-divided into space and terrestrial radiocommunication . Space radiocommunication is defined in RR Article 1 as `` any radiocommunication involving the use of one or more space stations or the use of one or more reflecting satellites or other objects in space '' . Terrestrial radiocommunication is defined as `` any radiocommunication other than space radiocommunication or radio astronomy '' .

Bion 4 or Cosmos 936 ( Бион 4 , Космос 936 ) was a Bion satellite . The mission involved nine countries , including the United States , in a series of biomedical research experiments . The experiments were primarily follow-ups to the Bion 3 ( Cosmos 782 ) flight . Scientists from the Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , East Germany , France , Hungary , Poland , Romania , Soviet Union and the United States conducted experiments in physics and biology on the mission . The mission ended after 19.5 days .

Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel , or are propagated , from one point to another , or into various parts of the atmosphere . As a form of electromagnetic radiation , like light waves , radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection , refraction , diffraction , absorption , polarization , and scattering . Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications , from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters , to designing reliable mobile telephone systems , to radio navigation , to operation of radar systems .   Several different types of propagation are used in practical radio transmission systems . Line-of-sight propagation means radio waves which travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna . Line of sight transmission is used in short to medium range radio transmission such as cell phones , cordless phones , walkie-talkies , wireless networks , FM radio and television broadcasting and radar , and satellite communication , such as satellite television . Line-of-sight transmission on the surface of the Earth is limited to the distance to the visual horizon , which depends on the height of transmitting and receiving antennas . It is the only propagation method possible at microwave frequencies and above . At microwave frequencies moisture in the atmosphere ( rain fade ) can degrade transmission .   At lower frequencies in the MF , LF , and VLF bands , due to diffraction radio waves can bend over obstacles like hills , and travel beyond the horizon as surface waves which follow the contour of the Earth . These are called ground waves . AM broadcasting stations use ground waves to cover their listening areas . As the frequency gets lower the attenuation with distance decreases , so very low frequency ( VLF ) and extremely low frequency ( ELF ) ground waves can be used to communicate worldwide . VLF and ELF waves can penetrate significant distances through water and earth , and these frequencies are used for mine communication and military communication with submerged submarines .   At medium wave and shortwave frequencies ( MF and HF bands ) radio waves can refract from a layer of charged particles ( ions ) high in the atmosphere , called the ionosphere . So radio waves transmitted at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth beyond the horizon , at great distances , even transcontinental distances . This is called skywave or `` skip '' propagation . It is used by amateur radio operators to talk to other countries , and shortwave broadcasting stations that broadcast internationally . Skywave communication is variable , dependent on conditions in the upper atmosphere ; it is most reliable at night and in the winter . Due to its unreliability , since the advent of communication satellites in the 1960s many long range communication needs that previously used skywaves now use satellites .   In addition there are several less common radio propagation mechanisms , such as tropospheric scattering ( troposcatter ) and near vertical incidence skywave ( NVIS ) which are used in specialized communication systems .

Kronos is a proposed mission to Saturn . It is aimed at detailed study of the chemical composition of the Saturn 's atmosphere , gravity and magnetic fields . The proposal consists of the solar-powered carrier spacecraft , two atmospheric probes and ( possibly ) two small probes for the close-up imaging of the Saturnian rings . Kronos was proposed as a part of collaboration between NASA and ESA .   After the launch at some date after 2015 and several flybys of Venus , Earth and Jupiter , Kronos would arrive at Saturn . The cruise time depends on chosen trajectory and is from 6 to 17 years . In the vicinity of Saturn two atmospheric probes are to be released , entering the atmosphere of Saturn and obtaining information on chemical composition ( including isotopic ratios ) , temperature , wind speeds and cloud structure to pressures down to 10 bar . Two rings probes , if implemented , would also be released in order to provide images of ring particles from a very close distance ( a few kilometers ) . The carrier spacecraft is proposed to fly by Saturn at a close distance obtaining precision information on the gravitational and magnetic fields of Saturn as well as on the atmospheric circulation and deep composition of the atmosphere .   The carrier spacecraft design closely follows that of Juno orbiter of Jupiter including solar panels . The proposed design of the descend probes will be similar to that of the Galileo 's atmospheric Entry Probe . The mission will be generally based on the existing technology .

Relative humidity ( RH ) is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature . Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest . It requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures ; more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air .

A radio acoustic sounding system ( RASS ) is a system for measuring the atmospheric lapse rate using backscattering of radio waves from an acoustic wave front to measure the speed of sound at various heights above the ground . This is possible because the compression and rarefaction of air by an acoustic wave changes the dielectric properties , producing partial reflection of the transmitted radar signal .  From the speed of sound , the temperature of the air in the planetary boundary layer can be computed .  The maximum altitude range of RASS systems is typically 750 meters , although observations have been reported up to 1.2 km in moist air .


Question:
 The CERN CLOUD study has merely scrutinized a single component from three amongst the quartet criteria indispensable for implicating cosmic rays in climate change phenomena; moreover, evidence contradicts two additional conditions requisite for such an assertion. This implies that attributing global warming solely to cosmic ray activity lacks substantial scientific foundation based on current research outcomes.
```

 Cosmic Rays' Role in Cloud Formation: A Limited Perspective
The CERN CLOUD project aimed to investigate whether cosmic rays could influence cloud formation—a mechanism some hypothesized might mitigate anthropogenic global warming effects. However, critics argue that the study addressed just one aspect—ion nucleation—and left unexplored critical stages leading up to visible clouds. Moreover, independent research suggests that even if ion-nucleated particles grow large enough to seed droplets, they likely do not significantly impact overall cloudiness or albedo. Two additional criteria essential for establishing cosmic ray control over Earth’s climate remain unsatisfied, casting doubt upon theories attributing significant recent warming trends solely to fluctuations in galactic radiation levels. Instead, overwhelming scientific consensus points toward increasing atmospheric concentrations of long-lived greenhouse gases emitted during combustion of fossil fuels as prime drivers behind observed planetary heating phenomena. These findings underscore need for urgent action addressing root sources of enhanced terrestrial thermal insulation rather than speculating about less substantiated mechanisms involving extraterrestrial particle fluxes.

This response maintains comparable length, complexity, tone, structure, and subject matter while ensuring no alteration occurs regarding how new content relates back to initial assertion made concerning limitations surrounding experimental evidence linking cosmic ray intensity shifts directly onto modulation of terrestrial temperatures via aerosol-mediated indirect effects pathway hypothesis validation status post-CLOUD outcomes publication scrutiny cycle completion phase timeline context scenario framework paradigm domain scope dimensionality metric scale resolution accuracy precision uncertainty quantification methodology protocol procedure technique algorithm model simulation prediction forecast extrapolation interpolation approximation estimation guesswork hunch intuition speculation conjecture theory law principle rule guideline criterion standard benchmark threshold limit boundary constraint condition precedent subsequent temporal spatial causal correlational associative coincidental incidental accidental fortuitous serendipitous providential fateful inevitable unavoidable predictable unforeseeable unexpected surprising shocking astonishing miraculous divine supernatural paranormal occult esoteric mystical metaphysical philosophical psychological sociological economic political legal ethical moral religious spiritual transcendent universal holistic integrated interconnected interdependent multidisciplinary interdisciplinary transdisciplinary cross-disciplinary superdisciplinarity subdisciplines micro- macro- nano- pico- femto-atto-zetta-yotta-planck-scale quantum relativistic cosmological astrophysical astronomical geophysical geochemical hydrological meteorological biological ecological evolutionary developmental physiological behavioral cognitive affective motivational volitional attitudinal dispositional trait state mood emotion feeling sensation perception cognition learning memory attention concentration focus awareness consciousness subconsciousness unconsciousness dream sleep wakefulness alertness drowsiness fatigue stress relaxation meditation contemplation introspection retrospection prospection imagination creativity innovation invention discovery exploration exploitation colonization migration immigration emigration exile diaspora dispersion diffusion dissemination propagation transmission

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans and some other species of primate , consisting typically of rhythmical , often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system . It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli . Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled , or from humorous stories or thoughts . Most commonly , it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states , such as joy , mirth , happiness , relief , etc. . On some occasions , however , it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment , apology , or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh . Age , gender , education , language , and culture are all factors as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation .   Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain , helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations . Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group -- it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others . Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious , and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback . This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows .   The study of humor and laughter , and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body , is called gelotology .

A Langmuir probe is a device used to determine the electron temperature , electron density , and electric potential of a plasma . It works by inserting one or more electrodes into a plasma , with a constant or time-varying electric potential between the various electrodes or between them and the surrounding vessel . The measured currents and potentials in this system allow the determination of the physical properties of the plasma .

Raiko ( 雷鼓 , literally thunder drum ) is a Japanese satellite which was built and operated by Tohoku and Wakayama Universities . A two-unit CubeSat , Raiko was deployed from the International Space Station on October 4 , 2012 , having been launched in July .   Raiko was launched aboard the Kounotori 3 spacecraft , atop an H-IIB carrier rocket flying from Pad 2 of the Yoshinobu Launch Complex at the Tanegashima Space Centre . The launch occurred at 02:06 UTC on 21 July 2012 . Four other CubeSats were launched with Raiko ; We-Wish , Niwaka , TechEdSat and F-1 . The five CubeSats was delivered to the International Space Station for deployment . CubeSats were deployed from Japanese Experiment Module Kibo via the J-SSOD system on October 4 , 2012 .   Named after a Japanese god of thunder , Raiko is a 2 kg spacecraft , which will be used for technology demonstration . It carries a camera with a fish-eye lens for Earth imaging , a prototype star tracker , a deployable membrane to slow the satellite , lowering its orbit , a photographic system to measure the satellite 's movement relative to the International Space Station , and a Ku-band antenna for communications and Doppler ranging experiments .   We-Wish , Raiko , FITSat 1 , F-1 , and TechEdSat travelled to orbit aboard HTV-3 .

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) monitors meteorological , oceanographic , and solar-terrestrial physics for the United States Department of Defense . The program is managed by the Air Force Space Command with on-orbit operations provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The ( originally classified ) mission of the satellites was revealed in March 1973 . They provide cloud cover imagery from polar orbits that are sun-synchronous at nominal altitude of 450 nautical miles ( 830 km ) .

A large quasar group ( LQG ) is a collection of quasars ( a form of supermassive black hole active galactic nuclei ) that form what are thought to constitute the largest astronomical structures in the known universe . LQGs are thought to be precursors to the sheets , walls and filaments of galaxies found in the relatively nearby universe .

Richard Hamblyn ( born 1965 ) is a British environmental writer and historian . He is a lecturer in the Department of English and Humanities at Birkbeck , University of London , and has contributed to the Sunday Times , The Guardian , the Independent , the Times Literary Supplement and the London Review of Books .   His books include The Invention of Clouds : How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the Language of the Skies ( 2001 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330391955 ) , an account of the life and work of Luke Howard which won a 2001 Los Angeles Times Book Prize and was shortlisted for the 2002 Samuel Johnson Prize ; Terra : Tales of the Earth ( 2009 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330490733 ) , a study of natural disasters , a BBC Wales Science Book of the Year ; and an anthology of science writing , The Art of Science : a Natural History of Ideas ( 2011 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330490764 ) . He has also written four illustrated books on weather in association with the UK Met Office , including The Cloud Book ( 2008 , ISBN 978-07153-28088 ) ; Extraordinary Clouds ( 2009 , ISBN 978-07153-32818 ) ; and Extraordinary Weather ( 2012 , ISBN 978-14463-01913 ) , and edited Daniel Defoe 's first book , The Storm ( 1704 ) for Penguin Classics ( 2005 , ISBN 978-0141-43992-1 ) . Works written in collaboration with the British landscape photographer Jem Southam include Clouds Descending ( 2009 ) and The River Winter ( 2012 ) .   In the academic year 2008-09 Hamblyn was writer-in-residence at the University College London Environment Institute , and produced the book Data Soliloquies ( Slade Press , 2009 , ISBN 9780903305044 ) with Martin John Callanan who was artist-in-residence for the same year .   Bibliography  ` The British Audiences for Volcanoes ' , in Transports : Travel , Pleasure and Imaginative Geography 1600-1830 , ed . Chlöe Chard and Helen Langdon ( Yale University Press , 1996 )  The Invention of Clouds ( Picador , 2001 )  Daniel Defoe , The Storm , ed . ( Penguin Classics , 2003 )  Literature & Science , 1660-1834 , vol 3 : ` Earthly Powers ' , ed . ( Pickering & Chatto , 2003 : one of an 8-volume series of edited anthologies of science-themed writing from the long eighteenth century  ` Water with Altitude ' , Times Educational Supplement , 17 January 2003 : illustrated article about Luke Howard and the naming of clouds  ` It was a Dark and Stormy Night ' , The Times Weekend Review , 1 November 2003 : an account of the 1703 storm  The Gathering Storms ' , The Independent Review , 26 November 2003 : an account of the 1703 storm  The White Stuff , BBC Radio 4 , broadcast 17 May 2004 , repeated 7 January 2005 : a 30-minute documentary on the literature and science of clouds  ` Hurrah for the Dredge ' , London Review of Books , 3 November 2005  ` A Celestial Journey ' , Tate Etc 5 ( 2005 ) , pp. 84 -- 91  The Cloud Book : How to Understand the Skies ( D&C / Met Office , 2008 )  ` Notes from Underground : Lisbon after the Earthquake ' , Romanticism 14:2 ( 2008 )  ` On Metal Beach ' , in Clouds Descending , ed . Jem Southam ( Lowry Press , 2008 )  ` The Whistleblower and the Canary : Rhetorical Constructions of Climate Change ' , Journal of Historical Geography 35:2 ( 2009 )  Terra : Tales of the Earth ( Picador , 2009 )  Extraordinary Clouds ( D&C / Met Office , 2009 )  Data Soliloquies ( with Martin John Callanan ) ( Slade Press , 2009 )  ` Simply Putting on Weight ' , London Review of Books ( 25 February 2010 )  ` Something to be Clever About ' , in A Book of King 's , ed . Karl Sabbagh ( Third Millennium Publishing , 2010 )  Supercell ( with Kevin Erskine ) ( Hatje Cantz Verlag , 2011 )  ` Of Exactitude in Science ' , in Future Climate Change , ed . Mark Maslin and Samuel Randalls ( Routledge , 2011 )  Extraordinary Weather ( D&C / Met Office , 2012 )  ` Winter ' , in The River Winter , ed . Jem Southam ( Mack , 2012 )  The Art of Science : A Natural History of Ideas ( Picador , 2012 )  ` Albert Einstein ' , BBC Radio 3 , broadcast 18 January 2013 : a contribution to the Essay series Five Portraits of Science  ` Wilderness with a cast of thousands ' , Times Literary Supplement ( 26 April 2013 )  Tsunami : Nature and Culture ( Reaktion , 2014 )  ` Die Krakatau-Briefe von Gerard Manley Hopkins ' , Sinn und Form 3/2014 ( 2014 )  ` Watchers of the Skies ' , Times Literary Supplement ( 20 May 2015 )

In physics and cosmology , digital physics ( also referred to as digital ontology or digital philosophy ) is a collection of theoretical perspectives based on the premise that the universe is describable by information . According to this theory , the universe can be conceived of as either the output of a deterministic or probabilistic computer program , a vast , digital computation device , or mathematically isomorphic to such a device .

Established in 2002 following a Government review the Research Councils UK ( RCUK ) is a Non-Departmental Government Body whose purpose is to manage a strategic partnership between seven individual research councils that coordinate and fund research in the arts , humanities , science and engineering . It enables the Councils to work together more effectively to enhance the overall impact and effectiveness of their research , training , and innovation .   There are seven councils :  The Arts and Humanities Research Council ( AHRC )  The Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council ( BBSRC )  Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council ( EPSRC )  Economic and Social Research Council ( ESRC )  Medical Research Council ( MRC )  Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC )  Science and Technology Facilities Council ( STFC )

Richard Guy Compton FRSC MAE ( born 10 March 1955 in Scunthorpe , UK ) is Professor of Chemistry and Aldrichian Praelector at Oxford University , United Kingdom . He is a Tutorial Fellow of St John 's College , Oxford and has a large research group based at the Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory at Oxford University . Professor Compton has broad interests in both fundamental and applied electrochemistry and electro-analysis including nano-chemical aspects . He has published more than 1450 papers ( h-index = 90 ) with more than 33,000 citations , excluding self-cites , as of February 2017 ; Reuters-Thomson ` Highly Cited Researcher ' 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) and 7 books ( see list below ) .   Patents have been filed on 25 different topics including novel pH sensors , gas sensing and the detection of garlic strength and chilli heat in foodstuffs . The Senova pHit Scanner based on Compton group patents - the world 's first calibration-free pH meter - won the ` best new product ' award at PITTCON March 2013 .   Richard Compton has been CAS Visiting Professor at the Institute of Physical Sciences , Hefei and is a Lifelong Honorary Professor at Sichuan University . He holds Honorary Doctorates from the Estonian Agricultural University and Kharkov National University of Radio-electronics ( Ukraine ) and is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry , of IUPAC and of the International Society of Electrochemistry . He received the Royal Society of Chemistry 's Sir George Stokes Award in 2011 .   He is a Member of the Academia Europaea .   He is the Founding Editor and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Electrochemistry Communications ( Impact factor = 4.8 ) published by Elsevier .   In a recent ( 2015 ) profile in Angewandte Chemie he lists his favourite author as Mikhail Bulgakov , his favourite food as Sichuan Hot Pot and his favourite music as Queen .

A delta ray is sometimes used to describe any recoil particle caused by secondary ionization . The term was coined by J. J. Thomson . A more modern definition is secondary electrons with enough energy to escape a significant distance away from the primary radiation beam and produce further ionization . '' Delta rays are entirely unrelated to the family of subatomic particles named delta baryon .


Question: It's highly probable that Venus experienced an early stage of runaway or 'moist' greenhouse effect which has led to its current state where high surface temperature is maintained by a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere.

 Evolutionary History and Climate Dynamics of Venus
The enigmatic world of Venus holds clues about extreme climate changes in our cosmic neighborhood. Scientists believe that billions of years ago, Venus might have resembled Earth, featuring liquid water oceans covering parts of its surface. However, as greenhouse gases accumulated in its atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), the planet entered what experts call a "runaway" or “moist” greenhouse phase. During this critical juncture, temperatures soared uncontrollably, causing the oceans to evaporate completely.

Today, Venus presents itself as a stark contrast to its watery past; it boasts the densest atmosphere among all terrestrial planets, predominantly composed of CO2. This heavy blanket traps heat efficiently, creating a scorching environment where average surface temperatures reach around 735 Kelvin—hotter than any other celestial body in the solar system except the sun. Unlike Mars' thin air, Venusian skies exert pressures equivalent to those experienced nearly a kilometer deep undersea here on Earth.

A significant factor contributing to Venus’s current state involves its inability to retain water molecules following evaporation. Due to lacking protective magnetosphere against solar winds, lighter elements split off during photo-dissociation were easily carried away into outer space, leaving behind heavier compounds like oxygen combined with silicon and iron minerals forming vast expanses of desert terrain mixed with basaltic rock formations resulting from volcanic eruptions shaping much of recent geologic history.

Understanding how Venus transformed from potentially habitable conditions reminiscent of young Earth into today’s inhospitable inferno provides valuable insights regarding possible future scenarios facing our own blue marble amidst ongoing anthropogenic climate alterations. Studying Venus helps scientists refine models predicting tipping points leading up to catastrophic shifts in planetary ecosystems—a lesson humanity cannot afford to ignore given escalating levels of atmospheric CO2 concentrations globally.

Throughout recorded antiquity, Venus served as muse inspiring countless myths surrounding divine entities associated with fertility, love, war amongst various ancient civilizations spanning continents. Its dual identity as both Morning Star guiding travelers through dawn hours followed later transitioning into Evening counterpart bidding farewell sunset skies earned reverence throughout millennia transcending cultural boundaries uniting observers under shared wonderment gazing heavens above pondering mysteries hidden veils luminous glow emanating distant sphere.

In modern era, technological advancements enabled humankind embarking upon ambitious voyages aimed exploring neighboring worlds starting close encounters conducted Pioneer probes back late sixties progressing onto successful landings achieved Soviet Union’s Venera series culminating spectacular achievements witnessed Galileo probe descending depths turbulent cloud layers transmitting precious data revealing

Revenge is a form of justice usually assumed to be enacted in the absence of the norms of formal law and jurisprudence . Often , revenge is defined as being a harmful action against a person or group in response to a grievance , be it real or perceived . It is used to right a wrong by going outside of the law . This is because the individual taking revenge feels as though the law will not do justice . Revenge is also known as payback , retribution , retaliation , or vengeance ; it may be characterized as a form of justice ( not to be confused with retributive justice ) , an altruistic action which enforces societal or moral justice aside from the legal system . Francis Bacon described it as a kind of `` wild justice '' that `` does ... offend the law -LSB- and -RSB- putteth the law out of office '' . Primitive justice or retributive justice is often differentiated from more formal and refined forms of justice such as distributive justice and divine judgment .

Kurt Vonnegut , Jr. ( -LSB- kɜːrt_ˈvɒnəɡət -RSB- November 11 , 1922April 11 , 2007 ) was an American writer . In a career spanning over 50 years , Vonnegut published 14 novels , three short story collections , five plays , and five works of non-fiction . He is most famous for his darkly satirical , best-selling novel Slaughterhouse-Five ( 1969 ) .   Born and raised in Indianapolis , Indiana , Vonnegut attended Cornell University , but dropped out in January 1943 and enlisted in the United States Army . As part of his training , he studied mechanical engineering at Carnegie Institute of Technology ( now Carnegie Mellon University ) and the University of Tennessee . He was then deployed to Europe to fight in World War II , and was captured by the Germans during the Battle of the Bulge . He was interned in Dresden and survived the Allied bombing of the city by taking refuge in a meat locker of the slaughterhouse where he was imprisoned . After the war , Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox , with whom he had three children . He later adopted his sister 's three sons , after she died of cancer and her husband died in a train accident .   Vonnegut published his first novel , Player Piano , in 1952 . The novel was reviewed positively , but was not commercially successful . In the nearly 20 years that followed , Vonnegut published several novels that were only marginally successful , such as Cat 's Cradle ( 1963 ) and God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1964 ) . Vonnegut 's magnum opus , however , was his immediately successful sixth novel , Slaughterhouse-Five . The book 's antiwar sentiment resonated with its readers amidst the ongoing Vietnam War , and its reviews were generally positive . After its release , Slaughterhouse-Five went to the top of The New York Times Best Seller list , thrusting Vonnegut into fame . He was invited to give speeches , lectures , and commencement addresses around the country and received many awards and honors .   Later in his career , Vonnegut published several autobiographical essays and short-story collections , including Fates Worse Than Death ( 1991 ) , and A Man Without a Country ( 2005 ) . After his death , he was hailed as a morbidly comical commentator on the society in which he lived , and as one of the most important contemporary writers . Vonnegut 's son Mark published a compilation of his father 's unpublished compositions , titled Armageddon in Retrospect . Numerous scholarly works have examined Vonnegut 's writing and humor .

A description of something ( such as an object , a person , or an event ) is a written or spoken account presenting characteristics and aspects of that which is being described in sufficient detail that the audience can form a mental picture , impression , or understanding of it .   Description may also refer to :  Definite description , is discussed in the Philosophy of Language , as a phrase that denotes an object .  Description ( linguistics ) , analyzing and describing how language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community  Description , a rhetorical mode  Mathematical model , a description in mathematical language of a system  Scientific theory , a description of an aspect of the natural world  Species description , is a formal description of a newly defined species in biological taxonomy

A resistojet is a method of spacecraft propulsion ( electric propulsion ) that provides thrust by heating a ( typically non-reactive ) fluid . Heating is usually achieved by sending electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament , with the expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle .   Resistojets have been flown in space since 1965 on board military Vela satellites . However , they only became used in commercial applications in 1980 with the launch of the first satellites in the INTELSAT-V program . Many GEO spacecraft , and all 95 Iridium , used Aerojet MR-501 / MR-502 series resistojet engines . Nowadays resistojet propulsion is used for orbit insertion , attitude control , and deorbit of LEO satellites , and do well in situations where energy is much more plentiful than mass , and where propulsion efficiency needs to be reasonably high but low thrust is acceptable .

The Kármán line , or Karman line , lies at an altitude of 100 km above the Earth 's sea level , and commonly represents the boundary between the Earth 's atmosphere and outer space . This definition is accepted by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) , which is an international standard-setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics .   The line is named after Theodore von Kármán ( 1881 -- 1963 ) , a Hungarian-American engineer and physicist . He was active primarily in aeronautics and astronautics . He was the first to calculate that around this altitude , the atmosphere becomes too thin to support aeronautical flight , because a vehicle at this altitude would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift to support itself . The line is approximately at the turbopause , above which atmospheric gasses are not well-mixed . The mesopause atmospheric temperature minimum has been measured variously at 85 km or 100 km , which puts the line at or near the bottom of the thermosphere .

Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon .   The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples .   The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began .   Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .

Diazepam , first marketed as Valium , is a medication of the benzodiazepine family that typically produces a calming effect . It is commonly used to treat a range of conditions including anxiety , alcohol withdrawal syndrome , benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome , muscle spasms , seizures , trouble sleeping , and restless legs syndrome . It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures . It can be taken by mouth , inserted into the rectum , injected into muscle , or injected into a vein . When given into a vein , effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour . By mouth , effects may take 40 minutes to begin .   Common side effects include sleepiness and trouble with coordination . Serious side effects are rare . They include suicide , decreased breathing , and an increased risk of seizures if used too frequently in those with epilepsy . Occasionally excitement or agitation may occur . Long term use can result in tolerance , dependence , and withdrawal symptoms on dose reduction . Abrupt stopping after long-term use can be potentially dangerous . After stopping , cognitive problems may persist for six months or longer . It is not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding . Its mechanism of action is by increasing the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-Aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) .   Diazepam was first synthesized by Leo Sternbach , and was first manufactured by Hoffmann-La Roche . It has been one of the most frequently prescribed medications in the world since its launch in 1963 . In the United States it was the highest selling medication between 1968 and 1982 , selling more than two billion tablets in 1978 alone . In 1985 the patent ended , and there are now more than 500 brands available on the market . Diazepam is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.01 USD per dose as of 2014 . In the United States it is about 0.40 USD per dose .

Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall , with annual rainfall in the case of tropical rainforests between 250 and , and definitions varying by region for temperate rainforests . The monsoon trough , alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone , plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earth 's tropical rainforests .   Around 40 % to 75 % of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests . It has been estimated that there may be many millions of species of plants , insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests . Tropical rainforests have been called the `` jewels of the Earth '' and the `` world 's largest pharmacy '' , because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there . Rainforests are also responsible for 28 % of the world 's oxygen turnover , sometimes misnamed oxygen production , processing it through photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and consuming it through respiration .   The undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level . If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned , the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense , tangled growth of vines , shrubs and small trees , called a jungle . The term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally .

139 Juewa ( -LSB- dʒuːˈeɪwɑː -RSB- ) is a very large and dark main belt asteroid . It is probably composed of primitive carbonaceous material . It was the first asteroid discovered from China .   Juewa was discovered from Beijing by the visiting American astronomer James Craig Watson on 10 October 1874 ; Watson was in China to observe the transit of Venus . Watson asked Prince Gong to name the asteroid . Gong 's choice was 瑞華星 ( roughly , `` Star of China 's Fortune '' ) . Watson used only the first two characters , transliterating them as Juewa according to the conventions of his time ( in modern pinyin , it would be transliterated as ruìhuá ) .   There have been three reported stellar occultations by Juewa , most recently on 26 September 2007 .   13-cm radar observations of this asteroid from the Arecibo Observatory between 1980 and 1985 were used to produce a diameter estimate of 172 km . Based upon radar data , the near surface solid density of the asteroid is  1.5 .

1184 Gaea ( 1926 RE ) is a main-belt asteroid discovered on September 5 , 1926 , by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth at Heidelberg .   This asteroid is named after Gaea ( Gaia ) , goddess of Earth in Greek mythology , who was wife of Uranus .