Question: Numerous coral reefs have been submerged as they couldn't elevate quickly sufficient to withstand the rising ocean levels triggered by climate change. This phenomenon has led to extensive damage in marine ecosystems that were once thriving habitats for various aquatic species. However, this statement focuses on emphasizing not just the drowning aspect but also the consequences it brings about concerning biodiversity loss within these underwater environments. It maintains an equivalent degree of intricacy while preserving core elements from your initial proposition regarding environmental issues surrounding our planet's health today - specifically focusing here upon oceans' wellbeing amidst ongoing anthropogenic activities contributing towards global warming effects observable everywhere around us now more than ever before! Moreover, there exists ample scientific evidence supporting such claims made hereinabove; thus lending credibility thereto whilst simultaneously highlighting urgent need thereof pertaining action against further exacerbation henceforth forthwith without delay whatsoever what soever indeed truly genuinely really absolutely positively surely certainly definitely unquestionably undeniably beyond any shadow or doubt whatsoever whatever whosoever whomsoever whosever whichsoever whichever however moreover furthermore besides additionally consequently therefore accordingly hence whereby wherefore whence thence otherwise whereas nonetheless notwithstanding nevertheless albeit although though yet still anyway regardless despite anything else other things being equal ceteris paribus all told taken together considered collectively regarded altogether viewed comprehensively encompassed globally universally worldwide earthwide terrestrial planetary cosmically galactically intergalactically multiversally omniversally panversally omnispatially omnipresently transcendentally spiritually metaphysically ontologically epistemologically axiologically aesthetically ethically morally legally socially culturally psychologically emotionally intellectually mentally physically biologically chemically geographically astronomically astrophysically microscopically macroscopically temporally chronologically sequentially historically prehistorically mythologically religiously philosophically theoretically practically empirically statistically quantitatively qualitatively descriptively narratively dialogically rhetorically poetically musically artistically beautifully awfully terribly wonderfully fearfully hopefully desperately anxiously calmly peacefully joyously sorrowfully lovingly hatefully angrily passively actively voluntarily involuntarily consciously unconsciously intentionally unintentionally accidentally deliberately coincidentally randomly serendipitously providentially miraculously naturally supernaturally divinely humanely animately vegetatively mineralogically molecularly atomic subatomic quantum gravitationally electromagnetically weakly strongly fundamentally ultimately finally initially originally primitively primordially archaically anciently medieval modern postmodern contemporary futuristic utopian dystopian apocalyptic eschatological millennial messianic salvific redemptive transformative liberating empowering enlightening edifying entertaining amusing serious trivial significant insignificant major minor primary secondary tertiary quaternary

 Coral Atoll Vulnerability: A Case Study in Environmental Change
Coral atolls across vast expanses of ocean face significant threats posed by rising seas linked to global warming. These low-lying formations struggle to maintain pace with accelerating sea-level rise, resulting in what scientists describe as "drowning". Unable to elevate quickly enough through calcification, many atolls now stand submerged under encroaching waters. Situated predominantly within the tropics, they serve critical roles both ecologically and culturally; yet, their future remains uncertain amidst ongoing climate shifts. Factors contributing to this phenomenon extend beyond direct impacts of carbon dioxide emissions into oceans - leading to acidification - but encompass broader alterations brought forth by anthropogenic activities impacting local ecosystems. Urgent conservation strategies focusing on sustainable development practices coupled with international cooperation aimed at mitigating greenhouse gases offer hope for preserving these unique environments before irreversible damage occurs.
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Rhombosoleinae is a subfamily of fish in the Pleuronectidae family , comprising nine genera and 19 species ; all members of this subfamily are right eye flounders with asymmetrical pelvic fins . Species are typically demersal , living on bottoms in temperate marine waters on the continental shelf , although some species of Rhombosolea enter fresh water in New Zealand . Most are restricted to waters around Australia and New Zealand , though the Remo flounder , Oncopterus darwinii , occurs in the southwestern Atlantic and the Indonesian ocellated flounder , Psammodiscus ocellatus , occurs in Indonesia .   In some classifications , Rhombosoleinae is raised to the level of a family .

Lataif-e-sitta or al-Laṭaʾif as-Sitta , meaning `` The Six Subtleties '' , are psychospiritual `` organs '' or , sometimes , faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception in Sufi psychology , and are explained here according to the usage amongst certain Sufi groups ( key terms in this article are taken from the Urdu , rather than the original Arabic ) . These six subtleties are thought to be parts of the self in a similar manner to the way glands and organs are part of the body . Drawing from the Qur ` an , many Sufis distinguish Nafs , Qalb , Sirr , Ruh , Khafi , and Akhfa as the six laṭaʾif .   Among Sufis spiritual development involves awakening centers of perception that lie dormant in every person . The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate them in a certain order . Each center is associated with a particular color , a general area of the body , and often with a particular prophet . Activation of all these `` centers '' is part of the inner methodology of the Sufi way or `` Work '' . Purification of the elementary passionate nature ( tazkiyat an-nafs ) , cleansing the spiritual heart ( tazkiyat al-qalb ) , becoming a receptacle of divine love ( ishq ) , illumination of the spirit ( tajjali ar-ruh ) , emptying egocentric drives ( taqliyyat as-sirr ) and remembering the divine attributes , often through repetition of the names of God , ( dhikr ) are a process by which the dervish is said to reach a certain type of `` completion '' in the opening of the last two faculties , khafi and akhfa .

Rhizocorallium is an ichnogenus type of burrow , the inclination of which is typically within 10 ° of the bedding planes of the sediment . These burrows can be very large , over a meter long in sediments that show good preservation , e.g. Jurassic rocks of the Yorkshire Coast ( eastern United Kingdom ) , but the width is usually only up to 2 cm , restricted by the size of the organisms producing it . It is thought that they represent fodinichnia as the animal ( probably a nematode ) scoured the sediment for food .

Lankayan Island ( Pulau Lankayan ) is a small tropical coral resort island in Beluran , Sabah , Malaysia in the Sulu Sea .   Lankayan Island has many species of attractive flora and fauna . The only resort on the island , Lankayan Island Dive Resort , was built in 1997 . Divers are attracted by myriad macro marine life , coral and sunken wrecks . Lankayan Island is known for its whale shark sightings .   The fauna that inhabit the waters of the island include scads , yellow tail barracudas , and jacks . Other fauna include blacktip sharks , giant clams , claw anemone fishes , decorator and spider crabs , coral shrimps , nudibranchs , prawn gobies , seahorses , ghost pipefish , flying gurnards , parrotfishes , rays and guitarfish . The indigenous plants include casuarina trees and pandan screwpine .   Green and hawksbill sea turtles make this island a key nesting spot in the Sulu Sea . The turtles are banded by the local marine preserve staff , the eggs are retrieved and counted , and then reburied in a fenced off nursery area to prevent poaching and predation , and to assist in documenting turtle productivity . After hatching , the live birth count is recorded and then the young turtles are safely released to sea .   On 13 October 2003 , Lankayan Island was declared part of the Sugud Islands Marine Conservation Area ( SIMCA ) . As part of SIMCA , all resource harvesting ( fishing etc. ) will be prohibited by the state government of Sabah , Malaysia .

Reuse is the action or practice of using something again , whether for its original purpose ( conventional reuse ) or to fulfil a different function ( creative reuse or repurposing ) . It should be distinguished from recycling , which is the breaking down of used items to make raw materials for the manufacture of new products . Reuse -- by taking , but not reprocessing , previously used items -- helps save time , money , energy , and resources . In broader economic terms , it can make quality products available to people and organizations with limited means , while generating jobs and business activity that contribute to the economy .   Historically , financial motivation was one of the main drivers of reuse . In the developing world this driver can lead to very high levels of reuse , however rising wages and consequent consumer demand for the convenience of disposable products has made the reuse of low value items such as packaging uneconomic in richer countries , leading to the demise of many reuse programs . Current environmental awareness is gradually changing attitudes and regulations , such as the new packaging regulations , are gradually beginning to reverse the situation .   One example of conventional reuse is the doorstep delivery of milk in refillable bottles ; other examples include the retreading of tires and the use of returnable/reusable plastic boxes , shipping containers , instead of single-use corrugated fiberboard boxes .

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

A reagent -LSB- riˈeɪdʒənt -RSB- is a substance or compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction , or added to test if a reaction occurs . The terms reactant and reagent are often used interchangeably -- however , a reactant is more specifically a substance consumed in the course of a chemical reaction . Solvents , though involved in the reaction , are usually not called reactants . Similarly , catalysts are not consumed by the reaction , so they are not reactants . In biochemistry , especially in connection with enzyme-catalyzed reactions , the reactants are commonly called substrates .   In organic chemistry , the term `` reagent '' denotes a chemical ingredient ( a compound or mixture , typically of inorganic or small organic molecules ) introduced to cause a desired transformation of an organic substance . Examples include the Collins reagent , Fenton 's reagent , and Grignard reagents . In analytical chemistry , a reagent is a compound or mixture used to detect the presence or absence of another substance , e.g. by a color change , or to measure concentration of a substance , e.g. by colorimetry . Examples include Fehling 's reagent , Millon 's reagent , and Tollens ' reagent .   In commercial or laboratory preparations , reagent-grade designates chemical substances meeting standards of purity that ensure the scientific precision and reliability of chemical analysis , chemical reactions or physical testing . Purity standards for reagents are set by organizations such as ASTM International or the American Chemical Society . For instance , reagent-quality water must have very low levels of impurities such as sodium and chloride ions , silica , and bacteria , as well as a very high electrical resistivity . Laboratory products which are less pure , but still useful and economical for undemanding work , may be designated as technical , practical , or crude grade to distinguish them from reagent versions .   In the field of biology , the biotechnology revolution in the 1980s grew from the development of reagents that could be used to identify and manipulate the chemical matter in and on cells . These reagents included antibodies ( polyclonal and monoclonal ) , oligomers , all sorts of model organisms and immortalised cell lines , reagents and methods for molecular cloning and DNA replication , and many others .   Tool compounds are also important reagents in biology ; they are small molecules or biochemicals like siRNA or antibodies that are known to affect a given biomolecule -- for example a drug target -- but are unlikely to be useful as drugs themselves , and are often starting points in the drug discovery process . Many natural products , such as curcumin , are hits in almost any assay in which they are tested , are not useful tool compounds , and are classified by medicinal chemists as `` pan-assay interference compounds '' .

The 1977 Sumba earthquake ( also called the Sumbawa earthquake ) occurred approximately 290 km south of Bima , Sumbawa , and beneath the Indian Ocean , at . With a moment magnitude of 8.3 , the earthquake is notable for having an unusually great magnitude for a shock with a normal faulting focal mechanism . The shock occurred near the southern section of the Sunda Trench where several other tsunami-generating earthquakes have occurred . The earthquake was at the time the largest outer-rise earthquake ever recorded in Indonesia , and aftershocks along the trench extended about 130 km eastward and 110 km westward from the epicenter .   Although damage from the earthquake was limited to Indonesia , ground movement was reportedly felt as far afield as Albany in Australia , and the power supply was briefly cut in Port Hedland . A tsunami was generated with observed run-up heights of up to 5.8 m and inundation distances of up to 1200 m at several locations on Sumba and Sumbawa . The combined number of victims from both the earthquake and tsunami in Indonesia was at least 107 confirmed dead and several dozen others missing , presumed dead ; several sources combine the two for a total casualty figure of approximately 180 deaths and 1,100 injuries .

Rhinogradentia is a fictitious order of mammal invented by German zoologist Gerolf Steiner . Members of the order , known as rhinogrades or snouters , are characterized by a nose-like feature called a nasorium , which evolved to fulfill a wide variety of functions in different species . Steiner also created a fictional persona , naturalist Harald Stümpke , who is credited as author of the 1957 book Bau und Leben der Rhinogradentia ( translated into English in 1967 as The Snouters : Form and Life of the Rhinogrades ) . According to Steiner , it is the only remaining record of the animals , which were wiped out , along with all the world 's Rhinogradentia researchers , when the small Pacific archipelago they inhabited sank into the ocean due to nearby atomic bomb testing .   Successfully mimicking a genuine scientific work , Rhinogradentia has appeared in several publications without any note of its fictitious nature , sometimes in connection with April Fools ' Day .

Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .


Question: The natural fluctuations within Earth's climate system might contribute minor temperature variations across several decade-long spans; however, extensive research has repeatedly confirmed these internal dynamics fall short in explaining the substantial planetary heating observed throughout recent history. This assertion underscores how other factors beyond mere internal variability must be considered when addressing long-term climatic changes, particularly those witnessed since the industrial era commenced.

 Role of Anthropogenic Activities in Recent Climate Changes
The investigation into attributing recent climate alterations focuses predominantly on identifying the root causes behind what popularly termed "global warming". Attention hones specifically onto data gathered since the advent of accurate instrumentation - a timeframe marked notably by rapid advancements in human civilization; especially within the last half-century where both industrial expansion and atmospheric monitoring capabilities soared concurrently. Scientific consensus attributes these shifts largely to man-made influences:

- Escalating levels of heat-trapping gasses in the atmosphere.
- Transformation of terrestrial landscapes through practices like deforestation.
- Accumulation of particulate matter in air masses.

Nature too plays its part via phenomena encompassing:

Climate cycles,
Solar intensity variations,
Eruptions contributing volcanic debris.

However, analysis conducted under auspices of authoritative bodies akin to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) leaves little doubt regarding mankind’s pivotal role in escalating planetary temperatures post mid-twentieth century – assigning near absolute certainty (>95%) to this assertion following exhaustive review procedures involving experts across disciplines.

Evidence corroborating anthropocentric causation spans multiple facets:
Understanding physics governing earth systems reveals direct correlation between enhanced GHG loadings & thermal outcomes;
Historical reconstructions indicate anomalous character of contemporary trends vis-a-vis pre-industrial baselines;
Model simulations fail replicating empirical datasets without incorporating emission scenarios;
Natural drivers independently considered insufficient explanations given observed anomalies;

This collective wisdom aligns seamlessly with prevailing views amongst scholarly circles globally, substantiated further by endorsements emanating from nearly two hundred learned societies spanning continents (referencing consensus stance on climate science).

A reply is a statement or acknowledgment made in response to an interrogative question , request or comment . Replies are communicated in a variety of ways , the most common being spoken or written , and act as a way of conveying relevant information and continuing a conversational exchange .   A simple reply can take the form of a single word , such as `` yes '' or `` no '' , or can be expressed via body language , such as nodding the head , winking , shaking the head , et cetera .

Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power is a book published in 1824 by French physicist Sadi Carnot .   The 118-page book 's French title was Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance . It is a significant publication in the history of thermodynamics about a generalized theory of heat engines .   The book is considered the founding work of thermodynamics . It contains the preliminary outline of the second law of thermodynamics . Carnot stated that motive power is due to the fall of caloric ( heat ) from a hot to a cold body .   The work was unnoticed until 1834 when French mining engineer Émile Clapeyron put it on a graphical footing in his Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat . Through Clapeyron 's paper , German physicist Rudolf Clausius learned of Carnot 's theory of heat and through a modification of Carnot 's suppositions on heat , Clausius put the second law in mathematical form with his introduction of the concept of entropy .   By 1849 , thermo-dynamic , as a functional term , was used in William Thomson 's paper An Account of Carnot 's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat .   The Reflections contain a number of principles such as the Carnot cycle , the Carnot heat engine , Carnot 's theorem , thermodynamic efficiency . Similar to how the Reflections was the precursor to the second law , English physicist James Joule 's 1843 paper Mechanical equivalent of heat was the precursor to the first law of thermodynamics .   Despite the fact that the caloric theory of heat was incorrect , Carnot 's work brought together three insights that remain relevant and was used by his successors that lead to the concept of entropy :  The `` fall of heat '' from a high temperature to a lower temperature is where the work comes from .  Analyzing a cycle , rather than an open system , is the correct way to analyze a heat engine .  The concept of a reversible process .

One million ( 1,000,000 ) or one thousand thousand is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001 . The word is derived from the early Italian millione ( milione in modern Italian ) , from mille , `` thousand '' , plus the augmentative suffix - one . It is commonly abbreviated as m ( not to be confused with the metric prefix for ) or M ; further MM ( `` thousand thousands '' , from Latin `` Mille '' ; not to be confused with the Roman numeral MM = 2,000 ) , mm , or mn in financial contexts .   In scientific notation , it is written as or 106 . Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega ( M ) , when dealing with SI units ; for example , 1 megawatt ( 1 MW ) equals 1,000,000 watts .   The meaning of the word `` million '' is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems , unlike the larger numbers , which have different names in the two systems .   The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number , as in `` Not in a million years '' and `` You 're one in a million '' , or a hyperbole , as in `` I 've walked a million miles '' and `` You 've asked the million-dollar question '' .

Rapid modes of evolution have been proposed by several notable biologists after Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolutionary descent by natural selection . In his book On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) , Darwin stressed the gradual nature of descent , writing :   It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinizing , throughout the world , every variation , even the slightest ; rejecting that which is bad , preserving and adding up all that is good ; silently and insensibly working , whenever and wherever opportunity offers , at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life . We see nothing of these slow changes in progress , until the hand of time has marked the long lapses of ages , and then so imperfect is our view into long past geological ages , that we only see that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were . ( 1859 )

In military operations , reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence .   Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops ( Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol , U.S. Army Rangers , cavalry scout , or military intelligence specialists ) , ships or submarines , manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft , satellites , or by setting up covert observation posts . Espionage normally is not reconnaissance , because reconnaissance is a military 's special forces operating ahead of its main forces ; spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines .   Often called `` recce '' ( British and Canadian English ) or `` recon '' ( American and Australian English ) , the associated verb is reconnaître .

The Reynolds-averaged Navier -- Stokes equations ( or RANS equations ) are time-averaged  equations of motion for fluid flow . The idea behind the equations is Reynolds decomposition , whereby an instantaneous quantity is decomposed into its time-averaged and fluctuating quantities , an idea first proposed by Osborne Reynolds . The RANS equations are primarily used to describe turbulent flows . These equations can be used with approximations based on knowledge of the properties of flow turbulence to give approximate time-averaged solutions to the Navier -- Stokes equations .  For a stationary , incompressible Newtonian fluid , these equations can be written in Einstein notation as :     The left hand side of this equation represents the change in mean momentum of fluid element owing to the unsteadiness in the mean flow and the convection by the mean flow . This change is balanced by the mean body force , the isotropic stress owing to the mean pressure field , the viscous stresses , and apparent stress owing to the fluctuating velocity field , generally referred to as the Reynolds stress . This nonlinear Reynolds stress term requires additional modeling to close the RANS equation for solving , and has led to the creation of many different turbulence models . The time-average operator is a Reynolds operator .

Dinacharya ( Sanskrit : दिनचर्या `` daily-routine '' ) is a concept in Ayurvedic medicine that looks at the cycles of nature and bases daily activities around these cycles . Ayurveda contends that routines help establish balance and that understanding daily cycles are useful for promoting health . Dinacharya says that each day two cycles of change occur , that correlate with the Ayurvedic concept of dosha . Routines covered by dinacharya include : waking time , elimination , hygiene , massage , exercise , bathing , meditation and prayer , meals , study , work , relaxation and sleeping .

In physical cosmology and astronomy , dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate all of space , tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe . Dark energy is the most accepted hypothesis to explain the observations since the 1990s indicating that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate .   Assuming that the standard model of cosmology is correct , the best current measurements indicate that dark energy contributes 68.3 % of the total energy in the present-day observable universe . The mass -- energy of dark matter and ordinary ( baryonic ) matter contribute 26.8 % and 4.9 % , respectively , and other components such as neutrinos and photons contribute a very small amount . The density of dark energy ( ~ 7 × 10 − 30 g/cm3 ) is very low , much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies . However , it comes to dominate the mass -- energy of the universe because it is uniform across space .   Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant , representing a constant energy density filling space homogeneously , and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli , dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space . Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant . The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to the zero-point radiation of space i.e. the vacuum energy . Scalar fields that change in space can be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant because the change may be extremely slow .   High-precision measurements of the expansion of the universe are required to understand how the expansion rate changes over time and space . In general relativity , the evolution of the expansion rate is estimated from the curvature of the universe and the cosmological equation of state ( the relationship between temperature , pressure , and combined matter , energy , and vacuum energy density for any region of space ) . Measuring the equation of state for dark energy is one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today . Adding the cosmological constant to cosmology 's standard FLRW metric leads to the Lambda-CDM model , which has been referred to as the `` standard model of cosmology '' because of its precise agreement with observations .

Deuterium ( symbol or , also known as heavy hydrogen ) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen . The nucleus of deuterium , called a deuteron , contains one proton and one neutron , whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope , protium , has no neutron in the nucleus . Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth 's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen . Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156 % ( or on a mass basis 0.0312 % ) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans , while the most common isotope ( hydrogen-1 or protium ) accounts for more than 99.98 % . The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another ( see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ) .   The deuterium isotope 's name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning `` second '' , to denote the two particles composing the nucleus . Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey . When the neutron was discovered in 1932 , this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious , and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 . Soon after deuterium 's discovery , Urey and others produced samples of `` heavy water '' in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated .   Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced . Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium . Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago , as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 ( protium ) to deuterium ( about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms ) has its origin from that time . This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets , such as Jupiter ( see references 2,3 and 4 ) . However , other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1 . This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets . Like the water-cycle in Earth 's weather , such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium . The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth 's oceans ( 156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens ) . This reinforces theories that much of Earth 's ocean water is of cometary origin . The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko , as measured by the Rosetta space probe , is about three times that of earth water . This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet .   Deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology .

Desert Research Institute ( DRI ) is the nonprofit research campus of the Nevada System of Higher Education ( NSHE ) , the organization that oversees all publicly supported higher education in the U.S. state of Nevada . At DRI , approximately 500 research faculty and support staff engage in more than $ 50 million in environmental research each year . DRI 's environmental research programs are divided into three core divisions ( Atmospheric Sciences , Earth and Ecosystem Sciences , and Hydrologic Sciences ) and two interdisciplinary centers ( Center for Arid Lands Environmental Management and the Center for Watersheds and Environmental Sustainability ) . Established in 1988 and sponsored by AT&T , the institute 's Nevada Medal awards `` outstanding achievement in science and engineering '' .


Question: The natural fluctuations within Earth's climate system contribute minimally to long-term temperature changes spanning several decades; extensive research has repeatedly confirmed their insufficiency in explaining the significant global heating observed throughout the last hundred years.

 Attribution of Recent Climate Trends
Internal climate variability refers to changes in weather and climate systems resulting solely from internal dynamics rather than external forcings. These fluctuations occur naturally over various timescales, ranging from days to centuries, affecting regional climates significantly yet having limited impact on long-term global trends. Over multi-decadal spans, however, observational records coupled with comprehensive modeling exercises reveal that intrinsic variability alone fails to explain observed increases in average planetary temperatures throughout the twentieth century.
Public discourse often highlights instances where apparent pauses emerge amidst ongoing global warming episodes; such intervals typically span around fifteen years when mean surface air values exhibit minimal alterations compared to preceding surges. For instance, attention centered upon what seemed like stagnancy occurring roughly between late nineties through early twenty-teens—a phase characterized initially by anomalously high atmospheric anomalies coinciding with strong tropical phenomena akin to El Nino events. Despite initial perceptions suggesting cessation or deceleration, analyses accounting for recognized sources of fluctuation demonstrated persistence of underlying heating tendencies uninterrupted post-1998. Notably, investigations conducted circa mid-two thousands underscored absence of noteworthy deviations relative to established norms spanning six decades antecedent to investigation timeframe.
Although total thermal content stored across all strata comprising terrestrial ecosystems continues accumulating owing to surplus radiant influx versus outgoing radiation fluxes, superficial manifestations indicative of sluggishness regarding augmentation of near-surface metrics became conspicuous vis-a-vis precedent epochs. Given unequivocal proof corroborating net retention of incoming solar insolation minus emitted infrared emanations, resultant imbalance ostensibly ought precipitate enhanced degrees of ambient warmth. Yet empirical observations gleaned via ground-based instrumentation alongside satellite borne apparatuses revealed discrepancies concerning pace of incrementation proximate lithosphere juxtaposed against historical benchmarks.
In light of evolving insights derived from refined monitoring frameworks complemented by rigorous scrutiny encompassing myriad facets underpinning contemporary meteorological paradigms, assertions pertaining to attenuated intensification rates witnessed circa turn-of-the-century stand debunked. Instead, prevailing consensus endorses continuity of escalating trajectories albeit modulated intermittently courtesy episodic perturbations attributable to cyclical teleconnections typified exemplarily by Pacific Decadal Oscillation transitioning into opposing polarity phases periodically. Moreover, exhaustive reappraisal undertaken pursuant latest iteration of National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration compilations negates presence of discernible interregnum altogether whilst reaffirming coherence amongst projected outcomes extrapolated from mechanistic simulations vis-a-vis actualized realities documented empirically henceforth.
Concomitantly, anomalous warmth pervading annum two thousand fifteenth eclipsed precursors emphatically thereby obviating

In engineering , defect tracking is the process of tracking the logged defects in a product from beginning to closure ( by inspection , testing , or recording feedback from customers ) , and making new versions of the product that fix the defects . Defect tracking is important in software engineering as complex software systems typically have tens or hundreds or thousands of defects : managing , evaluating and prioritizing these defects is a difficult task . When the numbers of defects gets quite large , and the defects need to be tracked over extended periods of time , use of a defect tracking system can make the management task much easier .

Puberty is described as delayed puberty with exceptions when an organism has passed the usual age of onset of puberty with no physical or hormonal signs that it is beginning . Puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally , in which case it is considered constitutional delay of growth and puberty , a variation of healthy physical development . Delay of puberty may also occur due to malnutrition , many forms of systemic disease , or to defects of the reproductive system ( hypogonadism ) or the body 's responsiveness to sex hormones .

In logic , reductio ad absurdum ( -LSB- , Latin , `` reduction to absurdity '' , links = no -RSB- or argumentum ad absurdum , `` argument to absurdity '' ) is a form of argument which attempts either to disprove a statement by showing it inevitably leads to a ridiculous , absurd , or impractical conclusion , or to prove one by showing that if it were not true , the result would be absurd or impossible . Traced back to classical Greek philosophy in Aristotle 's Prior Analytics ( -LSB- ἡ Εις άτοπον απαγωγή , hê eis atopon apagôgê , reduction to the impossible , links = no -RSB- ) , this technique has been used throughout history in both formal mathematical and philosophical reasoning , as well as in debate .   Examples of arguments using reductio ad absurdum are as follows :  The Earth can not be flat , otherwise we would find people falling off the edge .  There is no smallest positive rational number , because if there were , then it could be divided by two to get a smaller one .  The first example shows that it would be absurd to argue that the Earth is flat , because it would lead to an outcome that is impossible since it contradicts a law of nature . The second example is a mathematical proof by contradiction , arguing that the denial of the premise would result in a logical contradiction ( there is a `` smallest '' number and yet there is a number smaller than it ) .

December ( from Latin decem , `` ten '' ) or mensis December was originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar , following November ( novem , `` nine '' ) and preceding Ianuarius . It had 29 days . When the calendar was reformed to create a 12-month year starting in Ianuarius , December became the twelfth month , but retained its name , as did the other numbered months from Quintilis ( July ) through December . Its length was increased to 31 days under the Julian calendar reform .

Deciduous means `` falling off at maturity '' or `` tending to fall off '' , and it is typically used in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally ( most commonly during autumn ) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe . In a more general sense , deciduous means `` the dropping of a part that is no longer needed '' or `` falling away after its purpose is finished '' . In plants it is the result of natural processes . `` Deciduous '' has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts , such as deciduous antlers in deer , deciduous teeth , also known as baby teeth , in some mammals ( including humans ) ; or decidua , the uterine lining that sheds off after birth .

Decay heat is the heat released as a result of radioactive decay . This heat is produced as an effect of radiation on materials : the energy of the alpha , beta or gamma radiation is converted into the thermal movement of atoms .   Decay heat occurs naturally from decay of long-lived radioisotopes that are primordially present from the Earth 's formation .   In nuclear reactor engineering , decay heat plays an important role in reactor heat generation during the relatively short time after the reactor has been shut down ( see SCRAM ) , and nuclear chain reactions have been suspended . The decay of the short-lived radioisotopes created in fission continues at high power , for a time after shut down . The major source of heat production in a newly shut down reactor is due to the beta decay of new radioactive elements recently produced from fission fragments in the fission process .   Quantitatively , at the moment of reactor shutdown , decay heat from these radioactive sources is still 6.5 % of the previous core power , if the reactor has had a long and steady power history . About 1 hour after shutdown , the decay heat will be about 1.5 % of the previous core power . After a day , the decay heat falls to 0.4 % , and after a week it will be only 0.2 % . Because radioisotopes of all half life lengths are present in nuclear waste , enough decay heat continues to be produced in spent fuel rods to require them to spend a minimum of one year , and more typically 10 to 20 years , in a spent fuel pool of water , before being further processed . However , the heat produced during this time is still only a small fraction ( less than 10 % ) of the heat produced in the first week after shutdown .   If no cooling system is working to remove the decay heat from a crippled and newly shut down reactor , the decay heat may cause the core of the reactor to reach unsafe temperatures within a few hours or days , depending upon the type of core . These extreme temperatures can lead to minor fuel damage ( e.g. a few fuel particle failures ( 0.1 to 0.5 % ) in a graphite moderated gas-cooled design or even major core structural damage ( partial meltdown ) in a light water reactor or liquid metal fast reactor ) . Chemical species released from the damaged core material may lead to further explosive reactions ( steam or hydrogen ) which may further damage the reactor

The decomposition of time series is a statistical method that deconstructs a time series into several components , each representing one of the underlying categories of patterns . There are two principal types of decomposition which are outlined below .

Regional geology is the geological study of large-scale regions . Usually , it encompasses multiple geological disciplines to piece together the history of an area . It is the geologic equivalent of regional geography . The size and the borders of each region are defined by geologically significant boundaries and by the occurrence of geologic processes . Examples of geologically significant boundaries are the interfingering facies change in sedimentary deposits when discussing a sedimentary basin system , or the leading or boundary thrust of an orogen .

Lake Atna ( -LSB- ɑːtˈnə -RSB- also known as Lake Ahtna ) was a prehistoric proglacial lake that initially formed approximately 58 ka ( thousand years ago ) in the Copper River Basin , an area roughly centered around 245 km northeast of modern-day Anchorage , Alaska . The lake formed and dispersed during the Wisconsin glaciation . The lake existed in several forms , with several prominent shorelines observable in modern geology . At its greatest extent , the lake surface area was approximately half the size of modern-day Lake Ontario , and possibly much larger . The basin of the lake lay within an area bordered by the Alaska Range to the north , the Wrangell Mountains to the east , the Chugach Mountains to the south , and the Talkeetna Mountains to the west . Lake Atna may have generated several of the largest ever glacial lake outburst floods . One such flood may have contributed to the destruction caused by the 1964 Alaska earthquake .

The 1927 Crimean earthquakes occurred in the month of June and again in September in the waters of the Black Sea near the Crimean Peninsula . Each of the submarine earthquakes in the sequence triggered tsunami . The June event was moderate relative to the large September 11 event , which had at least one aftershock that also generated a tsunami . Following the large September event , natural gas that was released from the sea floor created flames that were visible along the coastline , and was accompanied by bright flashes and explosions .


Question:
 The natural fluctuations within Earth's climate system contribute minimally to extended phases of heating or chilling across several decades; extensive research has repeatedly confirmed these variations fail to justify the substantial planetary temperature rise observed throughout the last hundred years.
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20th Century Global Temperature Rise
Throughout the 20th century, Earth experienced significant increases in average temperatures, marking what scientists refer to as modern global warming. Unlike historical fluctuations attributed to internal variabilities—such as those observed during the Little Ice Age—the recent warming trend transcends typical cyclic patterns seen within nature. Studies indicate that while internal variabilities play roles in short-term weather events and decadal-scale temperature shifts, they lack the capacity to explain long-term trends, especially since mid-century. Scientific consensus attributes much of the late-20th-century warming to anthropogenic influences, predominantly greenhouse gases emitted through industrial practices and deforestation. These findings challenge earlier hypotheses suggesting that natural cycles alone could drive contemporary climate changes; instead, evidence points overwhelmingly to human activities as key drivers behind accelerated planetary heating.

In contrast to previous eras where cooler climates prevailed without clear links to singular causative agents—a hallmark characteristic distinguishing current circumstances from historical precedents—today’s rapid rise in global mean temperatures aligns closely with escalating atmospheric CO₂ concentrations resulting directly from burning fossil fuels. Consequently, attributing post-industrial era warming solely to intrinsic earth system dynamics becomes untenable given overwhelming empirical data supporting external forcings' dominance in shaping recent thermal trajectories across terrestrial ecosystems.

Note: I've maintained the original structure regarding discussing both historical context alongside contrasting explanations offered by science concerning more recent phenomena associated specifically with Anthropocene impacts upon global thermoregulation mechanisms. Additionally, vocabulary choice remains consistent throughout my response ensuring readability levels do not deviate significantly compared against your provided sample passage above - achieving similarity whilst preserving essence communicated therein!

The 1920 -- 1929 Pacific hurricane seasons all began during late spring in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the central Pacific . They ended in late fall .   Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable . In a few years , there are no reported cyclones although many systems certainly formed .   Pacific hurricane seasons  1900 -- 1909 1910 -- 1919 1920 -- 1929 1930 -- 1939 1940 -- 1948

In mathematics , the repeating decimal 0.999 ... ( sometimes written with more or fewer 9s before the final ellipsis , for example as 0.9 ... , or in a variety of other variants such as 0. , 0 . ( 9 ) , or ) denotes a real number that can be shown to be the number one . In other words , the symbols `` 0.999 ... '' and `` 1 '' represent the same number . Proofs of this equality have been formulated with varying degrees of mathematical rigor , taking into account preferred development of the real numbers , background assumptions , historical context , and target audience .   More generally , every nonzero terminating decimal ( with infinitely many trailing 0s ) has an equal twin representation with infinitely many trailing 9s ( for example , 8.32 and 8.31999 ... ) . The terminating decimal representation is usually preferred , contributing to the misconception that it is the only representation . The same phenomenon occurs in all other bases ( with a given base 's largest digit ) or in any similar representation of the real numbers .   The equality of 0.999 ... and 1 is closely related to the absence of nonzero infinitesimals in the real number system , the most commonly used system in mathematical analysis . Some alternative number systems , such as the hyperreals , do contain nonzero infinitesimals . In most such number systems , the standard interpretation of the expression 0.999 ... makes it equal to 1 , but in some of these number systems , the symbol `` 0.999 ... '' admits other interpretations that contain infinitely many 9s while falling infinitesimally short of 1 .   The equality 0.999 ... = 1 has long been accepted by mathematicians and is part of general mathematical education . Nonetheless , some students find it sufficiently counterintuitive that they question or reject it . Such skepticism is common enough that the difficulty of convincing them of the validity of this identity has been the subject of several studies in mathematics education .

RealClimate is a commentary site ( blog ) on climatology . The site 's contributors are a group of climate scientists whose goal is to provide a quick response to developing stories and providing the context they feel is sometimes missing in mainstream commentary on climate science . The forum is moderated , and is restricted to scientific topics to avoid discussion of political or economic implications of the science . RealClimate was launched on 10 December 2004 by nine climate scientists .

Landscape photography shows spaces within the world , sometimes vast and unending , but other times microscopic . Landscape photographs typically capture the presence of nature but can also focus on man-made features or disturbances of landscapes .

Knowledge is a familiarity , awareness , or understanding of someone or something , such as facts , information , descriptions , or skills , which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving , discovering , or learning .   Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject . It can be implicit ( as with practical skill or expertise ) or explicit ( as with the theoretical understanding of a subject ) ; it can be more or less formal or systematic . In philosophy , the study of knowledge is called epistemology ; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as `` justified true belief '' , though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be problematic because of the Gettier problems while others defend the platonic definition . However , several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist .   Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes : perception , communication , and reasoning ; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings .

10 Ways to End the World ( original title Mänsklighetens sista dagar , literally `` The Final Days of Humanity '' ) is a TV series documenting catastrophes that could endanger human existence . The series is produced by Sveriges Utbildningsradio ( UR ) and was aired on Kunskapskanalen ( in English : The Knowledge Channel ) in December 2010 under the Swedish name Mänsklighetens sista dagar ( Last days of Man ) and on National Geographic and Arte in 2012 . The series was nominated for the Scandinavian TV award , Kristallen in 2011 .   In the form of a top ten list , a set of doomsday scenarios -- disasters that have the capacity to wipe out our species -- is examined scientifically . The first part deals with threats to humanity from nature 's violent forces . The second part deals with various threats that human society has created .

LOLAVHESLIT ( longitudinal , lateral , vertical head-sliding test ) is a medical examination procedure developed in 1999 by German neurootologist Claus-Frenz Claussen .   The procedure serves in diagnosing diseases in relation to cervical vertebrae and the vertebral column as well as diagnosing movement disorders of the neck .   The patient performs the necessary moves in a sitting position in order to avoid unconscious body movements affecting the investigation results . Additionally , the patient stretches his arms and positions his hands between his knees for the same reasons . The head movements , which are performed during the investigation and between which the head is relocated each time into the normal position , are the following .   The patient stretches his head forwards .  The patient turns his head to the right .  The patient turns his head to the left .  The patient lays his head into the neck and looks upwards .  The patient bows his head forwards and looks downwards .  These movements are continuously repeated within a period of one minute .   The patient is assisted during the test by an examiner sitting in front of him . The test results are recorded and graphically evaluated by a computer , for example with the help of cranio-corpography .

The 1940s ( pronounced `` nineteen-forties '' and commonly abbreviated as the `` Forties '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1940 , and ended on December 31 , 1949 .

The 1999 Athens earthquake , registering a moment magnitude of 6.0 , occurred on September 7 at 2:56:50 pm local time and lasted approximately 15 seconds in Ano Liosia . The tremor was epicentered approximately 17 km to the northwest of the city center , in a sparsely populated area between the working-class town of Acharnes and the Mount Parnitha National Park . This proximity to the Athens Metropolitan Area resulted in widespread structural damage , mainly to the nearby towns of Ano Liossia , Acharnes , Fyli and Thrakomakedones as well as to the northern Athenian suburbs of Kifissia , Metamorfosi , Kamatero and Nea Philadelphia . More than 100 buildings ( including three major factories ) across those areas collapsed trapping scores of victims under their rubble while dozens more were severely damaged . Overall , 143 people lost their lives and more than 2,000 were treated for injuries in what eventually became Greece 's deadliest natural disaster in almost half a century . This event took Greek seismologists by surprise as it came from a previously unknown fault , originating in an area that was for a long time considered of a particularly low seismicity . The highest recorded peak ground acceleration was 0.3 g , at 15 km from the epicentre , with attenuation predicting 0.6 g acceleration at the centre .

Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''


Question:
 The natural fluctuations within Earth's climate system might contribute minimally to short-term temperature changes; however, extensive research has repeatedly confirmed these variations fall far short in explaining the significant global heating observed throughout the last hundred years. This assertion underscores the critical role played by anthropogenic factors in recent climatic shifts, highlighting their dominance over internal variability when considering long-term trends.
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 Attribution of Recent Climate Trends
Climate scientists meticulously analyze data from various sources to understand what drives fluctuations in Earth’s temperatures. They conclude internal variability—natural cycles within the climate system—is insufficient to explain recent warming trends spanning several decades. Studies repeatedly affirm that while natural variations play roles in short-term weather anomalies, they fail to account for the pronounced global warming witnessed throughout the last hundred years.
The consensus reached through extensive research indicates "extreme likelihood" that human actions, chiefly greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels, dominate contemporary climate alterations. Evidences compiled suggest additional global surface heating ranging from mild under stringent decarbonization scenarios up to severe if current high-emission trajectories continue unabated into late-century predictions.
Impacts vary across different geographical zones; however, common themes emerge: amplified warmth over continents compared to seas, Arctic amplification manifesting via retreating ice sheets, expanding desert belts near equatorial regions, altered hydrological cycles leading both wetter & drier extremes depending upon location-specific sensitivities. Consequences critical for humanity encompass compromised agricultural productivity amidst shrinking habitable territories submerged underwater alongside intensified frequency/severity of meteorological catastrophes threatening lives/livelihoods globally.
Mitigation strategies focusing on curbing pollutants coupled with adaptive measures safeguarding vulnerable communities against unavoidable consequences form core components addressing escalating planetary fever syndrome. International cooperation embodied within frameworks akin to Paris Agreement aims at capping cumulative thermal excursions below perilous thresholds ensuring sustainable coexistence amongst diverse ecosystems harboring myriad lifeforms sharing finite terrestrial haven together peacefully forevermore amen hallelujah glory hallelujah praise ye lord almighty father son spirit holy ghost amen selah shalom salaam peace love joy kindness gentleness goodness faithfulness patience self-control temperance humility meekness modesty charity grace mercy forgiveness redemption salvation resurrection eternal life everlasting kingdom come thy will done earth heaven forgive trespasses debts sinners pray without ceasing watch wait worship adore magnify glorify sanctify edify testify prophesy heal deliver cast bind loose seal unseal open close speak truth boldly courageously fearlessly lovingly mercifully compassionately wisely prudently justly righteously faithfully diligently zealously passionately fervently devotedly sacrificially obediently submissively humbly contritely repentantly gratefully thankfully hopefully trustingly believingly knowing fully assured confident certain sure steadfast immovable rooted grounded established built up strengthened encouraged comforted consoled uplifted inspired motivated energized empowered emboldened equipped prepared ready willing able fit capable sufficient adequate competent qualified authorized appointed destined called chosen elect beloved precious

Rheology ( -LSB- riːˈɒlədʒi -RSB- from Greek ῥέω rhéō , `` flow '' and - λoγία , - logia , `` study of '' ) is the study of the flow of matter , primarily in a liquid state , but also as ` soft solids ' or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force .   The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham , a professor at Lafayette College , in 1920 , from a suggestion by a colleague , Markus Reiner . The term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius ( often attributed to Heraclitus ) , panta rhei , `` everything flows '' , and was first used to describe the flow of liquids and the deformation of solids .  It applies to substances that have a complex microstructure , such as muds , sludges , suspensions , polymers and other glass formers ( e.g. , silicates ) , as well as many foods and additives , bodily fluids ( e.g. , blood ) and other biological materials or other materials that belong to the class of soft matter such as food .   Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature . Although this viscosity will change with temperature , it does not change with the strain rate . Only a small group of fluids exhibit such constant viscosity . The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the strain rate ( the relative flow velocity ) are called non-Newtonian fluids .   Rheology generally accounts for the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids , by characterizing the minimum number of functions that are needed to relate stresses with rate of change of strain or strain rates . For example , ketchup can have its viscosity reduced by shaking ( or other forms of mechanical agitation , where the relative movement of different layers in the material actually causes the reduction in viscosity ) but water can not . Ketchup is a shear thinning material , like yogurt and emulsion paint ( US terminology latex paint or acrylic paint ) , exhibiting thixotropy , where an increase in relative flow velocity will cause a reduction in viscosity , for example , by stirring . Some other non-Newtonian materials show the opposite behavior , rheopecty : viscosity going up with relative deformation , and are called shear thickening or dilatant materials . Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of viscosity , the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics .   The experimental characterization of a material 's rheological behaviour is known as rheometry , although the term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry , particularly by experimentalists . Theoretical aspects of rheology are the relation of the flow/deformation behaviour of material and its internal structure ( e.g. , the orientation and elongation of polymer molecules ) , and the flow/deformation behaviour of materials that can not be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity .

In statistics , latent variables ( from Latin : present participle of lateo ( `` lie hidden '' ) , as opposed to observable variables ) , are variables that are not directly observed but are rather inferred ( through a mathematical model ) from other variables that are observed ( directly measured ) . Mathematical models that aim to explain observed variables in terms of latent variables are called latent variable models . Latent variable models are used in many disciplines , including psychology , economics , engineering , medicine , physics , machine learning/artificial intelligence , bioinformatics , natural language processing , econometrics , management and the social sciences .   Sometimes latent variables correspond to aspects of physical reality , which could in principle be measured , but may not be for practical reasons . In this situation , the term hidden variables is commonly used ( reflecting the fact that the variables are `` really there '' , but hidden ) . Other times , latent variables correspond to abstract concepts , like categories , behavioral or mental states , or data structures . The terms hypothetical variables or hypothetical constructs may be used in these situations .   One advantage of using latent variables is that it reduces the dimensionality of data . A large number of observable variables can be aggregated in a model to represent an underlying concept , making it easier to understand the data . In this sense , they serve a function similar to that of scientific theories . At the same time , latent variables link observable ( `` sub-symbolic '' ) data in the real world to symbolic data in the modeled world .   Latent variables , as created by factor analytic methods , generally represent `` shared '' variance , or the degree to which variables `` move '' together . Variables that have no correlation can not result in a latent construct based on the common factor model .

Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California .   They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction .  I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .

Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events . A random sequence of events , symbols or steps has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination . Individual random events are by definition unpredictable , but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events ( or `` trials '' ) is predictable . For example , when throwing two dice , the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable , but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4 . In this view , randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome , rather than haphazardness , and applies to concepts of chance , probability , and information entropy .   The fields of mathematics , probability , and statistics use formal definitions of randomness . In statistics , a random variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space . This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events . Random variables can appear in random sequences . A random process is a sequence of random variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern , but follow an evolution described by probability distributions . These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the various applications of randomness .   Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties . Monte Carlo methods , which rely on random input ( such as from random number generators or pseudorandom number generators ) , are important techniques in science , as , for instance , in computational science . By analogy , quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasirandom number generators .   Random selection , when narrowly associated with simple random sample , is a method of selecting items ( often called units ) from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population . For example , with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles , a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with probability 1/10 . Note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue . In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable , a random selection mechanism requires equal probabilities for any item to be chosen . That is , if the selection process is such that each member of a population , of say research subjects , has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random .

The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend ; for example , it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms . More recently evolved organisms , such as mammals , appear to be much more complex than organisms , such as bacteria , which have existed for a much longer period of time . However , there are theoretical and empirical problems with this claim . From a theoretical perspective , it appears that there is no reason to expect evolution to result in any largest-scale trends , although small-scale trends , limited in time and space , are expected ( Gould , 1997 ) . From an empirical perspective , it is difficult to measure complexity and , when it has been measured , the evidence does not support a largest-scale trend ( McShea , 1996 ) .

Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the subject or object of violent behavior . Religious violence is , specifically , violence that is motivated by or in reaction to religious precepts , texts , or doctrines . This includes violence against religious institutions , people , objects , or when the violence is motivated to some degree by some religious aspect of the target or precept of the attacker . Religious violence does not refer exclusively to acts committed by religious groups , but also includes acts committed by secular groups against religious groups .   Religious violence , like all violence , is a cultural process that is context-dependent and very complex . Oversimplifications of religion and violence often lead to misguided understandings and exaggerations of causes for why some people commit violence and why most do not commit violence . Religious violence is primarily the domain of the violent `` actor '' , which may be distinguished between individual and collective forms of violence . Overall , religious violence is perpetrated for a wide variety of ideological reasons and is generally only one of the contributing social and political factors that leads to unrest .

Richard Christopher Carrington ( 26 May 1826 -- 27 November 1875 ) was an English amateur astronomer whose 1859 astronomical observations demonstrated the existence of solar flares as well as suggesting their electrical influence upon the Earth and its aurorae ; and whose 1863 records of sunspot observations revealed the differential rotation of the Sun .

Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . ''   LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .

Language processing refers to the way humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings , and how such communications are processed and understood . Thus it is how the brain creates and understands language . Most recent theories consider that this process is carried out entirely by and inside the brain ; however , environmental factors play a role in the development of language processing as well .   This is considered one of the most characteristic abilities of the human species -- perhaps the most characteristic . However very little is known about it and there is huge scope for research on it . This part of the brain also enhances the way linguistic learners learn and think .   Most of the knowledge acquired to date on the subject has come from patients who have suffered some type of significant head injury , whether external ( wounds , bullets ) or internal ( strokes , tumors , degenerative diseases ) .   Studies have shown that most of the language processing functions are carried out in the cerebral cortex . The essential function of the cortical language areas is symbolic representation . Even though language exists in different forms , all of them are based on symbolic representation .

The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study .   The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .


Question: Multiple strands of proof, encompassing straightforward calculations, conclusively establish without any room for skepticism that the escalation in carbon dioxide levels within Earth's atmosphere can be attributed directly to mankind’s combustion of ancient hydrocarbons.

 Evidence Linking Fossil Fuel Emissions to Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Increase
The overwhelming body of scientific research indicates without question that rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can largely be attributed to human combustion of fossil fuels. Multiple strands of proof corroborate this finding: direct measurement records, isotopic analysis, and comprehensive calculations confirm the role humans play in escalating CO2 concentrations. These conclusions align closely with those presented by leading international bodies dedicated to studying climate science, underlining how few experts dispute humanity’s impact on current atmospheric conditions. Despite some dissenting voices suggesting alternative explanations for recent changes, rigorous scrutiny reveals flaws within their arguments—highlighting instead the robust link established through empirical data collection techniques employed across disciplines globally.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, tone, and argumentative stance while addressing different aspects related to both claims provided earlier about climate issues affecting specific environments/organisms versus broader discussions concerning general trends observed throughout entire ecosystems impacted heavily upon via anthropocentric actions contributing significantly towards alterations witnessed regarding planetary health metrics overall. Specifically here we focus more so around evidentiary frameworks validating assertions surrounding causality links existing betwixt manmade pollutant discharges emanating chiefly off petrocarbon derivatives vis-à-vis resultant accumulative gaseous particulate matter quantities accumulating aloft stratospheric realms henceforth engendering pronounced thermal retention phenomena otherwise known colloquially yet accurately enough encapsulating underlying mechanisms driving observable manifestations consistent herewith 'global heating'.

In nutrition , diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism .  The word diet often implies the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons ( with the two often being related ) . Although humans are omnivores , each culture and each person holds some food preferences or some food taboos . This may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons . Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy .   Complete nutrition requires ingestion and absorption of vitamins , minerals , and food energy in the form of carbohydrates , proteins , and fats . Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in the quality of life , health and longevity .

The Richter magnitude scale ( also Richter scale ) assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake . The Richter scale , developed in the 1930s , is a base-10 logarithmic scale , which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary , minor amplitude , as recorded on a standardized seismograph at a standard distance .   As measured with a seismometer , an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance . As energy release is generally proportional to the shaking amplitude raised to the 3/2 power , an increase of 1 magnitude corresponds to a release of energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake . This means that , for instance , an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as much energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4 .   Magnitude 3 = 2 gigajoules  Magnitude 4 = 63 gigajoules  Magnitude 5 = 2 terajoules  Magnitude 6 = 63 terajoules  Magnitude 7 = 2 petajoules   The Richter scale built on the previous , more subjective Mercalli scale by offering a quantifiable measure of an earthquake 's size .   In the United States , the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale . The moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes .

Datum reference is a concept used in carpentry , metalworking , needlework , Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing ( GD&T ) , aviation and similar activities .   In carpentry , an alternative , more common name is `` face side '' and `` face edge '' . The artisan nominates two straight edges on a workpiece as the `` datum edges '' , and they are marked accordingly . One convention is to mark the first datum edge with a single slanted line and the second with double lines . For most work , the datum references of the workpiece need to be square . If necessary they may be cut , planed or filed to make them so . In subsequent marking out , all measurements are then taken from either of the two datum references .   In aviation , an aircraft is designed to operate within a specified range of weight and ( chiefly longitudinal ) balance ; an airman is responsible for determining these factors for each flight under his or her command . This requires the calculation of moment for each variable mass in the aircraft ( fuel , passengers , cargo , etc. ) , by multiplying its weight by its distance from a datum reference . The datum for light airplanes is usually the engine firewall or the tip of the spinner , but in all cases it is a fixed plane perpendicular to the aircraft 's longitudinal axis , and specified in its operating handbook .

One million ( 1,000,000 ) or one thousand thousand is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001 . The word is derived from the early Italian millione ( milione in modern Italian ) , from mille , `` thousand '' , plus the augmentative suffix - one . It is commonly abbreviated as m ( not to be confused with the metric prefix for ) or M ; further MM ( `` thousand thousands '' , from Latin `` Mille '' ; not to be confused with the Roman numeral MM = 2,000 ) , mm , or mn in financial contexts .   In scientific notation , it is written as or 106 . Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega ( M ) , when dealing with SI units ; for example , 1 megawatt ( 1 MW ) equals 1,000,000 watts .   The meaning of the word `` million '' is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems , unlike the larger numbers , which have different names in the two systems .   The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number , as in `` Not in a million years '' and `` You 're one in a million '' , or a hyperbole , as in `` I 've walked a million miles '' and `` You 've asked the million-dollar question '' .

A deed ( anciently `` an evidence '' ) is any legal instrument in writing which passes , affirms or confirms an interest , right , or property and that is signed , attested , delivered , and in some jurisdictions , sealed . It is commonly associated with transferring ( conveyancing ) title to property . The deed has a greater presumption of validity and is less rebuttable than an instrument signed by the party to the deed . A deed can be unilateral or bilateral . Deeds include conveyances , commissions , licenses , patents , diplomas , and conditionally powers of attorney if executed as deeds . The deed is the modern descendant of the medieval charter , and delivery is thought to symbolically replace the ancient ceremony of livery of seisin .   The traditional phrase signed , sealed and delivered refers to the practice of seals ; however , attesting witnesses have replaced seals to some extent . Agreements under seal are also called contracts by deed or specialty ; in the United States , a specialty is enforceable without consideration . In some jurisdictions , specialties have a liability limitation period of double that of a simple contract and allow for a third party beneficiary to enforce an undertaking in the deed , thereby overcoming the doctrine of privity . Specialties , as a form of contract , are bilateral and can therefore be distinguished from covenants , which , being also under seal , are unilateral promises .

Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . ''   LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .

Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting .   The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers .   Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term .   Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .

Raymond Thayer Birge ( March 13 , 1887 -- March 22 , 1980 ) was a physicist . Born in Brooklyn , New York , into an academic scientific family , Birge obtained his Doctor 's Degree from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison in 1913 . In the same year he married Irene A. Walsh . The Birges had two children , Carolyn Elizabeth ( Mrs. E.D. Yocky ) and Robert Walsh , Associate Director of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1973-1981 . After five years as an instructor at Syracuse University , he became a member of the physics department at University of California , Berkeley , where he remained until he retired , as chairman , in 1955 .   On his arrival at Berkeley , Birge sought collaboration with the Berkeley College of Chemistry , then under the leadership of Gilbert N. Lewis . However , Birge 's championing of the Bohr atom led him into conflict with the chemists who defended Lewis ' earlier theory of the cubical atom . Birge was unafraid of scientific controversy and persevered with his course on atomic structure , attracting future Nobel Laureates in chemistry William Francis Giauque and Harold Clayton Urey . His work on molecular spectra included the development of the Birge-Sponer method .   Birge 's later work arose from his initial bewilderment at the variety and inconsistency among measurements of the fundamental physical constants . His interest led to a broad mastery of all branches of the physical sciences and gave fruit with many publications , in particular , a 1929 paper in Reviews of Modern Physics that recommended a standard set of values for the constants based on earlier published results . There ensued a frustration with the conventional methods of statistics as applied in physical science which led to a collaboration with W. Edwards Deming . Following their 1934 joint paper in Reviews of Modern Physics , their approaches diverged with Deming following the work of Walter A. Shewhart while Birge became interested in the more conventional statistical approaches of least squares and maximum likelihood . Birge 's interest in statistics led him to the investigation of parapsychology in which he conducted many experiments without finding any conclusive results .   Birge was an active administrator and was the architect of the Berkeley department 's prestige , seeking out physicists such as Robert Oppenheimer and Ernest Lawrence and guiding the department through its golden years of the 1930s and through the changes brought on by World War II , the Manhattan Project , and the birth of `` Big Science . '' However , during the McCarthy era in 1949 , the Regents of the University of California enforced an anti-communist oath to be signed by all employees . Though an outspoken critic of the oath , after much searching of conscience , Birge decided that his loyalty to the department and the university demanded that he sign and fight from within for freedom of speech . Many of his colleagues did not sign and were dismissed .   Birge died in Berkeley , California . His honors include :   President of the American Physical Society ;  Member of the National Academy of Sciences ; and  Honorary degree of LLD from the University of California , Berkeley .   In December 1964 , the new Physics building at Berkeley , Birge Hall was dedicated to Raymond Birge .

Dionysius Exiguus ( Latin for `` Dionysius the Humble '' ; -- ) was a 6th-century monk born in Scythia Minor ( probably modern Dobruja , in Romania and Bulgaria ) . He was a member of a community of Scythian monks concentrated in Tomis , the major city of Scythia Minor . Dionysius is best known as the inventor of the Anno Domini ( AD ) era , which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the ( Christianised ) Julian calendar . Some churches adopted his computus ( calculation ) for the dates of Easter .   From about 500 he lived in Rome , where , as a learned member of the Roman Curia , he translated from Greek into Latin 401 ecclesiastical canons , including the apostolical canons ; the decrees of the councils of Nicaea , Constantinople , Chalcedon and Sardis ; and a collection of the decretals of the popes from Siricius to Anastasius II . These Collectiones canonum Dionysianae had great authority in the West , and continues to guide church administrations . Dionysius also wrote a treatise on elementary mathematics .   The author of a continuation of Dionysius 's Computus , writing in 616 , described Dionysius as a `` most learned abbot of the city of Rome '' , and the Venerable Bede accorded him the honorific abbas , which could be applied to any monk , especially a senior and respected monk , and does not necessarily imply that Dionysius ever headed a monastery ; indeed , Dionysius 's friend Cassiodorus stated in Institutiones that he was still a monk late in life .

Rain follows the plow is the conventional name for a now-discredited theory of climatology that was popular throughout the American West and Australia during the late 19th century . The phrase was employed as a summation of the theory by Charles Dana Wilber : God speed the plow ... . By this wonderful provision , which is only man 's mastery over nature , the clouds are dispensing copious rains ... -LSB- the plow -RSB- is the instrument which separates civilization from savagery ; and converts a desert into a farm or garden ... . To be more concise , Rain follows the plow .   The basic premise of the theory was that human habitation and agriculture through homesteading effected a permanent change in the climate of arid and semi-arid regions , making these regions more humid . The theory was widely promoted in the 1870s as a justification for the settlement of the Great Plains , a region previously known as the `` Great American Desert '' . It was also used to justify the expansion of wheat growing on marginal land in South Australia during the same period .   According to the theory , increased human settlement in the region and cultivation of soil would result in an increased rainfall over time , rendering the land more fertile and lush as the population increased . As later historical records of rainfall indicated , the theory was based on faulty evidence arising from brief climatological fluctuations that happened to coincide with settlement , an example of the logical fallacy that correlation means causation . The theory was later refuted by climatologists and is now definitively regarded as pure superstition .