Question: The assertion by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with 95% certainty that human activities underpin the majority of present-day climate change merely encapsulates findings from scholarly reviewed studies in the field. This statement reflects an extensive synthesis of evidence compiled through rigorous analysis conducted over decades by leading experts worldwide, highlighting consensus among scientists regarding anthropogenic impacts on Earth's temperature trends.

95% Confidence: Humans' Role in Current Global Warming
In addressing claims about humanity’s impact on global warming, many point to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s assertion that there is a high degree of certainty—specifically, 95% confidence—that human actions significantly influence rising temperatures globally. Established in response to requests from various nations within the framework of the United Nations, the IPCC serves both science and governance communities alike. Its inception dates back to 1988 when initiated jointly by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), alongside the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP). Subsequently, endorsement came via the United Nations General Assembly through resolution number 43/53. Any country belonging either to the WMO or UNEP can join the panel.
This organization compiles comprehensive assessments aimed at informing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), serving as the core legal instrument concerning climate change issues. A key goal outlined by the convention is "stabilizing atmospheric greenhouse gases concentration levels sufficient enough so they don't interfere dangerously with earth systems." Reports generated encompass areas covering scientific foundations underlying risks associated specifically with man-made alterations impacting climates; probable repercussions thereof together with strategies pertaining adaptations/mitigations measures.
Notably, no independent studies originate directly from the IPCC; instead, existing publications serve as foundational materials – incorporating both peer-reviewed articles along with additional credible sources. Contributions come voluntarily free-of-cost courtesy thousands-strong roster comprising researchers plus specialists who painstakingly author/review documents subsequently vetted by governmental representatives spanning upwards exceeding hundred-twenty territories across continents.
Summaries tailored explicitly targeting policymakers undergo rigorous scrutiny involving word-for-word examination conducted collaboratively amongst diverse delegations representing numerous states around globe. Consequently, findings emanating reflect authoritative insights garnered collectively among preeminent authorities specializing in climatology field while simultaneously achieving cross-border consensus amongst participant entities numbering well beyond century mark.
Ultimately, the IPCC has emerged as a universally acknowledged arbiter regarding matters relating to climate changes, delivering evaluations enjoying endorsements from top-tier academics engaged actively researching pertinent topics coupled seamlessly integrating viewpoints espoused unanimously agreed upon by governing bodies hailing far-flung corners throughout entire planetary expanse. Noteworthy accolades bestowed included sharing prestigious Nobel Peace Prizes equally divided between aforementioned entity paired side-by-side former US Vice President Albert Arnold “Al” Gore Jr., celebrated advocate championing environmentalist causes tirelessly advocating urgent need combatting escalating crisis threatening ecological balance sustaining life forms inhabiting terrestrial biosphere.

Responsible Reform , also known as the Spartacus Report , is a report published on 9 January 2012 that analyses the United Kingdom coalition government 's proposed welfare benefit changes in the Welfare Reform Bill 2011 that proposes the replacement of the Disability Living Allowance ( DLA ) with Personal Independence Payments ( PIP ) .   The report was written , researched , funded and supported by multiple individuals who collaborated via social media , and gathers together existing information and analyses over 500 group responses to the UK Government 's response to Disability Living Allowance reform , which were obtained via a freedom of information request .

Digital forensics ( sometimes known as digital forensic science ) is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices , often in relation to computer crime . The term digital forensics was originally used as a synonym for computer forensics but has expanded to cover investigation of all devices capable of storing digital data . With roots in the personal computing revolution of the late 1970s and early 1980s , the discipline evolved in a haphazard manner during the 1990s , and it was not until the early 21st century that national policies emerged .   Digital forensics investigations have a variety of applications . The most common is to support or refute a hypothesis before criminal or civil ( as part of the electronic discovery process ) courts . Forensics may also feature in the private sector ; such as during internal corporate investigations or intrusion investigation ( a specialist probe into the nature and extent of an unauthorized network intrusion ) .   The technical aspect of an investigation is divided into several sub-branches , relating to the type of digital devices involved ; computer forensics , network forensics , forensic data analysis and mobile device forensics . The typical forensic process encompasses the seizure , forensic imaging ( acquisition ) and analysis of digital media and the production of a report into collected evidence .   As well as identifying direct evidence of a crime , digital forensics can be used to attribute evidence to specific suspects , confirm alibis or statements , determine intent , identify sources ( for example , in copyright cases ) , or authenticate documents . Investigations are much broader in scope than other areas of forensic analysis ( where the usual aim is to provide answers to a series of simpler questions ) often involving complex time-lines or hypotheses .

Dialectology ( from Greek διάλεκτος , dialektos , `` talk , dialect '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) is the scientific study of linguistic dialect , a sub-field of sociolinguistics . It studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features . Dialectology treats such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation .   Dialectologists are ultimately concerned with grammatical , lexical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas . Thus they usually deal not only with populations that have lived in certain areas for generations , but also with migrant groups that bring their languages to new areas ( see language contact ) .   Commonly studied concepts in dialectology include the problem of mutual intelligibility in defining languages and dialects ; situations of diglossia , where two dialects are used for different functions ; dialect continua including a number of partially mutually intelligible dialects ; and pluricentrism , where what is essentially a single genetic language exists as two or more standard varieties .   Hans Kurath and William Labov are among the most prominent researchers in this field .

Random assignment or random placement is an experimental technique for assigning human participants or animal subjects to different groups in an experiment ( e.g. , a treatment group versus a control group ) using randomization #Noun , such as by a chance procedure ( e.g. , flipping a coin ) or a random number generator . This ensures that each participant or subject has an equal chance of being placed in any group . Random assignment of participants helps to ensure that any differences between and within the groups are not systematic at the outset of the experiment . Thus , any differences between groups recorded at the end of the experiment can be more confidently attributed to the experimental procedures or treatment .   Random assignment , blinding , and controlling are key aspects of the design of experiments , because they help ensure that the results are not spurious or deceptive via confounding . This is why randomized controlled trials are vital in clinical research , especially ones that can be double-blinded and placebo-controlled .   Mathematically , there are distinctions between randomization , pseudorandomization , and quasirandomization , as well as between random number generators and pseudorandom number generators . How much these differences matter in experiments ( such as clinical trials ) is a matter of trial design and statistical rigor , which affect evidence grading . Studies done with pseudo - or quasirandomization are usually given nearly the same weight as those with true randomization but are viewed with a bit more caution .

The deep web , invisible web , or hidden web are parts of the World Wide Web whose contents are not indexed by standard search engines for any reason . The content is hidden behind HTML forms . It is estimated that the deep web makes up 96 % of the whole internet . The opposite term to the deep web is the surface web . The deep web includes many very common uses such as web mail and online banking but also paid for services with a paywall such as video on demand , and many more . Computer scientist Michael K. Bergman is credited with coining the term deep web in 2001 as a search indexing term .

Reality is the state of things as they actually exist , rather than as they may appear or might be imagined . Reality includes everything that is and has been , whether or not it is observable or comprehensible . A still broader definition includes that which has existed , exists , or will exist .   Philosophers , mathematicians , and other ancient and modern thinkers , such as Aristotle , Plato , Frege , Wittgenstein , and Russell , have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality , coherent abstractions ( thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real ) , and that which can not even be rationally thought . By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain .   Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary , illusory , delusional , ( only ) in the mind , dreams , what is false , what is fictional , or what is abstract . At the same time , what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research . For instance , causality , virtue , life , and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define , but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions . Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute : one extreme position regards them as mere words ; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts . This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals .   The truth refers to what is real , while falsity refers to what is not . Fictions are considered not real .

KronoScope is a peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of time , both in the humanities and in the sciences . It is published biannually under the imprint of Brill Publishers on behalf of the International Society for the Study of Time . It is indexed in Sociological Abstracts .

The diagnosis of schizophrenia is based on criteria in either the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , version DSM-IV-TR , or the World Health Organization 's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems , the ICD-10 . These criteria use the self-reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities in behavior , followed by a clinical assessment by a mental health professional . Symptoms associated with schizophrenia occur along a continuum in the population and must reach a certain severity before a diagnosis is made .

Established in 2002 following a Government review the Research Councils UK ( RCUK ) is a Non-Departmental Government Body whose purpose is to manage a strategic partnership between seven individual research councils that coordinate and fund research in the arts , humanities , science and engineering . It enables the Councils to work together more effectively to enhance the overall impact and effectiveness of their research , training , and innovation .   There are seven councils :  The Arts and Humanities Research Council ( AHRC )  The Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council ( BBSRC )  Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council ( EPSRC )  Economic and Social Research Council ( ESRC )  Medical Research Council ( MRC )  Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC )  Science and Technology Facilities Council ( STFC )

Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences .   Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum .   Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .


Question: The assertion by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with 95% certainty that human activities underpin the majority of present-day climate change merely encapsulates findings from extensively reviewed academic studies in the field. This statement reflects the consensus reached through rigorous scrutiny by experts across various disciplines related to climatology and environmental science.

 Summary of Scientific Consensus: Anthropogenic Influence on Global Warming

The consensus within the scientific community regarding human-caused global warming is overwhelmingly supported through extensive empirical data gathered across multiple disciplines. Since the latter half of the twentieth century, numerous independent studies confirm a clear trend - the earth’s temperatures are indeed climbing, accompanied by observable shifts in various aspects of the climate system. Paleoclimatological records spanning millennia corroborate modern observations, highlighting the uniqueness of recent trends against historical baselines.

In line with comprehensive assessments conducted periodically by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there exists "extreme likelihood" that human actions dominate contemporary climate alterations. Chief amongst these influences is the proliferation of greenhouse gases emanating largely from combustion-related industries. Projections derived from sophisticated models predict continued warming throughout the twenty-first century under differing scenarios; ranging minimally from 0.3°C up to substantial increases exceeding 4°C contingent upon prevailing emissions trajectories.

This unequivocal stance enjoys universal endorsement from leading academic institutions globally, devoid of dissent from reputable scientific organizations. Regional disparities notwithstanding, every corner of our planet anticipates distinct manifestations of climate change. Among anticipated outcomes are escalating atmospheric warmth, inundation via rising seas, erratic precipitation cycles, and desert encroachment into temperate zones. Extreme meteorological occurrences stand poised to intensify alongside ecological disruptions threatening countless life forms.

Implications pertinent to humanity encompass compromised agricultural productivity amidst dwindling harvest outputs, coupled with forced migration precipitated by coastal submergence. Given inherent lags intrinsic to complex geophysical mechanisms compounded by lingering atmospheric GHGs, repercussions shall endure far beyond immediate temporal horizons stretching potentially several orders magnitude longer. Mitigation strategies targeting reduced emissions complemented by adaptive measures geared towards resilience enhancement alongside speculative geoengineering endeavors represent viable pathways forward. International cooperation encapsulated within frameworks akin to those established pursuant to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) remains pivotal towards averting perilous thresholds surpassing 2.0 °C above baseline conditions ideally constrained closer towards 1.5 °C increments.

Public awareness surrounding global warming continues expanding paralleled by mounting apprehension vis-a-vis attendant ramifications. Cross-cultural surveys reveal divergent perspectives albeit converging upon shared recognition concerning severity thereof. Notwithstanding variegated attitudes exhibited particularly amongst stakeholders hailing from prominent emitters viz., USA & China, collective vigilance appears ascendant.

More than 3000 empirical studies have examined relationships between religion and health , including more than 1200 in the 20th century , and more than 2000 additional studies between 2000 and 2009 .  Various other reviews of the religion/spirituality and health literature have been published . These include two reviews from an NIH-organized expert panel that appeared in a 4-article special section of American Psychologist .  Several chapters in edited academic books have also reviewed the empirical literature .  Having a religious belief may have both positive and negative impacts on health and morbidity .

Ready-made garments are mass-produced finished textile products of the clothing industry . They are not custom tailored according to measurements , but rather generalized according to anthropometric studies . They are made from many different fabrics and yarns . Their characteristics depend on the fibers used in their manufacture . Ready-made garments are divided into the following types : Outer clothing : workwear and uniform , leisure wear , sportswear ( e.g. suits , pants , dresses , ladies ' suits , blouse , blazers , jackets , cardigans , pullovers , coats , sports jackets , skirts , shirts ( short - or long-sleeved ) , ties , jeans , shorts , T-shirts , polo shirts , sports shirts , tracksuits , bathing shorts , bathing suits , bikinis etc. ) Underclothing ( underwear ) : jersey goods , lingerie ( e.g. underpants , undershirts , briefs , socks , stockings , and pantyhose )

The Declaration of Helsinki is a document setting out ethical principles for human medical experimentation . The term may also refer to :  The Helsinki Accords  Declaration of Helsinki ( Information Technology ) , the Global Cities principles  The Helsinki Declaration for Patient Safety in Anaesthesiology

David Colquhoun , ( born 19 July 1936 ) is a British pharmacologist at University College London ( UCL ) . He has contributed to the general theory of receptor and synaptic mechanisms , and in particular the theory and practice of single ion channel function . He previously held the A.J. Clark chair of Pharmacology at UCL , and was the Hon. Director of the Wellcome Laboratory for Molecular Pharmacology . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1985 and an honorary fellow of UCL in 2004 . Colquhoun runs the website DC 's Improbable Science , which is critical of pseudoscience , particularly alternative medicine , and managerialism . He was critical of Tim Hunt following the controversies of the 2015 World Conference of Science Journalists in Seoul .

Resting metabolic rate ( RMR ) is whole-body mammal ( and other vertebrate ) metabolism during a time period of strict and steady resting conditions that are defined by a combination of assumptions of physiological homeostasis and biological equilibrium . RMR differs from basal metabolic rate ( BMR ) because BMR measurements must meet total physiological equilibrium whereas RMR conditions of measurement can be altered and defined by the contextual limitations . Therefore , BMR is measured in the elusive `` perfect '' steady state , whereas RMR measurement is more accessible and thus , represents most , if not all measurements or estimates of daily energy expenditure .   Indirect calorimetry is the study or clinical use of the relationship between respirometry and bioenergetics , where the measurement of the rates of change in oxygen consumption , sometimes carbon dioxide production , and less often urea production is transformed to energy expenditure and expressed as the ratio between i ) energy and ii ) the time frame of the measurement . For example , following analysis of oxygen consumption of a human subject , if 5.5 kilocalories of energy were estimated during a 5-minute measurement from a rested individual , then the resting metabolic rate equals = 1.1 kcal/min rate .   A comprehensive treatment of confounding factors on BMR measurements is demonstrated as early as 1922 in Massachusetts by Engineering Professor Frank B Sanborn , wherein descriptions of the effects of food , posture , sleep , muscular activity , and emotion provide criteria for separating BMR from RMR .

Denial , in ordinary English usage , is asserting that a statement or allegation is not true .   Deny may also refer to :

Dentistry is a branch of medicine that is involved in the study , diagnosis , prevention , and treatment of diseases , disorders and conditions of the oral cavity , commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa , and of adjacent and related structures and tissues , particularly in the maxillofacial ( jaw and facial ) area . Although primarily associated with teeth among the general public , the field of dentistry or dental medicine is not limited to teeth but includes other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temperomandibular and other supporting structures . The term dentistry comes from odontology ( from Ancient Greek ὀδούς ( odoús , `` tooth '' ) ) -- the study of the structure , development , and abnormalities of the teeth . Because of their substantial overlap in concept , dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology ( the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases ) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions .   Dentistry is important to one 's overall health . Dental treatments are carried out by the dental team , which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries ( dental assistants , dental hygienists , dental technicians , as well as dental therapists ) . Most dentists either work in private practices ( primary care ) , dental hospitals or ( secondary care ) institutions ( prisons , armed forces bases , etc. ) .   The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC . Remains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization ( BC ) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years . It is thought that dental surgery was the first specialization from medicine .

A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in law . Such degrees are generally preparation for legal careers ; but while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority , they do not themselves confer a license . A legal license is granted ( typically by examination ) and exercised locally ; while the law degree can have local , international , and world-wide aspects - e.g. , in Britain the Legal Practice Course is required to become a British solicitor or the Bar Professional Training Course ( BPTC ) to become a barrister .

Digital media is any media that is encoded in a machine-readable format . Digital media can be created , viewed , distributed , modified and preserved on digital electronics devices . Computer programs and software ; digital imagery , digital video ; video games ; web pages and websites , including social media ; data and databases ; digital audio , such as mp3s ; and e-books are examples of digital media . Digital media are frequently contrasted with print media , such as printed books , newspapers and magazines , and other traditional or analog media , such as pictures , film or audio tape .   Combined with the Internet and personal computing , digital media has caused disruption in publishing , journalism , entertainment , education , commerce and politics . Digital media has also posed new challenges to copyright and intellectual property laws , fostering an open content movement in which content creators voluntarily give up some or all of their legal rights to their work . The ubiquity of digital media and its effects on society suggest that we are at the start of a new era in industrial history , called the Information Age , perhaps leading to a paperless society in which all media are produced and consumed on computers . However , challenges to a digital transition remain , including outdated copyright laws , censorship , the digital divide , and the spectre of a digital dark age , in which older media becomes inaccessible to new or upgraded information systems . Digital media has a significant , wide-ranging and complex impact on society and culture .

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples ( UNDRIP ) was adopted by the General Assembly on Thursday , 13 September 2007 , by a majority of 144 states in favour , 4 votes against ( Australia , Canada , New Zealand and the United States ) and 11 abstentions ( Azerbaijan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , Burundi , Colombia , Georgia , Kenya , Nigeria , Russian Federation , Samoa and Ukraine ) .   In May 2016 Canada officially removed its objector status to UNDRIP , almost a decade after it was adopted by the General Assembly . By now also the other 3 objectors have , to various degrees , turned their vote .   While as a General Assembly Declaration it is not a legally binding instrument under international law , according to a UN press release , it does `` represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN 's member states to move in certain directions '' ; the UN describes it as setting `` an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool towards eliminating human rights violations against the planet 's 370 million indigenous people and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalisation . ''   UNDRIP codifies `` Indigenous historical grievances , contemporary challenges and socio-economic , political and cultural aspirations '' and is the `` culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention , to secure recognition for their aspirations , and to generate support for their political agendas . '' Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan , Ken Coates , argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with Indigenous peoples , while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact .


Question: Carbon dioxide outputs from industrial activities significantly increased over the past century compared to one hundred years prior.

 Evolution of Carbon Dioxide Emissions Over Time
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a critical component in the regulation of Earth’s temperature through its role as a greenhouse gas, has seen significant fluctuations throughout history. Prior to the onset of the Industrial Revolution around 1750, concentrations hovered steadily near 280 parts per million (ppm). However, rapid advancements in technology and increased reliance on fossil fuels led to a dramatic rise; levels reached approximately 406 ppm by early 2017—a staggering 40% jump compared to pre-industrial times.
This surge can largely be attributed to anthropogenic sources: burning of coal, oil, and natural gas, coupled with deforestation, agricultural practices, and land use changes. Despite nature’s attempts to mitigate increases via absorption into oceans and forests—known as “carbon sinks”—the balance remains heavily tipped in favor of emission accumulation.
Experts warn that unchecked continuation of current trends might push global temperatures beyond historic norms as soon as mid-century, posing severe risks to ecological systems, species diversity, and societal well-being across continents. Projections indicate crossing the crucial 2°C warming mark, deemed perilous by international consensus under UN frameworks, possibly occurring before 2036 without drastic intervention strategies.

The structure and content closely mirror those provided while maintaining coherence and relevance regarding historical context, scientific explanations, contemporary implications, future projections, and policy considerations related specifically to CO2 emissions' evolution over recent centuries amidst growing concerns surrounding climate change impacts globally.

A labour revolt or worker 's uprising is a period civil unrest characterised by strong labour militancy and strike activity . The history of labour revolts often provides the historical basis for many advocates of communism , socialism and anarchism , with many instances occurring across the world in both the 19th and 20th centuries .

This article 1985 in motoring deals with developments in the automotive industry throughout the year 1985 by various automobile manufacturers , grouped by country . The automotive industry designs , develops , manufactures , markets , and sells motor vehicles , and is one of the Earth 's most important economic sectors by revenue . The first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in 1885 in Mannheim , Germany .

Deep history is a term for the distant past of the human species , `` stretching back 50,000 , 500,000 , even 2.6 million years to the earliest humans '' . As an intellectual discipline , deep history encourages scholars in anthropology , archaeology , primatology , genetics and linguistics to work together to write a common narrative about the beginnings of humans , and to redress what they see as an imbalance among historians , who mostly concentrate on more recent periods . Deep history forms the earlier part of Big History , and looks at the portion of deep time when humans existed , going further back than prehistory , mainly based on archaeology , usually ventures , and using a wider range of approaches .   Proponents of deep history argue for a definition of history that rests not upon the invention of writing , but upon the evolution of anatomically modern humans . According to Daniel Lord Smail , perhaps the most prominent advocate of deep history , the concept of prehistory is recast as an arbitrary boundary that limits the longue durée perspective of historians , and which rests upon assumptions that history follows a teleological path beginning with the origins of civilization in Ancient Mesopotamia . For example , Smail suggests that advances in disciplines such as neurobiology and neurophysiology and genetics mean that there are more possibilities for understanding the distant past , and offer opportunities to explain how events such as biological evolution , global environmental change , and patterns of the spread of disease have affected humanity today . Proponents of deep history generally do not acknowledge what they claim to be the traditional barrier between conventional history , generally based on written documentation such as ancient scrolls or hieroglyphs on pyramids , and unwritten prehistory , based on archaeology , in the human past .   A review of Smail 's book by Steven Mithen , professor of Archaeology at the University of Reading , is sympathethic to some parts of his thesis , but says `` Smail may not be as closely acquainted with the ongoing debates in prehistoric archaeology as he might be '' , and on Smail 's critical description of historians : `` I have to take Smail 's word for it that such historians still exist , as after more than a century of prehistoric archaeology they would be an astonishing throwback to another age '' .

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds ( DLCs ) are compounds that are highly toxic environmental persistent organic pollutants ( POPs ) . They are mostly by-products of various industrial processes - or , in case of dioxin-like PCBs and PBBs , part of intentionally produced mixtures . They include :  Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins ( PCDDs ) , or simply dioxins . PCDDs are derivatives of dibenzo-p-dioxin . There are 75 PCDD congeners , differing in the number and location of chlorine atoms , and seven of them are especially toxic , the most dangerous being 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin ( TCDD )  Polychlorinated dibenzofurans ( PCDFs ) , or furans . PCDFs are derivatives of dibenzofuran . There are 135 isomers , ten have dioxin-like properties .  Polychlorinated/polybrominated biphenyls ( PCBs/PBBs ) , derived from biphenyl , of which twelve are `` dioxin-like '' . Under certain conditions PCBs may form dibenzofurans/dioxins through partial oxidation .  Finally , dioxin may refer to 1,4-Dioxin proper , the basic chemical unit of the more complex dioxins . This simple compound is not persistent and has no PCDD-like toxicity .   Because dioxins refer to such a broad class of compounds that vary widely in toxicity , the concept of toxic equivalency factor ( TEF ) has been developed to facilitate risk assessment and regulatory control . Toxic equivalence factors ( TEFs ) exist for seven congeners of dioxins , ten furans and twelve PCBs . The reference congener is the most toxic dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin ( TCDD ) which per definition has a TEF of one .   In reference to their importance as environmental toxicants the term dioxins is used almost exclusively to refer to the sum of compounds ( as TEQ ) from the above groups which demonstrate the same specific toxic mode of action associated with TCDD . These include 17 PCDD/Fs and 12 PCBs . Incidents of contamination with PCBs are also often reported as dioxin contamination incidents since it is this toxic characteristic which is of most public and regulatory concern .

Kundalini ( Sanskrit : कुण्डलिनी , , `` coiled one '' ) , in the concept of Dharma , refers to a form of primal energy ( or shakti ) said to be located at the base of the spine . Different spiritual traditions teach methods of `` awakening '' kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers . Writer Joseph Campbell describes the concept of Kundalini as `` the figure of a coiled female serpent -- a serpent goddess not of `` gross '' but of `` subtle '' substance - which is to be thought of as residing in a torpid , slumbering state in a subtle center , the first of the seven , near the base of the spine : the aim of the yoga then being to rouse this serpent , lift her head , and bring her up a subtle nerve or channel of the spine to the so-called `` thousand-petaled lotus '' ( Sahasrara ) at the crown of the head ... She , rising from the lowest to the highest lotus center , will pass through and wake the five between , and with each waking the psychology and personality of the practitioner will be altogether and fundamentally transformed . ''   Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation , and consequently enlightenment and bliss . However , as each individual is unique , Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation . This awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head . Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation , pranayama breathing , the practice of asana and chanting of mantras . In physical terms , the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine .

A deed ( anciently `` an evidence '' ) is any legal instrument in writing which passes , affirms or confirms an interest , right , or property and that is signed , attested , delivered , and in some jurisdictions , sealed . It is commonly associated with transferring ( conveyancing ) title to property . The deed has a greater presumption of validity and is less rebuttable than an instrument signed by the party to the deed . A deed can be unilateral or bilateral . Deeds include conveyances , commissions , licenses , patents , diplomas , and conditionally powers of attorney if executed as deeds . The deed is the modern descendant of the medieval charter , and delivery is thought to symbolically replace the ancient ceremony of livery of seisin .   The traditional phrase signed , sealed and delivered refers to the practice of seals ; however , attesting witnesses have replaced seals to some extent . Agreements under seal are also called contracts by deed or specialty ; in the United States , a specialty is enforceable without consideration . In some jurisdictions , specialties have a liability limitation period of double that of a simple contract and allow for a third party beneficiary to enforce an undertaking in the deed , thereby overcoming the doctrine of privity . Specialties , as a form of contract , are bilateral and can therefore be distinguished from covenants , which , being also under seal , are unilateral promises .

Research comprises `` creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge , including knowledge of humans , culture and society , and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications . '' It is used to establish or confirm facts , reaffirm the results of previous work , solve new or existing problems , support theorems , or develop new theories . A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field . Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic , or in the example of a school research project , they can be used to further a student 's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports . To test the validity of instruments , procedures , or experiments , research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole . The primary purposes of basic research ( as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , or the research and development ( R&D ) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge . Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences . There are several forms of research : scientific , humanities , artistic , economic , social , business , marketing , practitioner research , life , technological , etc. .

A diamond rush is a period of feverish migration of workers to an area that has had a discovery of diamonds . Major diamond rushes took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in South Africa and South-West Africa .

The 1900s may refer to :   The period from 1900 to 1999 , almost synonymous with the 20th century ( 1901 -- 2000 )  The period from 1900 to 1909 , known as the 1900s decade

The 12-hour clock is a time convention in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods : a.m. ( from the Latin , ante meridiem , meaning before midday ) and p.m. ( post meridiem , meaning past midday ) . Each period consists of 12 hours numbered : 12 ( acting as zero ) , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 . The 24 hour/day cycle starts at 12 midnight ( often indicated as 12 a.m. ) , runs through 12 noon ( often indicated as 12 p.m. ) , and continues to the midnight at the end of the day .   The 12-hour clock was developed over time from the mid-second millennium BC to the 16th century AD .


Question: Carbon dioxide discharges into the atmosphere were considerably lesser in volume a century ago.

 Historical Context of Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, pivotal contributors to modern-day global warming, were significantly lower just a century ago compared to current levels. Before the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO2 concentrations remained relatively stable for millennia; however, rapid advancements in technology and energy usage dramatically escalated emissions post-mid-20th century. Early societies relied predominantly on organic materials and biomass for heating and cooking, resulting in minimal impact on the environment.
The advent of coal-powered steam engines marked the beginning of substantial increases in CO2 output. By harnessing the power of fossil fuels, industries experienced exponential growth, leading to increased demand for raw materials and manufacturing capabilities. Consequently, air quality deteriorated notably across urban centers where factories operated relentlessly day and night.
As we transitioned into the oil era following World War II, reliance upon petroleum products soared alongside economic prosperity known colloquially as “the great acceleration.” Countries embarked upon ambitious infrastructure projects aimed at improving transportation networks while simultaneously expanding access to electricity through centralized grids powered largely via burning hydrocarbons. This period witnessed unparalleled spikes in both energy consumption and subsequent CO2 releases into the atmosphere.
Today’s world grapples with mounting concerns surrounding climate change attributed chiefly to unabated greenhouse gas discharges stemming directly from human activities—primarily combustion-related endeavors within sectors ranging from transportation to utilities generation. Scientists warn that unless drastic measures are implemented promptly to curb emissions trajectories, severe consequences await humanity including accelerated glacial melts contributing to rising sea levels endangering coastal communities globally along with intensified frequency/severity extremes weather phenomena threatening agricultural productivity cycles amongst myriad ecological disruptions anticipated under worst-case scenarios outlined periodically by authoritative bodies such as those comprising membership within International Panel On Climate Change (IPCC).
Mitigating strategies encompass various approaches designed collaboratively spanning technological innovation coupled judiciously policy interventions targeting reduction targets aligned closely Paris Agreement goals aiming restrict planetary warming thresholds well below two degrees Celsius ideally striving attain net-zero status before end-century deadline looms ominously horizon. Adaptation initiatives concurrently seek bolster resilience vulnerable ecosystems safeguard precious biodiversity reserves ensuring survival countless species facing imminent peril escalating temperatures disrupt traditional migratory pathways breeding grounds alike.
Public awareness regarding impending dangers posed unchecked climate alteration continues grow steadily evidenced recent surveys conducted reputable organizations revealing majority respondents perceive matter utmost urgency requiring immediate attention collective action scale hitherto unseen history mankind endeavor overcome seemingly insurmountable odds secure sustainable future generations yet unborn inherit healthy habitable planet call home.

In cooking , reduction is the process of thickening and intensifying the flavor of a liquid mixture such as a soup , sauce , wine , or juice by simmering or boiling .   Reduction is performed by simmering or boiling a liquid such as stock , fruit or vegetable juices , wine , vinegar , or a sauce until the desired volume is reached by evaporation . This is done without a lid , enabling the vapor to escape from the mixture . Different components of the liquid will evaporate at slightly different temperatures , and the goal of reduction is to drive away those with lowest points of evaporation . It thus can be seen as a form of distillation , capturing those components that have the highest boiling point .   While reduction does concentrate the flavors left in the pan , reducing too much will drive away all liquid in the sauce , leaving a `` sticky , burnt coating '' on the pan .

The ` Ndràngheta ( -LSB- ( n ) ˈdraŋɡeta -RSB- ) is organized crime centered in Calabria , Italy . Despite not being as famous abroad as the Sicilian Mafia , and having been considered more rural than the Neapolitan Camorra and the Apulian Sacra Corona Unita , the ` Ndrangheta became the most powerful crime syndicate in Italy in the late 1990s and early 2000s . While commonly tied together with the Sicilian Mafia , the ` Ndrangheta operates independently from them , though there is contact between the two , due to the geographical proximity and shared culture and language between Calabria and Sicily . A US diplomat estimated that the organization 's narcotics trafficking , extortion and money laundering activities accounted for at least 3 % of Italy 's GDP . Since the 1950s , the organization has spread towards Northern Italy and worldwide . According to a 2013 `` Threat Assessment on Italian Organised Crime '' of Europol , the ` Ndrangheta is among the richest and most powerful organised crime groups at a global level .

Revenue passenger miles ( RPMs ) and revenue passenger kilometers ( RPKs ) are measures of traffic for an airline flight , bus , or train calculated by multiplying the number of revenue-paying passengers aboard the vehicle by the distance traveled . On long-distance buses and trains ( and some planes ) passengers may board and disembark at intermediate stops , in which case RPMs/RPKs have to be calculated for each segment if a careful total is needed .   Revenue passenger miles can be considered the basic amount of `` production '' that an airline creates . The revenue passenger miles can be compared to the available seat miles over an airline 's system to determine the overall passenger load factor . These measurements can further be used to measure unit revenues and unit costs .

Rapid transit , also known as heavy rail , metro , subway , tube , or underground , is a type of high-capacity public transport generally found in urban areas . Unlike buses or trams , rapid transit systems are electric railways that operate on an exclusive right-of-way , which can not be accessed by pedestrians or other vehicles of any sort , and which is often grade separated in tunnels or on elevated railways .   Modern services on rapid transit systems are provided on designated lines between stations typically using electric multiple units on rail tracks , although some systems use guided rubber tyres , magnetic levitation , or monorail . The stations typically have high platforms , without steps inside the trains , requiring custom-made trains in order to minimize gaps between train and platform . They are typically integrated with other public transport and often operated by the same public transport authorities . However , some rapid transit systems have at-grade intersections between a rapid transit line and a road or between two rapid transit lines . It is unchallenged in its ability to transport large numbers of people quickly over short distances with little use of land . Variations of rapid transit include people movers , small-scale light metro , and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn .   The world 's first rapid-transit system was the partially underground Metropolitan Railway which opened as a conventional railway in 1863 , and now forms part of the London Underground . In 1868 , New York opened the elevated West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway , initially a cable-hauled line using static steam engines .   China has the largest number of rapid transit systems in the world . The world 's longest single-operator rapid transit system by route length is the Shanghai Metro . The world 's largest single rapid transit service provider by both length of revenue track ( 665 mi and number of stations ( 472 stations in total ) is the New York City Subway . The busiest rapid transit systems in the world by annual ridership are the Tokyo subway system , the Seoul Metropolitan Subway , the Moscow Metro , the Beijing Subway , and the Shanghai Metro .

Reader 's Digest is an American general-interest family magazine , published ten times a year . Formerly based in Chappaqua , New York , it is now headquartered in New York City . The magazine was founded in 1920 , by DeWitt Wallace and Lila Bell Wallace . For many years , Reader 's Digest was the best-selling consumer magazine in the United States ; it lost the distinction in 2009 to Better Homes and Gardens . According to Mediamark Research ( 2006 ) , Reader 's Digest reaches more readers with household incomes of $ 100,000 + than Fortune , The Wall Street Journal , Business Week , and Inc. combined .   Global editions of Reader 's Digest reach an additional 40 million people in more than 70 countries , via 49 editions in 21 languages . It is believed that the printing system MEPS was used to achieve this multi language translation . The periodical has a global circulation of 10.5 million , making it the largest paid circulation magazine in the world .   It is also published in Braille , digital , audio , and in a large type called Reader 's Digest Large Print . The magazine is compact , with its pages roughly half the size of most American magazines ' . Hence , in the summer of 2005 , the U.S. edition adopted the slogan : `` America in your pocket . '' In January 2008 , it was changed to : `` Life well shared . ''

The Race of the Century is the name of four famous races :  Race of the Century ( Auto Racing ) - 1953 French Grand Prix between Mike Hawthorn and Juan Manuel Fangio  Race of the Century ( Athletics ) - 1954 British Empire Games , Mile Race between Roger Bannister and John Landy  Race of the Century ( Horse Racing ) - 1986 Cox Plate race involving Waverley Star and Bonecrusher  Race of the Century ( Swimming ) - 2004 Athens Olympic Games Men 's 200m Freestyle Final , involving Ian Thorpe , Pieter van den Hoogenband , Grant Hackett and Michael Phelps  Race of the Century ( film ) - A 1986 film which gives a dramatic presentation of the events of the Golden Globe Race and the fate of Donald Crowhurst .

The .22 Long Rifle rimfire ( metric designation : 5.6 × 15mmR ) cartridge is a long-established variety of ammunition , and in terms of units sold is still by far the most common in the world today .   The cartridge is often referred to simply as .22 LR ( `` twenty-two - -LSB- ˈɛl -RSB- - -LSB- ˈɑr -RSB- '' ) and various rifles , pistols , revolvers , submachine guns and even some smoothbore shotguns have been manufactured in this caliber .

A lake is an area of variable size filled with water , localized in a basin , that is surrounded by land , apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake . Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean , and therefore are distinct from lagoons , and are also larger and deeper than ponds , though there are no official or scientific definitions . Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams , which are usually flowing . Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams .   Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .   Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use , for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply , or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities .

A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool star on the main sequence , of either K or M spectral type . Red dwarfs range in mass from a low of 0.075 to about 0.50 solar mass and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000 K.   Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way , at least in the neighborhood of the Sun , but because of their low luminosity , individual red dwarfs can not be easily observed . From Earth , not one is visible to the naked eye . Proxima Centauri , the nearest star to the Sun , is a red dwarf ( Type M5 , apparent magnitude 11.05 ) , as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars .  According to some estimates , red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way .   Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than are fully convective . Hence the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star , avoiding its buildup at the core and prolonging the period of fusion . Red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly , maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of years , until their fuel is depleted . Because of the comparatively short age of the universe , no red dwarfs exist at advanced stages of evolution .

16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film . 16 mm refers to the width of the film , with other common film gauges including 8 and 35 mm . It is generally used for non-theatrical ( e.g. , industrial , educational ) film making or for low budget motion pictures . It also existed as a popular amateur or home movie making format for several decades , alongside 8 mm film , and later Super 8 film . In 1923 , Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm `` outfit '' consisting of a camera , projector , tripod , screen and splicer for $ 335 . RCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932  and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera , released in 1935 .


Question: There are numerous straightforward inaccuracies within Postma’s framework that by no means challenge the reality or significance of the atmospheric greenhouse phenomenon.

 Critiquing Alternative Climate Models: A Case Study
Postma’s proposed alternative theory regarding planetary temperatures has been met with significant criticism within the scientific community. Many experts argue that his model includes numerous oversights and misunderstandings about basic physics principles, particularly concerning heat transfer mechanisms crucial to understanding atmospheric dynamics. Critics assert that despite its attempt to challenge mainstream views on the greenhouse effect, Postma’s approach fails to provide compelling evidence against established knowledge.
In evaluating different scientific theories, especially those related to climate studies, researchers often apply Occam’s Razor—a philosophical rule favoring simpler explanations when multiple options exist. According to this guideline, among rival hypotheses explaining identical phenomena, the simplest option requiring fewer unproven suppositions typically holds greater explanatory power until proven otherwise. However, while useful during early stages of inquiry, Occam’s Razor isn’t an absolute rule dictating final conclusions since empirical data remains paramount.
For instance, in assessing various interpretations of observed climate trends, scientists prioritize models supported by robust observational datasets over speculative constructs lacking substantial verification. Even though some less conventional proposals might initially appear attractive due to perceived elegance or novelty, they cannot supersede well-established frameworks without solid justification grounded in reproducible experimental outcomes. Thus, although advocating for conceptual clarity and minimizing unnecessary complexities, Occam’s Razor complements but doesn't replace stringent testing procedures essential for advancing reliable insights into nature’s workings.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, and overall tone compared to your original request while addressing both the provided Claim and Document effectively through contextual adaptation focusing instead on critiquing flawed scientific arguments using logical reasoning akin to how Occam’s Razor gets applied within academic discourse surrounding controversial topics like climate change denialism.

Lambertian reflectance is the property that defines an ideal `` matte '' or diffusely reflecting surface . The apparent brightness of a Lambertian surface to an observer is the same regardless of the observer 's angle of view . More technically , the surface 's luminance is isotropic , and the luminous intensity obeys Lambert 's cosine law . Lambertian reflectance is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert , who introduced the concept of perfect diffusion in his 1760 book Photometria .

Landbouwbelang ( LBB ) is an industrial building in Maastricht , Netherlands . It offers working space for artists and social entrepreneurs and functions as a venue for cultural events . It has been squatted since April 2002 .   Landbouwbelang is located in the Boschstraatkwartier neighbourhood , on the bank of river Maas and next to the production site of a paper manufacturer Sappi .

Richard M. Perloff is an American academic . He is professor of communication at Cleveland State University , where he has taught since 1979 . He has written on persuasion , on political communication , on the psychology of perception of the effects of mass media , and on the third-person effect .

The Deese -- Roediger -- McDermott ( DRM ) paradigm is a procedure in cognitive psychology used to study false memory in humans . The procedure was pioneered by James Deese in 1959 , but it was not until Henry L. Roediger III and Kathleen McDermott extended the line of research in 1995 that the paradigm became popular . The procedure typically involves the oral presentation of a list of related words ( e.g. bed , rest , awake , tired , dream , wake , snooze , blanket , doze , slumber , snore , nap , peace , yawn , drowsy ) and then requires the subject to remember as many words from the list as possible . Typical results show that subjects recall a related but nonpresented word ( e.g. sleep ) , known as a ` lure ' , with the same frequency as other presented words . When subjects are asked about their experience after the test , about half of all participants report that they are sure that they remember hearing the nonpresented word , indicating a false memory -- memory for an event that never occurred .   The simplicity of the paradigm and the ease with which DRM studies can be conducted have helped the DRM paradigm become popular among human memory researchers , as well as researchers from other fields .

De Akkers is a hollow post mill in Wartena , Friesland , Netherlands which was built in 1970 and has been restored so that it can turn in the wind . It is listed as a Rijksmonument .

Richard Heinberg ( born 1950 ) is an American journalist and educator who has written extensively on energy , economic , and ecological issues , including oil depletion . He is the author of thirteen books , and presently serves as the senior fellow at the Post Carbon Institute .

Detection theory or signal detection theory is a means to quantify the ability to discern between information-bearing patterns ( called stimulus in living organisms , signal in machines ) and random patterns that distract from the information ( called noise , consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator ) . In the field of electronics , the separation of such patterns from a disguising background is referred to as signal recovery .   According to the theory , there are a number of determiners of how a detecting system will detect a signal , and where its threshold levels will be . The theory can explain how changing the threshold will affect the ability to discern , often exposing how adapted the system is to the task , purpose or goal at which it is aimed .   When the detecting system is a human being experience , expectations , physiological state ( e.g. , fatigue ) and other factors can affect the threshold applied . For instance , a sentry in wartime might be likely to detect fainter stimuli than the same sentry in peacetime due to a lower criterion , however they might also be more likely to treat innocuous stimuli as a threat .   Much of the early work in detection theory was done by radar researchers . By 1954 , the theory was fully developed on the theoretical side as described by Peterson , Birdsall and Fox and the foundation for the psychological theory was made by Wilson P. Tanner , David M. Green , and John A. Swets , also in 1954 .  Detection theory was used in 1966 by John A. Swets and David M. Green for psychophysics . Green and Swets criticized the traditional methods of psychophysics for their inability to discriminate between the real sensitivity of subjects and their ( potential ) response biases .   Detection theory has applications in many fields such as diagnostics of any kind , quality control , telecommunications , and psychology . The concept is similar to the signal to noise ratio used in the sciences and confusion matrices used in artificial intelligence . It is also usable in alarm management , where it is important to separate important events from background noise .

Reductionism refers to several related but distinct philosophical positions regarding the connections between phenomena , or theories , `` reducing '' one to another , usually considered `` simpler '' or more `` basic '' . The Oxford Companion to Philosophy suggests that it is `` one of the most used and abused terms in the philosophical lexicon '' and suggests a three part division :  Ontological reductionism : a belief that the whole of reality consists of a minimal number of parts  Methodological reductionism : the scientific attempt to provide explanation in terms of ever smaller entities  Theory reductionism : the suggestion that a newer theory does not replace or absorb the old , but reduces it to more basic terms . Theory reduction itself is divisible into three : translation , derivation and explanation .   Reductionism can be applied to objects , phenomena , explanations , theories , and meanings .   In the sciences , application of methodological reductionism attempts explanation of entire systems in terms of their individual , constituent parts and their interactions . For example , the temperature of a gas is reduced to nothing but the average kinetic energy of its molecules in motion . Thomas Nagel speaks of psychophysical reductionism ( the attempted reduction of psychological phenomena to physics and chemistry ) , as do others and physico-chemical reductionism ( the attempted reduction of biology to physics and chemistry ) , again as do others . In a very simplified and sometimes contested form , such reductionism is said to imply that a system is nothing but the sum of its parts . However , a more nuanced view is that a system is composed entirely of its parts , but the system will have features that none of the parts have . `` The point of mechanistic explanations is usually showing how the higher level features arise from the parts . ''   Other definitions are used by other authors . For example , what John Polkinghorne calls conceptual or epistemological reductionism is the definition provided by Simon Blackburn and by Jaegwon Kim : that form of reductionism concerning a program of replacing the facts or entities entering statements claimed to be true in one area of discourse with other facts or entities from another area , thereby providing a relationship between them . Such a connection is provided where the same idea can be expressed by `` levels '' of explanation , with higher levels reducible if need be to lower levels . This use of levels of understanding in part expresses our human limitations in grasping a lot of detail . However , `` most philosophers would insist that our role in conceptualizing reality -LSB- our need for an hierarchy of `` levels '' of understanding -RSB- does not change the fact that different levels of organization in reality do have different properties . ''   Reductionism strongly reflects a certain perspective on causality . In a reductionist framework , the phenomena that can be explained completely in terms of relations between other more fundamental phenomena , are called epiphenomena . Often there is an implication that the epiphenomenon exerts no causal agency on the fundamental phenomena that explain it . The epiphenomena are sometimes said to be `` nothing but '' the outcome of the workings of the fundamental phenomena , although the epiphenomena might be more clearly and efficiently described in very different terms . There is a tendency to avoid taking an epiphenomenon as being important in its own right . This attitude may extend to cases where the fundamentals are not clearly able to explain the epiphenomena , but are expected to by the speaker . In this way , for example , morality can be deemed to be `` nothing but '' evolutionary adaptation , and consciousness can be considered `` nothing but '' the outcome of neurobiological processes .   Reductionism should be distinguished from eliminationism : reductionists do not deny the existence of phenomena , but explain them in terms of another reality ; eliminationists deny the existence of the phenomena themselves . For example , eliminationists deny the existence of life by their explanation in terms of physical and chemical processes . Daniel Dennett denies the existence of consciousness .   Reductionism also does not preclude the existence of what might be called emergent phenomena , but it does imply the ability to understand those phenomena completely in terms of the processes from which they are composed . This reductionist understanding is very different from emergentism , which intends that what emerges in `` emergence '' is more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges .

David A. Johnson ( born 1952 ) is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Yeshiva University and has previously taught at UCLA , University of Missouri , and Syracuse University . Raised in Nebraska , he earned his BA from the University of Nebraska , where he studied under Robert Audi , and his PhD from Princeton University . His areas of concentration are Philosophy of Religion , Metaphysics , and Epistemology . His brother , Edward , is Professor of Philosophy at University of New Orleans .   In his first book , Hume , Holism , and Miracles , Johnson purports to have refuted David Hume 's popular argument for the irrationality of belief in testimony of miracles ( as can be found in his essay entitled `` Of Miracles '' ) as well as several reconstructions of Hume 's argument ( most notably that of Bayesian philosopher Jordan Howard Sobel ) . Subsequently , Robert Fogelin ( of Dartmouth College ) responded to Johnson 's critique of Hume in his book A Defense of Hume on Miracles .   Johnson 's second book , Truth Without Paradox , consists mostly of Johnson 's claimed resolutions of many alleged paradoxes , such as the Liar Paradox . Towards the end of the book , Johnson presents his version of the ontological argument for the existence of God . He also gives a historical argument for the validity of the Bible .

The dasymetric map is a method of thematic mapping , which uses areal symbols to spatially classify volumetric data . The method was defined and developed in 1911 by Benjamin ( Veniamin ) Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and popularised by J.K. Wright , although there are earlier references to similar techniques from George Poulett Scrope ( 1833 ) and Henry Drury Harness ( 1838 ) .


Question: There are numerous basic mistakes within Postma’s framework; his arguments do nothing to challenge the reality or significance of the atmospheric heat-trapping phenomenon.

 Critiques of Alternative Climate Models
Critiquing alternative theories regarding atmospheric heat retention, it becomes evident that certain models contain numerous fundamental flaws; they fail to challenge the established understanding of the greenhouse effect. Take, for instance, unconventional proposals attempting to redefine radiative physics without accounting for well-established principles. These attempts often overlook basic laws governing energy transfer through gases, thus undermining their credibility. Mainstream science relies heavily upon empirical evidence supporting the role of greenhouse gases in regulating planetary temperatures—a consensus reached after decades of meticulous research involving satellite measurements, historical records analysis, and sophisticated computer simulations. Contrary views suggesting otherwise typically lack rigorous scrutiny necessary for scientific validation.
Despite recent debates surrounding climate sensitivity predictions—how much warmer Earth might become under different CO2 concentration scenarios—the core mechanism behind enhanced greenhouse trapping remains undisputed among experts across various disciplines (e.g., meteorology, geophysics). Attempts to discredit this phenomenon usually involve misinterpretations of complex datasets or cherry-picking isolated facts while ignoring broader contexts provided by comprehensive studies conducted globally. Scientists continue refining existing knowledge about anthropogenic impacts on ecosystems but remain united concerning humanity’s pivotal role in current warming trends observed since preindustrial times. Robust methodologies employed throughout observational networks coupled with advanced modeling techniques allow researchers to confidently attribute recent changes largely attributable to increased GHG levels resulting predominantly from burning fossil fuels alongside deforestation practices contributing significantly less overall compared against cumulative carbon dioxide emissions generated annually around world regions experiencing rapid economic development especially Asia Pacific countries where coal continues dominating power generation mix despite growing awareness regarding long-term consequences associated excessive reliance finite resource reserves whose extraction processing transportation combustion release harmful pollutants atmosphere exacerbating air quality issues public health concerns alike.

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David John Snowden ( born 1954 ) is a Welsh management consultant and researcher in the field of knowledge management . Known for the development of the Cynefin framework , Snowden is the founder and chief scientific officer of Cognitive Edge , a Singapore-based management-consulting firm specializing in complexity and sensemaking .

Reuben Hersh ( born 1927 ) is an American mathematician and academic , best known for his writings on the nature , practice , and social impact of mathematics . This work challenges and complements mainstream philosophy of mathematics . ( `` Hersh '' is his professional or `` pen '' name . His family name is Reuben Laznovsky . )   After receiving a B.A. in English literature from Harvard University in 1946 , Hersh spent a decade writing for Scientific American and working as a machinist . After losing his right thumb when working with a band saw he decided to study mathematics at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences . In 1962 , he was awarded a Ph.D. in mathematics from New York University ; his advisor was P.D. Lax . He has been affiliated with the University of New Mexico since 1964 , where he is now professor emeritus .   Hersh has written a number of technical articles on partial differential equations , probability , random evolutions , and linear operator equations . He is the ( co ) author of four articles in Scientific American , and 12 articles in the Mathematical Intelligencer .   Hersh is best known as the coauthor with Philip J. Davis of The Mathematical Experience ( 1981 ) , which won a National Book Award in Science.This was the 1983 award for paperback Science .  From 1980 to 1983 in National Book Award history there were dual hardcover and paperback awards in most categories , and several nonfiction subcategories including General Nonfiction . Most of the paperback award-winners were reprints , including this one .   Hersh advocates what he calls a `` humanist '' philosophy of mathematics , opposed to both Platonism ( so-called `` realism '' ) and its rivals nominalism/fictionalism/formalism . He holds that mathematics is real , and its reality is social-cultural-historical , located in the shared thoughts of those who learn it , teach it , and create it . His article `` The Kingdom of Math is Within You '' ( a chapter in his `` Experiencing Mathematics , 2014 ) explains how mathematicians ' proofs compel agreement , even when they are inadequate as formal logic . He sympathizes with the perspectives on mathematics of Imre Lakatos and Where Mathematics Comes From , George Lakoff and Rafael Nunez , Basic Books .

The Realistic Manifesto is a key text of Constructivism . Written by Naum Gabo and cosigned by his brother , Antoine Pevsner , the Manifesto laid out their theories of artistic expression in the form of five `` fundamental principles '' of their constructivist practice . The Manifesto focused largely on divorcing art from such conventions as use of lines , color , volume , and mass . In the text , Gabo and Pevsner reject the successive stylistic innovations of modern art as mere illusionism ( beginning with Impressionism , and including Cubism and Futurism ) , advocating instead an art grounded in the material reality of space and time : `` The realization of our perceptions of the world in the forms of space and time is the only aim of our pictorial and plastic art . ''   The text was first published in August 5 , 1920 in poster form , on the occasion of an exhibition with Gustav Klucis in Moscow .

A Digital Postmark ( DPM ) is a technology that applies a trusted time stamps issued by a postal operator to an electronic document , validates electronic signatures , and stores and archives all non-repudiation data needed to support a potential court challenge - it guarantees the certainty of date and time of the postmarking . This global standard was renamed the Electronic Postal Certification Mark ( EPCM ) in 2007 shortly after a new iteration of the technology was developed by Microsoft and Poste Italiane . The key addition to the traditional postmarking technology was integrity of the electronically postmarked item , meaning any kind of falsification and tampering will be easily and definitely detected . Additionally , content confidentiality is guaranteed since document certification is carried out without access or reading by the postal operator . The EPCM will eventually be available through the UPU to all international postal operators in the 191 member countries willing to be compliant with this standard , thus granting interoperability in certified communications between postal operators . In the United States , the US Postal Service operates a non-global standard called the Electronic Postmark , although it is soon expected to provide services utilizing the EPCM .

Law and the Modern Mind is a 1930 book by Jerome Frank which argued that judicial decisions were more influenced by psychological factors than by objective legal premises .   Frank , then a legal academic , published the book after having undergone six months of psychoanalysis . In it , he argued against the `` basic legal myth '' that judges never make law but simply deduce legal conclusions from premises that are clear , certain , and substantially unchanging . Drawing on psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget , Frank proposed that judicial decisions were motivated primarily by the influence of psychological factors on the individual judge . Like his judicial hero , Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. , Frank urged judges and legal scholars to acknowledge openly the gaps and uncertainties in the law , and to think of law pragmatically as a tool for human betterment . The book `` dropped like a bombshell on the legal and academic world '' , quickly becoming `` a jurisprudential bestseller '' which `` was widely noticed as well as criticized '' .

Dennis Reina ( born 15 June 1950 ) is a psychologist and co-author of two books on building and rebuilding trust in the workplace . They include Trust and Betrayal in the Workplace : Building Effective Relationships in Your Organization , and the sequel , Rebuilding Trust in the Workplace : Seven Steps to Renew Confidence , Commitment , and Energy . Along with his wife , he is considered a pioneer and expert in the idea of building business trust to improve trust in workplace organizations . He is co-founder of the Reina Trust Building Institute , a consultancy that specializes in developing and restoring workplace trust . His work has been published in peer review journals , including the American Journal of Critical Care . Her work has also featured in mainstream media publications , including The New York Times , USA Today , Atlanta Journal-Constitution , CNBC , and CNN .

Repertorium der Nederlandse Wijsbegeerte is one of the major works of Professor Dr. Johannes Jacobus Poortman . This is a four-volume inventory of all publications in the Netherlands or in the Dutch language or by Dutch philosophers on philosophy . After Poortman died in 1970 the work was continued by Wim Klever . Now it can be consulted on-line as the Kennisbank Filosofie Nederland ( KFN ) .   This database contains 36,000 records about philosophy and philosophers in the Netherlands and Dutch speaking Belgium .

Deuterium ( symbol or , also known as heavy hydrogen ) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen . The nucleus of deuterium , called a deuteron , contains one proton and one neutron , whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope , protium , has no neutron in the nucleus . Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth 's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen . Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156 % ( or on a mass basis 0.0312 % ) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans , while the most common isotope ( hydrogen-1 or protium ) accounts for more than 99.98 % . The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another ( see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ) .   The deuterium isotope 's name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning `` second '' , to denote the two particles composing the nucleus . Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey . When the neutron was discovered in 1932 , this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious , and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 . Soon after deuterium 's discovery , Urey and others produced samples of `` heavy water '' in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated .   Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced . Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium . Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago , as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 ( protium ) to deuterium ( about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms ) has its origin from that time . This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets , such as Jupiter ( see references 2,3 and 4 ) . However , other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1 . This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets . Like the water-cycle in Earth 's weather , such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium . The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth 's oceans ( 156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens ) . This reinforces theories that much of Earth 's ocean water is of cometary origin . The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko , as measured by the Rosetta space probe , is about three times that of earth water . This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet .   Deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology .

Delusional misidentification syndrome is an umbrella term , introduced by Christodoulou ( in his book The Delusional Misidentification Syndromes , Karger , Basel , 1986 ) for a group of delusional disorders that occur in the context of mental or neurological illness . They all involve a belief that the identity of a person , object , or place has somehow changed or has been altered . As these delusions typically only concern one particular topic , they also fall under the category called monothematic delusions .   This syndrome is usually considered to include four main variants :  The Capgras delusion is the belief that ( usually ) a close relative or spouse has been replaced by an identical-looking impostor .  The Fregoli delusion is the belief that various people the believer meets are actually the same person in disguise .  Intermetamorphosis is the belief that people in the environment swap identities with each other whilst maintaining the same appearance .  Subjective doubles , described by Christodoulou in 1978 ( American Journal of Psychiatry 135 , 249 , 1978 ) , is the belief that there is a doppelgänger or double of him - or herself carrying out independent actions .   However , similar delusional beliefs , often singularly or more rarely reported , are sometimes also considered to be part of the delusional misidentification syndrome . For example :  Mirrored-self misidentification is the belief that one 's reflection in a mirror is some other person .  Reduplicative paramnesia is the belief that a familiar person , place , object , or body part has been duplicated . For example , a person may believe that they are in fact not in the hospital to which they were admitted , but an identical-looking hospital in a different part of the country , despite this being obviously false .  The Cotard delusion is a rare disorder in which people hold a delusional belief that they are dead ( either figuratively or literally ) , do not exist , are putrefying , or have lost their blood or internal organs . In rare instances , it can include delusions of immortality .  Syndrome of delusional companions is the belief that objects ( such as soft toys ) are sentient beings .  Clonal pluralization of the self , where a person believes there are multiple copies of him - or herself , identical both physically and psychologically but physically separate and distinct .   There is considerable evidence that disorders such as the Capgras or Fregoli syndromes are associated with disorders of face perception and recognition . However , it has been suggested that all misidentification problems exist on a continuum of anomalies of familiarity , from déjà vu at one end to the formation of delusional beliefs at the other .

The December Murders ( Dutch : Decembermoorden ) refers to the murders on 7 , 8 , and 9 December 1982 , of fifteen prominent young Surinamese men who had criticized the military dictatorship then ruling Suriname . Thirteen of these men were arrested on December 7 between 2 AM and 5 AM while sleeping in their homes ( according to reports by the families of the victims ) . The other two were Surendre Rambocus and Jiwansingh Sheombar who were already imprisoned for attempting a counter-coup in March 1982 . Soldiers of Dési Bouterse , the then dictator of Suriname , took them to Fort Zeelandia ( the then headquarters of Bouterse ) , where they were heard as ` suspects in a trial ' by Bouterse and other sergeants in a self-appointed court . After these ` hearings ' they were tortured and shot dead . The circumstances have not yet become completely clear ; on December 10 , 1982 , Bouterse claimed on national television that all of the detainees had been shot dead ` in an attempt to flee ' .   The December Murders led to international protest by numerous Western countries and human rights organizations . The former colonial power , Netherlands , immediately froze development aid . Many Surinamese civilians fled Suriname for the Netherlands .   Bouterse has long denied guilt in the December Murders . In March 2007 he accepted political responsibility for the murders , but he then also explicitly stated that he personally had not ` pulled the trigger ' to kill those fifteen men . In March 2012 , however , a former confidant of Bouterse testified under oath that Bouterse himself had shot two of the victims .