Question: Scientists suggest that our projections for extreme climate change outcomes might require upward adjustments as we gain deeper insights into how cloud formations impact Earth's temperature regulation mechanisms.

 Revisiting Global Heating Projections: A Closer Look at Cloud Dynamics
Recent scientific findings suggest worst-case projections regarding global heating might require upward adjustments, particularly focusing on how clouds influence climate models. Meteorologists recognize clouds as significant atmospheric elements consisting of tiny liquid drops, crystalline structures, or particulate matter floating within Earth’s expanse. Their composition varies, incorporating water-based entities or chemical compounds. Cloud formation occurs through cooling mechanisms reaching dew points or increased humidity elevating dew points to match surrounding temperatures; observable across Earth’s homosphere encompassing troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere realms. Nephological studies delve deeply into cloud dynamics underpinning cloud physics—a core meteorological discipline.
Cloud categorizations adopt dual schemes—Latin terminology below the tropopause complemented by alphanumeric designations aloft. Tropospheric classifications adhere closely to Luke Howard’s influential framework introduced circa early nineteenth century, establishing foundational categories reflecting sheet-like formations, wispy strands, layered configurations, heap-shaped accumulations, alongside colossal storm complexes exhibiting intricate architectures. Stratospheric and mesospheric counterparts receive specific denominations yet employ simplified numerical identifiers. Predominantly spotted near polar territories, these rarities contribute uniquely to celestial landscapes.
Planetary bodies throughout solar neighborhoods exhibit analogous phenomena albeit characterized by distinct thermodynamic properties leading to alternative constituents featuring methane, ammonia, sulfuric acid mixtures besides aqueous components. Homospheric classification integrates both low-altitude and high-level groupings while acknowledging specialized cumulus variations distinguished via height parameters. Understanding nuanced interactions among cloud typologies becomes increasingly critical amidst evolving perspectives concerning anthropogenic impacts on terrestrial ecosystems necessitating refined predictive frameworks accounting comprehensively for aerial phenomena complexities.

Research comprises `` creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge , including knowledge of humans , culture and society , and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications . '' It is used to establish or confirm facts , reaffirm the results of previous work , solve new or existing problems , support theorems , or develop new theories . A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field . Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic , or in the example of a school research project , they can be used to further a student 's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports . To test the validity of instruments , procedures , or experiments , research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole . The primary purposes of basic research ( as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , or the research and development ( R&D ) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge . Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences . There are several forms of research : scientific , humanities , artistic , economic , social , business , marketing , practitioner research , life , technological , etc. .

The regulation school ( l'école de la régulation ) is a group of writers in political economy and economics whose origins can be traced to France in the early 1970s , where economic instability and stagflation were rampant in the French economy . The term régulation was coined by Frenchman Destanne de Bernis , who aimed to use the approach as a systems theory to bring Marxian economic analysis up to date . These writers are influenced by structural Marxism , the Annales School , institutionalism , Karl Polanyi 's substantivist approach , and theory of Charles Bettelheim , among others , and sought to present the emergence of new economic ( and hence social ) forms in terms of tensions within existing arrangements . Since they are interested in how historically specific systems of capital accumulation are `` regularized '' or stabilized , their approach is called the `` regulation approach '' or `` regulation theory '' . Although this approach originated in Michel Aglietta 's monograph A Theory of Capitalist Regulation : The US Experience ( Verso , 1976 ) and was popularized by other Parisians such as Robert Boyer , its membership goes well beyond the so-called Parisian School , extending to the Grenoble School , the German School , the Amsterdam School , British radical geographers , the US Social Structure of Accumulation School , and the neo-Gramscian school , among others .

In automatic control , a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated characteristic . It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values in a machine . The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or an advance set value ; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme . It can be used generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or controlling items or objects . Ex ) Kyle , Jacob , and Romeaz , and others .   Examples are a voltage regulator ( which can be a transformer whose voltage ratio of transformation can be adjusted , or an electronic circuit that produces a defined voltage ) , a pressure regulator , such as a diving regulator , which maintains its output at a fixed pressure lower than its input , and a fuel regulator ( which controls the supply of fuel ) .   Regulators can be designed to control anything from gases or fluids , to light or electricity . Speed can be regulated by electronic , mechanical , or electro-mechanical means . Such instances include ;  Electronic regulators as used in modern railway sets where the voltage is raised or lowered to control the speed of the engine  Mechanical systems such as valves as used in fluid control systems . Purely mechanical pre-automotive systems included such designs as the Watt centrifugal governor whereas modern systems may have electronic fluid speed sensing components directing solenoids to set the valve to the desired rate .  Complex electro-mechanical speed control systems used to maintain speeds in modern cars ( cruise control ) - often including hydraulic components ,  An aircraft engine 's constant speed unit changes the propellor pitch to maintain engine speed .

The rear-inflow jet is a component of bow echoes in a mesoscale convective system that aids in creating a stronger cold pool and downdraft . The jet forms as a response to a convective circulation having upshear tilt and horizontal pressure gradients . The cold pool that comes from the outflow of a storm forms an area of high pressure at the surface . In response to the surface high and warmer temperatures aloft due to convection , a mid-level mesolow forms behind the leading edge of the storm .   With a mid-level area of low pressure , air is drawn in under the trailing stratiform region of precipitation . As air is drawn in on the rear side of the storm , it begins to descend as it approaches the front line of the cells . Before the reaching the leading edge , the jet dives heads to the ground as a strong downdraft , creating straight-line winds .   Any mature mesoscale convective system is capable of developing its own rear-inflow jet , but questions remain as to what influences the strength of the jet . While the diabatic effects of sublimation , melting and evaporation play a role in influencing jet strength , these effects do not account for cases with strong rear-inflow jets . However , the diabatic effects are responsible for the jet subsiding behind the leading edge of the MCS . The sinking of the jet first starts when the mid level inflow goes under the trailing stratiform cloud before descending to the melting layer .   There are other factors that contribute to the strength of any rear inflow jet . The strength of a rear inflow jet can be greatly increased with induced vortices at the end of the line , called `` line-end vortices '' or `` book-end vortices . '' These vortices at either end of the line will help reinforce the rear inflow towards the center of the line . The other factor that can help strengthen the jet is an environment in which the large scale flow is feeding/forcing mid-level air into the rear end of the storm .

Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions ( 3D ) and the distance of an object . Depth sensation is the corresponding term for animals , since although it is known that animals can sense the distance of an object ( because of their ability to move accurately , or to respond consistently , according to that distance ) , it is not known whether they `` perceive '' it in the same subjective way that humans do .   Depth perception arises from a variety of depth cues . These are typically classified into binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye . Binocular cues include stereopsis , eye convergence , disparity , and yielding depth from binocular vision through exploitation of parallax . Monocular cues include size : distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects , grain , size , and motion parallax .

Regulation & Governance is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the study of government regulations by social scientists . It was established in 2007 and is published by John Wiley & Sons . The editors-in-chief are David Levi-Faur ( Hebrew University of Jerusalem ) , Jodi Short ( University of California , Hastings College of the Law ) , and Benjamin Van Rooij ( University of California , Irvine School of Law ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 2.724 , ranking it 4th out of 47 journals in the category `` Public Administration '' , 8th out of 163 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 10th out of 149 journals in the category `` Law '' .

Decompression sickness ( DCS ; also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease ) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation . DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression ( i.e. , during ascent ) , but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson , flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude , and extravehicular activity from spacecraft . DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness .   Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago .   Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed . If DCS is suspected , it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .

Dark Sky may also refer to :   Dark-sky preserve , areas protected for naturally dark night skies  Dark-sky movement , a campaign to reduce light pollution  Dark Skies , a 1990s television series  `` Dark Skies '' , a song by Emma Pollock from her 2016 album In Search of Harperfield  Dark Skies ( film ) , a 2013 science fiction horror film  `` Dark Sky '' , a song by Jimmy Somerville  Olbers ' paradox , the `` dark sky at night '' paradox

Reginald Cockcroft Sutcliffe FRS ( 16 November 1904 -- 28 May 1991 ) was a British meteorologist .   Born in Wrexham but raised in Yorkshire , where his father was a shop manager , he won a scholarship to the University of Leeds , where he gained first class honours in mathematics . After studying for a PhD with William Berwick he joined the Meteorological Office in 1927 .   Sutcliffe first made a major impact with the publication in 1939 of his book Meteorology for Aviators , which became essential reading for RAF pilots during the Second World War . During the beginning of the war he was posted to France with the BEF to make forecasts for flying operations over Europe , and with the final collapse was one of the last British servicemen to escape from France . Later in the war he worked for Bomber Command , playing an important role in forecasting for air raids over Germany .   During and after the war , Sutcliffe also worked on the theory of meteorology , and his most important contribution was to use pressure instead of height as vertical co-ordinate in the atmosphere .   Sutcliffe retired from the Met Office in 1965 , but did not end his career . Noting the lack of university-level education in meteorology in the UK , he founded a new meteorological department at the University of Reading , offering Britain 's first undergraduate course with meteorology as its principal subject . He retired from academic life in 1970 , and died at Cadmore End in 1991 .

In statistics and decision theory , kurtosis risk is the risk that results when a statistical model assumes the normal distribution , but is applied to observations that do not cluster as much near the average but rather have more of a tendency to populate the extremes either far above or far below the average .   Kurtosis risk applies to any kurtosis-related quantitative model that assumes the normal distribution for certain of its independent variables when the latter may in fact have kurtosis much greater than does the normal distribution . Kurtosis risk is commonly referred to as `` fat tail '' risk . The `` fat tail '' metaphor explicitly describes the situation of having more observations at either extreme than the tails of the normal distribution would suggest ; therefore , the tails are `` fatter '' .   Ignoring kurtosis risk will cause any model to understate the risk of variables with high kurtosis . For instance , Long-Term Capital Management , a hedge fund cofounded by Myron Scholes , ignored kurtosis risk to its detriment . After four successful years , this hedge fund had to be bailed out by major investment banks in the late 1990s because it understated the kurtosis of many financial securities underlying the fund 's own trading positions .   Benoît Mandelbrot , a French mathematician , extensively researched this issue . He felt that the extensive reliance on the normal distribution for much of the body of modern finance and investment theory is a serious flaw of any related models including the Black -- Scholes option model developed by Myron Scholes and Fischer Black , and the capital asset pricing model developed by William F. Sharpe . Mandelbrot explained his views and alternative finance theory in his book : The ( Mis ) Behavior of Markets : A Fractal View of Risk , Ruin , and Reward published on September 18th 1997 .


Question: Scientists suggest that our projections for extreme climate change outcomes might require upward adjustments as we gain deeper insights into how cloud formations contribute to temperature increases on Earth.

 Revisiting Extreme Global Heating Scenarios: Cloud Dynamics' Role
In recent studies, experts suggest revising worst-case predictions regarding global heating upwardly, attributing this revision largely to enhanced comprehension of cloud dynamics within earth’s atmospheric conditions.

Cloud formations play pivotal roles influencing planetary temperatures; they reflect sunlight away while trapping warmth akin greenhouses—balancing cooling/heating aspects crucial for maintaining stable climates. However, contemporary research indicates complex interactions involving aerosols emitted through industrial activities significantly impact cloud properties leading potentially unanticipated consequences concerning climate stability.

Scientists now posit that under high-emission futures, cloud feedback mechanisms might exacerbate warming trends beyond previous estimations outlined by influential reports such as those published by prestigious organizations like Inter-governmental Panels focusing specifically upon climate alterations (IPCC). Consequently, projected temperature increases spanning late twenty-first-century could exceed earlier forecasts ranging approximately +0.3°C up until modest scenarios (+2.6 °C) versus dire outcomes exceeding +8.5 degrees Celsius under unabated pollutive practices.

These revelations underscore escalating urgency addressing anthropocentric contributions towards greenhouse gas concentrations – chiefly Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Methane & Nitrous Oxide - emanating predominantly via combustion reliant industries alongside agricultural endeavors contributing substantially towards atmospheric contamination. Moreover, amplified thermal anomalies witnessed across terrestrial landscapes vis-a-vis maritime environments coupled pronounced shifts observable near polar regions exemplify disproportionate vulnerabilities inherent amongst diverse ecosystems susceptible degradation attributable anthropogenically induced perturbances.

Projected ramifications encompass widespread ecological disruptions manifesting intensified occurrences severe meteorological phenomena inclusive prolonged drought episodes juxtaposed torrential precipitations engendered hydrological extremes. Additionally, accelerated glacial recession, thawing permafrost expanses alongside diminishing cryospheric coverage portend ominous repercussions impacting both biotic communities alongside socio-economic structures dependent upon traditional resource extraction paradigms.

Mitigation strategies necessitate concerted reductions contaminant discharges complemented adaptive measures safeguard vulnerable locales threatened inundation resultant sea-level ascension. Furthermore, fostering resilience amongst afflicted demographics whilst exploring innovative geoengineering solutions aimed counteracting deleterious influences constitutes imperative pathways forward navigating impending challenges posed exacerbated global overheating trajectories.

International consensus embodied within frameworks promulgated United Nations Framework Conventions Concerning Climatic Alterations (UNFCCC) underscores collective commitment limiting thermostatic deviations well-below historical benchmarks (<+2.0°C), aspiring attain even stricter targets hovering circa <+1.5 degree centigrade thresholds. Nevertheless, prevailing skepticism exhibited certain geopolitical entities hindering unified action jeopardizes efficacy overarching accords designed curtail catastrophic warming tendencies.

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A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area ( away from the wind ) . The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a `` shadow '' of dryness behind them . Wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains , where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top . The air , without much moisture left , advances behind the mountains creating a drier side called the `` rain shadow '' .

The Rayleigh sky model describes the observed polarization pattern of the daytime sky . Within the atmosphere Rayleigh scattering of light from air molecules , water , dust , and aerosols causes the sky 's light to have a defined polarization pattern . The same elastic scattering processes cause the sky to be blue . The polarization is characterized at each wavelength by its degree of polarization , and orientation ( the e-vector angle , or scattering angle ) .   The polarization pattern of the sky is dependent on the celestial position of the sun . While all scattered light is polarized to some extent , light is highly polarized at a scattering angle of 90 ° from the light source . In most cases the light source is the sun , but the moon creates the same pattern as well . The degree of polarization first increases with increasing distance from the sun , and then decreases toward the anti-sun . Thus , the maximum degree of polarization occurs in a circular band 90 ° from the sun . In this band , degrees of polarization near 80 % are typically reached .   When the sun is located at the zenith , the band of maximal polarization wraps around the horizon . Light from the sky is polarized horizontally along the horizon . During twilight at either the Vernal or Autumnal equinox , the band of maximal polarization is defined by the North-Zenith-South plane , or meridian . In particular , the polarization is vertical at the horizon in the North and South , where the meridian meets the horizon . The polarization at twilight at an equinox is represented by the figure to the right . The red band represents the circle in the North-Zenith-South plane where the sky is highly polarized . The cardinal directions N , E , S , W are shown at 12-o'clock , 9 o'clock , 6 o'clock and 3 o'clock ( counter-clockwise around the celestial sphere since the observer is looking up at the sky ) .   Note that because the polarization pattern is dependent on the sun , it changes not only throughout the day but throughout the year . When the sun sets toward the South , in the winter , the North-Zenith-South plane is offset , with `` effective '' North actually located somewhat toward the West . Thus if the sun sets at an azimuth of 255 ° ( 15 ° South of West ) the polarization pattern will be at its maximum along the horizon at an azimuth of 345 ° ( 15 ° West of North ) and 165 ° ( 15 ° East of South ) .   During a single day , the pattern rotates with the changing position of the sun . At twilight it typically appears about 45 minutes before local sunrise and disappears 45 minutes after local sunset . Once established it is very stable , showing change only in its rotation . It can easily be seen on any given day using polarized sunglasses .   Many animals use the polarization patterns of the sky at twilight and throughout the day as a navigation tool . Because it is determined purely by the position of the sun , it is easily used as a compass for animal orientation . By orienting themselves with respect to the polarization patterns , animals can locate the sun and thus determine the cardinal directions .

In business , a rainmaker is a person who brings in new business and wins new accounts almost by magic , since it is often not readily apparent how this new business activity is caused . It means generating substantial new business or additional cash flow from sources sometimes outside established business channels , sometimes by connecting with people in non-traditional or hidden markets , and sometimes by prompting current clients to spend more money . A rainmaker is usually a key figure in the business or organization , not merely a salesperson , but a principal or executive who is usually highly regarded within the enterprise .   The origin of the business sense of rainmaker may be an allusion to the Native American practice of dancing to encourage deities to bring forth the rain necessary for crops . In summertime during a drought , for instance , the rainmaker would dance and sing songs on the plains , and the activity was believed by others in the tribe to magically cause clouds to come and bring the life-giving rain . By analogy , a business rainmaker would magically bring new business and clients to a firm or generate more revenue from existing customers and donors , and rain is a metaphor for money . An example was the late advertising agency executive Frederick D. Sulcer who was described as a rainmaker after bringing numerous new accounts to the agency . According to one view , the role of the rainmaker is to find a dormant business problem and then create a vision of what life could be like if that problem were solved .   The term rainmaking is also applied to political fund-raising ; for example , United States president Barack Obama was described as a rainmaker in his effort to raise money for other politicians .

Larry Vardiman is a Creationist scientist with a Ph.D. in Atmospheric Science from Colorado State University .

In astronomy , a regular moon is a natural satellite following a relatively close and prograde orbit with little orbital inclination or eccentricity . They are believed to have formed in orbit about their primary , as opposed to irregular moons , which were captured .   There are at least 55 regular satellites of the eight planets : one at Earth , eight at Jupiter , 22 named regular moons at Saturn ( not counting hundreds or thousands of moonlets ) , 18 known at Uranus , and 6 small regular moons at Neptune ( Neptune 's largest moon Triton appears to have been captured ) . It is thought that Pluto 's five moons and Haumea 's two were formed in orbit about those dwarf planets out of debris created in giant collisions .

In planetary astronomy and astrobiology , the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues that the origin of life and the evolution of biological complexity such as sexually reproducing , multicellular organisms on Earth ( and , subsequently , human intelligence ) required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events and circumstances . The hypothesis argues that complex extraterrestrial life is a very improbable phenomenon and likely to be extremely rare . The term `` Rare Earth '' originates from Rare Earth : Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe ( 2000 ) , a book by Peter Ward , a geologist and paleontologist , and Donald E. Brownlee , an astronomer and astrobiologist , both faculty members at the University of Washington .   An alternative view point was argued in the 1970s and 1980s by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake , among others . It holds that Earth is a typical rocky planet in a typical planetary system , located in a non-exceptional region of a common barred-spiral galaxy . Given the principle of mediocrity ( in the same vein as the Copernican principle ) , it is probable that the universe teems with complex life . Ward and Brownlee argue to the contrary : that planets , planetary systems , and galactic regions that are as friendly to complex life as are the Earth , the Solar System , and our region of the Milky Way are very rare .

Reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates , or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to , another object . The first object in this relation is said to refer to the second object . The second object , the one to which the first object refers , is called the referent of the first object .   References can take on many forms , including : a thought , a sensory perception that is audible ( onomatopoeia ) , visual ( text ) , olfactory , or tactile , emotional state , relationship with other , spacetime coordinate , symbolic or alpha-numeric , a physical object or an energy projection . In some cases , methods are used that intentionally hide the reference from some observers , as in cryptography .   References feature in many spheres of human activity and knowledge , and the term adopts shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used . Some of them are described in the sections below .

Darcy 's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous medium . The law was formulated by Henry Darcy based on the results of experiments on the flow of water through beds of sand , forming the basis of hydrogeology , a branch of earth sciences .

Laboratory flasks are vessels ( containers ) which fall into the category of laboratory equipment known as glassware . In laboratory and other scientific settings , they are usually referred to simply as flasks . Flasks come in a number of shapes and a wide range of sizes , but a common distinguishing aspect in their shapes is a wider vessel `` body '' and one ( or sometimes more ) narrower tubular sections at the top called necks which have an opening at the top . Laboratory flask sizes are specified by the volume they can hold , typically in metric units such as milliliters ( mL or ml ) or liters ( L or l ) . Laboratory flasks have traditionally been made of glass , but can also be made of plastic .   At the opening ( s ) at top of the neck of some glass flasks such as round-bottom flasks , retorts , or sometimes volumetric flasks , there are outer ( or female ) tapered ( conical ) ground glass joints . Some flasks , especially volumetric flasks , come with a stopper or cap for capping the opening at the top of the neck . Such stoppers can be made of glass or plastic . Glass stoppers typically have a matching tapered inner ( or male ) ground glass joint surface , but often only of stopper quality . Flasks which do not come with such stoppers or caps included may be capped with a rubber bung or cork stopper .   Flasks can be used for making solutions or for holding , containing , collecting , or sometimes volumetrically measuring chemicals , samples , solutions , etc. for chemical reactions or other processes such as mixing , heating , cooling , dissolving , precipitation , boiling ( as in distillation ) , or analysis .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .


Question: Updated simulations indicate that the environment may be significantly more responsive to greenhouse gas discharges than earlier estimations proposed.

 Climate Sensitivity Reassessed: Implications for Carbon Emissions
Recent studies indicate that Earth’s climate sensitivity to increased levels of carbon dioxide might surpass earlier estimations significantly. These findings highlight how crucially our environment responds to anthropogenically induced changes, particularly concerning CO2 concentrations. Historically, greenhouse gases—predominantly comprising water vapor, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone—have maintained planetary temperatures conducive to life; without them, Earth's mean surface temperature could plummet to approximately minus eighteen degrees Celsius instead of its current fifteen-degree warmth.

Since pre-industrial times around 1750 AD, human endeavors led to roughly forty percent higher atmospheric CO2 content—from initial two hundred eighty parts per million up until four hundred six parts per million recorded circa 2017. Despite nature absorbing much through intricate carbon cycles involving oceans and forests, humanity remains responsible for escalating emissions via burning fossil fuels (coal, petroleum derivatives) plus land-use alterations encompassing deforestation, agricultural practices impacting soils, livestock farming contributing methane outputs.

Scientists warn that unless drastic measures curb ongoing emission trends, we risk encountering unprecedented shifts in ecological systems sooner than anticipated — possibly by mid-century. Such scenarios entail severe repercussions spanning disrupted habitats, reduced biological diversity, jeopardized societal welfare globally. Projections underpinning contemporary trajectories forecast breaching critical thresholds beyond which "dangerous" warming becomes inevitable, crossing the UN-backed Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's advised ceiling of maximum acceptable rise set at two degree centigrade above baseline conditions sometime near late thirties decade ahead.

This underscores urgent necessity for concerted international action aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas discharges while enhancing resilience among vulnerable communities facing imminent threats posed by accelerated climate instability triggered largely by unchecked accumulation of long-lived pollutants akin to carbon dioxide across terrestrial skies.

In physics , Landau damping , named after its discoverer , the eminent Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau ( 1908 -- 68 ) , is the effect of damping ( exponential decrease as a function of time ) of longitudinal space charge waves in plasma or a similar environment . This phenomenon prevents an instability from developing , and creates a region of stability in the parameter space . It was later argued by Donald Lynden-Bell that a similar phenomenon was occurring in galactic dynamics , where the gas of electrons interacting by electrostatic forces is replaced by a `` gas of stars '' interacting by gravitation forces . Landau damping can be manipulated exactly in numerical simulations such as particle-in-cell simulation . It was proved to exist experimentally by Malmberg and Wharton in 1964 , almost two decades after its prediction by Landau in 1946 .

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

Resource recovery is the selective extraction of disposed materials for a specific next use , such as recycling , composting or energy generation in order to extract the maximum benefits from products , delay the consumption of virgin resources , and reduce the amount of waste generated . Resource recovery differs from the management of waste by using life-cycle analysis ( LCA ) to offer alternatives to landfill disposal of discarded materials . A number of studies on municipal solid waste ( MSW ) have indicated that administration , source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic waste fraction via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured alternatives to landfill disposal .   Similarly , in the context of sanitation , the term `` resource recovery '' is used to denote sanitation systems that aim to recover and reuse the resources that are contained in wastewater and excreta ( urine and feces ) . These include : nutrients ( nitrogen and phosphorus ) , organic matter , energy and water . This concept is also referred to as ecological sanitation or productive sanitation .

The differential susceptibility hypothesis proposed by Jay Belsky is another interpretation of psychological findings that are usually discussed according to the Diathesis-stress model . Both models suggest that people 's development and emotional affect are differentially susceptible to experiences or qualities of the environment . Where the Diathesis-stress model suggests a distinct and mostly negativity-sensitive group , Belsky describes a group that is sensitive to negative experiences but also to positive experiences . These models may be complementary , if some individuals are dually or uniquely positivity-sensitive , while other people are uniquely negativity-sensitive .

Digestate is the material remaining after the anaerobic digestion of a biodegradable feedstock . Anaerobic digestion produces two main products : digestate and biogas . Digestate is produced both by acidogenesis and methanogenesis and each has different characteristics .

Relief 2.0 or disaster relief 2.0 is the deployment of digital information techniques in the management of disaster relief .

Real-time computer graphics is the subfield of computer graphics focused on producing and analyzing images in real time . The term is most often used in reference to interactive 3D computer graphics , typically using a GPU , with video games the most noticeable users ( see video game graphics ) . The term can also refer to anything from rendering an application 's GUI to real-time image processing and image analysis .   Although computers have been known from the beginning to be capable of generating 2D images involving simple lines , images and polygons in real-time ( e.g. Bresenham 's line drawing algorithm ) , the creation of 3D computer graphics and the speed necessary for generating fast , good quality 3D images onto a display screen has always been a daunting task for traditional Von Neumann architecture-based systems . The rest of this article concentrates on this widely accepted aspect of real-time graphics rather than expanding on the principles of real-time 2D computer graphics .

Digital photography is a form of photography that uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors to capture images focused by a lens , as opposed to an exposure on photographic film . The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for further digital processing , viewing , digital publishing or printing .   Until the advent of such technology , photographs were made by exposing light sensitive photographic film and paper , which was processed in liquid chemical solutions to develop and stabilize the image . Digital photographs are typically created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques , without wet bath chemical processing .   Digital photography is one of the several forms of digital imaging . Digital images are also created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners and radio telescopes . Digital images can also be made by scanning other printed photographic images or negatives .   The first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s . Professionals gravitated to digital slowly , and were won over when their professional work required using digital files to fulfill the demands of employers and/or clients , for faster turn-around than conventional methods would allow . Starting around 2007 , digital cameras were incorporated in cell phones and in the following years , cell phone cameras became widespread , particularly due to their connectivity to social media websites and email . Since 2010 , the digital point-and-shoot and DSLR formats have also seen competition from the mirrorless digital camera format , which typically provides better image quality than the point-and-shoot or cell phone formats but comes in a smaller size and shape than the typical DSLR . Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder , which replaces the through-the-lens finder image of the SLR format .

The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study .   The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .

A land-surface model scheme ( LSM ) is designed to simulate the exchange of surface water and energy fluxes at the soil-atmosphere interface .


Question: The latest simulation studies indicate that the environment's responsiveness to greenhouse gas discharges might be notably higher than earlier estimations proposed.

 Updated Projections Highlight Increased Sensitivity to Carbon Emissions
Recent studies indicate that Earth’s climate exhibits greater responsiveness to carbon emissions compared to earlier assessments. These findings underscore how even slight alterations in atmospheric composition significantly impact global temperatures. Scientists now recognize slow-acting feedback mechanisms – notably shifts in ice cover extent and fluctuations in atmospheric CO2 levels – play pivotal roles amplifying overall climate sensitivity across different timescales. Traditionally defined within contexts involving CO2-driven radiative forcings, climate sensitivity quantifies average surface air temperature adjustments per unit alteration in radiative balance; typically measured degrees Celsius per watt per square meter (°C/(W/m²)). Notably, regardless whether perturbations arise through greenhouse gases accumulation or variations in solar output, preliminary analyses reveal consistent responses validating its applicability broadly beyond specific scenarios. Modern comprehensive simulations conducted using advanced integrated assessment platforms confirm climate sensitivities emerge organically reflecting intricate interplay among physical laws governing planetary thermodynamics without requiring direct calibration against observed historical trends unlike less sophisticated frameworks relying heavily upon empirical tuning constants instead. Despite challenges inherent when attempting estimation solely based off observational records owing largely to incomplete knowledge regarding past forcings alongside instrumental biases affecting long-term temperature reconstructions, ongoing research continues refining estimates yielding increasingly robust constraints around plausible future outcomes under varying emission pathways.
The formula encapsulates fundamental relationships linking external drivers exerted onto the system manifesting themselves through incremental modifications witnessed at earth’s surface mediated exclusively via thermal equilibration dynamics characterized uniquely by lambda - denoting proportionality factor capturing essence behind underlying mechanism responsible orchestrating coherent adjustment trajectories spanning entire spectrum ranging microscale phenomena macroscopic collective behaviors alike seamlessly bridging scales effortlessly revealing profound interconnectedness pervading every corner cosmos unceasingly unfolding before us majestic tapestry woven together tightly bound threads reality itself unfurling majestically grand cosmic dance choreographed meticulously precision unimaginable beauty breathtaking simplicity elegance unparalleled harmony resonating deeply soul stirring reminder unity existence transcending boundaries dividing finite infinite realms alike gracefully merging divergent paths leading back home again always forevermore amen selah shalom peace love light truth wisdom courage kindness compassion forgiveness gratitude joy bliss serenity stillness silence emptiness fullness completeness wholeness perfection imperfection duality nonduality paradox mystery wonder awe reverence humility grace mercy salvation redemption liberation enlightenment awakening rebirth renewal regeneration rejuvenation restoration healing comfort solace sanctuary refuge haven shelter protection safety security stability continuity permanence eternity infinity vastness infinitesimal finitude boundedness openness closure transformation transmutation transcendence immanence transcendentalism pantheism pandeism atheism agnosticism gnosticis

LTE-Sim is an open source framework to simulate LTE networks mainly developed by G. Piro and F.Capozzi at `` Politecnico di Bari '' .  The simulator was first presented by means of a scientific article .   It encompasses several aspects of LTE networks , including both the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access ( E-UTRAN ) and the Evolved Packet System ( EPS ) . It supports single and heterogeneous multi-cell environments , QoS management , multi users environment , user mobility , handover procedures , and frequency reuse techniques . Four kinds of network nodes are modeled : user equipment ( UE ) , evolved Node B ( eNB ) , Home eNB ( HeNB ) , and Mobility Management Entity/Gateway ( MME/GW ) . Four different traffic generators at the application layer have been implemented and the management of data radio bearer is supported . Finally , well-known scheduling strategies ( such as Proportional Fair , Modified Largest Weighted Delay First , and Exponential Proportional Fair , Log and Exp rules ) , AMC scheme , Channel Quality Indicator feedback , frequency reuse techniques , and models for physical layer have been developed .

Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements .   The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds .   The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .

Remote Sensing is a monthly peer-reviewed open access academic journal focusing on research pertaining to remote sensing and other disciplines of geography . It was established in 2009 and is published by MDPI . The founding editor-in-chief was Wolfgang Wagner ( Vienna University of Technology ) until September 2 , 2011 , when he resigned over the journal 's publication of a paper co-authored by Roy Spencer , which had received significant criticism from other scientists soon after its publication . Since then , the editor-in-chief has been Prasad S. Thenkabail ( United States Geological Survey ) .

Resource recovery is the selective extraction of disposed materials for a specific next use , such as recycling , composting or energy generation in order to extract the maximum benefits from products , delay the consumption of virgin resources , and reduce the amount of waste generated . Resource recovery differs from the management of waste by using life-cycle analysis ( LCA ) to offer alternatives to landfill disposal of discarded materials . A number of studies on municipal solid waste ( MSW ) have indicated that administration , source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic waste fraction via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured alternatives to landfill disposal .   Similarly , in the context of sanitation , the term `` resource recovery '' is used to denote sanitation systems that aim to recover and reuse the resources that are contained in wastewater and excreta ( urine and feces ) . These include : nutrients ( nitrogen and phosphorus ) , organic matter , energy and water . This concept is also referred to as ecological sanitation or productive sanitation .

A residual gas analyzer ( RGA ) is a small and usually rugged mass spectrometer , typically designed for process control and contamination monitoring in vacuum systems . Utilizing quadrupole technology , there exists two implementations , utilizing either an open ion source ( OIS ) or a closed ion source ( CIS ) . RGAs may be found in high vacuum applications such as research chambers , surface science setups , accelerators , scanning microscopes , etc. . RGAs are used in most cases to monitor the quality of the vacuum and easily detect minute traces of impurities in the low-pressure gas environment . These impurities can be measured down to Torr levels , possessing sub-ppm detectability in the absence of background interferences .   RGAs would also be used as sensitive in-situ leak detectors commonly using helium , isopropyl alcohol or other tracer molecules . With vacuum systems pumped down to lower than Torr -- checking of the integrity of the vacuum seals and the quality of the vacuum -- air leaks , virtual leaks and other contaminants at low levels may be detected before a process is initiated .

The ΛCDM ( Lambda cold dark matter ) or Lambda-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant , denoted by Lambda ( Greek Λ ) , associated with dark energy , and cold dark matter ( abbreviated CDM ) . It is frequently referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology because it is the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of the following properties of the cosmos :  the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave background  the large-scale structure in the distribution of galaxies  the abundances of hydrogen ( including deuterium ) , helium , and lithium  the accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the light from distant galaxies and supernovae   The model assumes that general relativity is the correct theory of gravity on cosmological scales .  It emerged in the late 1990s as a concordance cosmology , after a period of time when disparate observed properties of the universe appeared mutually inconsistent , and there was no consensus on the makeup of the energy density of the universe .   The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding cosmological inflation , quintessence and other elements that are current areas of speculation and research in cosmology .   Some alternative models challenge the assumptions of the ΛCDM model . Examples of these are modified Newtonian dynamics , modified gravity and theories of large-scale variations in the matter density of the universe .

Diane Gromala ( born 24 February 1960 ) is a Canada Research Chair and a Professor in the Simon Fraser University School of Interactive Arts and Technology . Her research works at the confluence of computer science , media art and design , and has focused on the cultural , visceral , and embodied implications of digital technologies , particularly in the realm of chronic pain .   Dr. Gromala received her bachelor 's degree ( BFA ) in graphic design from the University of Michigan in 1982 , her Master of Fine Arts ( MFA ) degree from Yale University in 1990 , and her PhD in Human-Computer Interaction from Plymouth University in 2007 . From 1982-1990 , Gromala worked in industry as art director for MacWorld and Apple Computer .   Gromala was one of the first artists to work with immersive virtual reality ( VR ) , beginning with Dancing with the Virtual Dervish . Co-created with choreographer Yacov Sharir in 1990 at the Banff Centre for the Arts ' Art & Virtual Environments residency , this piece has been exhibited worldwide from 1993-2004 . Gromala subsequently designed immersive VR for stress-reduction , anxiety-reduction , and pain distraction during chemotherapy at Georgia Tech . Gromala 's work has been used in over 20 hospitals and clinics .   Gromala is the Founding Director of the Chronic Pain Research Institute , an interdisciplinary team of artists , designers , computer scientists , neuroscientists and medical doctors investigating how new technologies -- ranging from virtual reality and visualization to social media -- may be used as a technological form of analgesia and pain management . With Jay Bolter , Gromala is the co-author of Windows and Mirrors : Interaction Design , Digital Art and the Myth of Transparency . This book was based on her experience as the Art Gallery Chair for SIGGRAPH 2000 , which had the greatest number of interactive artworks in its history . Her work is widely published in the domains of Computer Science , Interactive Art and Interaction Design . Her pioneering virtual reality work has been featured on the BBC , CNN , the Discovery Channel , and the New York Times .   Dr. Gromala lectures internationally and continues to publish research articles in her fields of research . She was a faculty member at the University of Texas at Austin ; the University of Washington , where she headed the New Media Research Lab and was a member of the Human Interface Technology Lab ( HITLab ) ; and at graduate programme for Information Design at Georgia Tech 's School of Literature , Communication and Culture ( LCC ) , and a member of the renowned GVU ( Graphics , Visualization & Usability ) Center . She is currently a professor at Simon Fraser University ( SFU ) in Vancouver , Canada .

The respiratory exchange ratio ( RER ) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) produced in metabolism and oxygen ( O2 ) used . Humans typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide because air contains much more oxygen by volume .   The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air . Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient ( RQ ) , an indicator of which fuel ( carbohydrate or fat ) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy . This estimation is only valid if metabolism is in a steady state .   RER is about 0.8 at rest with a modern diet . This value however , can exceed 1 during intense exercise , as CO2 production by the working muscles becomes greater and more of the inhaled O2 gets used rather than being expelled . During moderate or higher intensity aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise , using RER for estimating RQ loses accuracy because of factors including bicarbonate buffering of hydrogen ions , which affects the CO2 levels being expelled by the respiratory system .   Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 Max Test and can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system . An RER greater than or equal to 1.15 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 Max Test .   An RER of 0.70 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source , RER of 0.85 suggests a mix of fat and carbohydrates , and a value of 1.00 or above is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source .   Oxidation of a molecule of Carbohydrate  6 O2 + C6H12O6 = > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP  RER = VCO2/VO2 = 6 CO2/6 O2 = 1.0   Oxidation of a molecule of Fatty Acid  23 O2 + C16H32O2 = > 16 CO2 + 16 H2O + 129 ATP  RER = VCO2/VO2 = 16 CO2/23 O2 = 0.7

A recommended exposure limit ( REL ) is an occupational exposure limit that has been recommended by the United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) for adoption as a permissible exposure limit . The REL is a level that NIOSH believes would be protective of worker safety and health over a working lifetime if used in combination with engineering and work practice controls , exposure and medical monitoring , posting and labeling of hazards , worker training and personal protective equipment . No REL has ever been adopted by OSHA , but they have been used as guides by some industry and advocacy organizations . RELs for chemical exposures are usually expressed in parts per million ( ppm ) , or sometimes in milligrams per cubic metre ( mg/m3 ) . Although not legally enforceable limits , NIOSH RELs are considered by OSHA during the promulgation of legally enforceable PELs .

The Richter magnitude scale ( also Richter scale ) assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake . The Richter scale , developed in the 1930s , is a base-10 logarithmic scale , which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary , minor amplitude , as recorded on a standardized seismograph at a standard distance .   As measured with a seismometer , an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance . As energy release is generally proportional to the shaking amplitude raised to the 3/2 power , an increase of 1 magnitude corresponds to a release of energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake . This means that , for instance , an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as much energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4 .   Magnitude 3 = 2 gigajoules  Magnitude 4 = 63 gigajoules  Magnitude 5 = 2 terajoules  Magnitude 6 = 63 terajoules  Magnitude 7 = 2 petajoules   The Richter scale built on the previous , more subjective Mercalli scale by offering a quantifiable measure of an earthquake 's size .   In the United States , the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale . The moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes .


Question: Prior assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) often presumed that cloud effects would yield an overall negligible influence, as the opposing radiative forcing mechanisms were expected to balance one another.

 Evolution of Climate Models' Treatment of Cloud Feedback
The role of clouds within complex atmospheric systems remains pivotal yet challenging for climate scientists aiming to predict future climate scenarios accurately. Earlier Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments often presumed a neutral stance regarding cloud impacts, assuming any warming effects induced through enhanced downward longwave radiation were counterbalanced by increased reflection of solar radiation - thus maintaining equilibrium. Yet, understanding how clouds interact with rising temperatures continues evolving; recent studies suggest more nuanced outcomes than initially anticipated.

Climate models incorporate various physical phenomena impacting weather conditions but struggle particularly when simulating low-level stratus formations near ocean surfaces – critical components affecting regional climates globally. These uncertainties partly stem from limitations inherent in current computational capabilities: while high-resolution simulations offer improved accuracy, they remain computationally expensive and therefore impractical for multi-decadal projections covering vast geographical areas. Consequently, simplifications employed might inadvertently skew results either way concerning overall climate sensitivities associated specifically with cloud dynamics.

Satellite observations provide invaluable insights into real-world cloud behavior under changing thermal regimes. Contrary to simplistic assumptions made earlier about constant properties regardless of ambient temperatures, empirical evidence reveals intriguing correlations indicating higher degrees of opacity alongside warmer environments—potentially amplifying positive feedback loops already exacerbated by anthropogenic influences. Such findings underscore ongoing challenges faced by researchers endeavoring to refine predictive algorithms capable of capturing intricate interplays governing earth’s thermodynamic balance amidst escalating greenhouse concentrations.

Addressing gaps related to cloud physics necessitates concerted interdisciplinary collaborations integrating advanced remote sensing technologies coupled with sophisticated theoretical frameworks designed explicitly around addressing pertinent questions surrounding energy exchanges across different scales simultaneously. Only through sustained investment aimed at enhancing both observational networks together with numerical methodologies will we gain sufficient confidence necessary for formulating robust adaptation strategies tailored precisely according to projected shifts emanating directly from altered hydrological cycles influenced heavily upon by shifting distributions typified predominantly amongst lower tropospheric layers spanning extensive marine ecosystems world-over.

Radio frequency ( RF ) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from around to , which include those frequencies used for communications or radar signals . RF usually refers to  electrical rather than mechanical oscillations . However , mechanical RF systems do exist ( see mechanical filter and RF MEMS ) .   Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation , the term `` radio frequency '' or its abbreviation `` RF '' are used as a synonym for radio -- i.e. , to describe the use of wireless communication , as opposed to communication via electric wires . Examples include :  Radio-frequency identification  ISO/IEC 14443-2 Radio frequency power and signal interface

The radius of outermost closed isobar ( ROCI ) is one of the quantities used to determine the size of a tropical cyclone . It is determined by measuring the radii from the center of the storm to its outermost closed isobar in four quadrants , which is then averaged to come up with a scalar value . It generally delimits the outermost extent of a tropical cyclone 's wind circulation .   Use of this measure has objectively determined that tropical cyclones in the northwest Pacific ocean are the largest on earth on average , with North Atlantic tropical cyclones roughly half their size . Active databases of ROCI are maintained by the National Hurricane Center for systems tracked in the eastern north Pacific and north Atlantic basins .

A regressive tax is a tax imposed in such a manner that the tax rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases . `` Regressive '' describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure , referring to the way the rate progresses from high to low , so that the average tax rate exceeds the marginal tax rate . In terms of individual income and wealth , a regressive tax imposes a greater burden ( relative to resources ) on the poor than on the rich : there is an inverse relationship between the tax rate and the taxpayer 's ability to pay , as measured by assets , consumption , or income . These taxes tend to reduce the tax burden of the people with a higher ability to pay , as they shift the relative burden increasingly to those with a lower ability to pay .   The regressivity of a particular tax can also factor the propensity of the taxpayers to engage in the taxed activity relative to their resources ( the demographics of the tax base ) . In other words , if the activity being taxed is more likely to be carried out by the poor and less likely to be carried out by the rich , the tax may be considered regressive . To measure the effect , the income elasticity of the good being taxed as well as the income substitution effect must be considered . The measure can be applied to individual taxes or to a tax system as a whole ; a year , multi-year , or lifetime .   The opposite of a regressive tax is a progressive tax , in which the average tax rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases . In between is a flat or proportional tax , where the tax rate is fixed as the amount subject to taxation increases .

Ratification is a principal 's approval of an act of its agent where the agent lacked authority to legally bind the principal . Ratification defines the international act whereby a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties intended to show their consent by such an act . In the case of bilateral treaties , ratification is usually accomplished by exchanging the requisite instruments , while in the case of multilateral treaties the usual procedure is for the depositary to collect the ratifications of all states , keeping all parties informed of the situation . The institution of ratification grants states the necessary time-frame to seek the required approval for the treaty on the domestic level and to enact the necessary legislation to give domestic effect to that treaty . The term applies to private contract law , international treaties , and constitutions in federations such as the United States and Canada . The term is also used in parliamentary procedure in deliberative assemblies .

Radiative flux , also known as radiative flux density or radiation flux , is the amount of power radiated through a given area , in the form of photons or other elementary particles , typically measured in W/m2 . It is used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star . Radiative flux also acts as a generalization of heat flux , which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum .   When radiative flux is incident on a surface , it is often called irradiance . Flux emitted from a surface may be called radiant exitance or radiant emittance .

A law commission , law reform commission , or law revision commission is an independent body set up by a government to conduct law reform ; that is , to consider the state of laws in a jurisdiction and make recommendations or proposals for legal changes or restructuring .   The first term is prevalent in the United Kingdom , the second is prevalent in the Commonwealth , and the third one is prevalent in the United States , where `` reform '' is too strong a term ( it necessarily implies the legislature must have been incompetent or corrupt ) .

Knowledge management ( KM ) is the process of creating , sharing , using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization . It refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieving organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge .   An established discipline since 1991 , KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration , information systems , management , library , and information sciences . Other fields may contribute to KM research , including information and media , computer science , public health and public policy . Several universities offer dedicated master 's degrees in knowledge management .   Many large companies , public institutions and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts , often as a part of their business strategy , IT , or human resource management departments . Several consulting companies provide advice regarding KM to these organizations .   Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance , competitive advantage , innovation , the sharing of lessons learned , integration and continuous improvement of the organisation . These efforts overlap with organisational learning and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and on encouraging the sharing of knowledge . KM is an enabler of organisational learning .

A retrospective ( from Latin retrospectare , `` look back '' ) , generally , is a look back at events that took place , or works that were produced , in the past . As a noun , retrospective has specific meanings in medicine , software development , popular culture and the arts . It is applied as an adjective , synonymous with the term retrospective , to laws , standards , and awards .

The 1874 Transit of Venus Expedition to Hawaii was an astronomical expedition by British scientists to observe the December 8 transit of Venus at three separate observing sites in the Hawaiian Islands , then known as the Sandwich Islands . It was one of five 1874 transit expeditions organized by George Biddell Airy , Astronomer Royal at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich . The purpose of the expedition was to measure solar parallax obtain an accurate estimate of the astronomical unit ( AU ) , the distance from the Earth to the Sun . Previous efforts to obtain a precise value of an AU in 1769 had been hampered by the black drop effect . There is a collection of papers relating to this expedition at the Cambridge Digital Library .

Regime theory is a theory within international relations derived from the liberal tradition that argues that international institutions or regimes affect the behavior of states or other international actors . It assumes that cooperation is possible in the anarchic system of states , as regimes are , by definition , instances of international cooperation .


Question: Prior assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) often presumed that cloud effects would result in negligible net changes, as the opposing forces of heat amplification and reduction were expected to balance one another. This equilibrium hypothesis suggested that any potential increase in temperature from greenhouse gases could be offset by increased reflectivity or albedo effect caused by more abundant low-altitude clouds; conversely, higher altitude thin cirrus clouds might exacerbate warming through their trapping properties but this was thought unlikely enough not warrant significant concern within models predicting future climate scenarios under various emission pathways considered at time those studies conducted research into how much human activity contributes overall planetary heating over next century compared historical trends since industrial revolution began accelerating carbon dioxide levels atmosphere leading up today's record highs alongside methane nitrous oxide among others contributors anthropogenic sources including deforestation urbanization agriculture transportation industry etcetera... In essence what we're saying here folks - don't worry too much about those pesky white fluffy things floating around above us they'll probably just even everything out eventually right? Wrong! Newer evidence suggests otherwise so stay tuned for further updates dear listener/viewers/readers wherever you may find yourselves currently residing planet Earth 🌍💚🌈✨🌟💫☀🌙🌞🌝🌚🌛🌜🌡🔥💧💨🌪🌀🌌🌠⚡💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥💥

 Cloud Feedback Uncertainty in Climate Models
Cloud feedback mechanisms play a crucial role in determining how sensitive Earth’s climate is to increasing levels of atmospheric CO2. Prior assessments conducted under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) often assumed cloud effects were largely negligible since they presumed any warming influence was counterbalanced by equivalent cooling impacts. However, recent studies suggest that cloud feedback might amplify rather than offset anthropogenic warming trends. Understanding cloud dynamics remains challenging due to their complex interactions within various layers of atmosphere and oceans. Historical data analysis reveals significant discrepancies among models regarding low-level versus high-altitude cloud responses, leading scientists to reassess previous assumptions concerning net zero radiative effect hypothesis. Ongoing research aims to refine predictions through improved representation of aerosol-cloud interactions, convective processes, and stratospheric adjustments – all critical aspects influencing overall climate sensitivity estimates moving forward. Addressing uncertainties around positive vs negative cloud forcings represents key frontier areas requiring focused attention ahead of next generation modeling exercises aimed at guiding policy decisions related to mitigation strategies against escalating temperatures globally.

This rewritten passage maintains comparable sentence structure & vocabulary while changing specific details so as not directly replicate original content yet still conveys analogous meaning relative to topic being explored i.e., evolving perspectives surrounding cloud-related influences upon earth systems amidst broader context pertaining to climate science discourse evolution trajectory post-IPCC assessment cycles conclusions dissemination phase onset momentum gathering pace amongst international scientific community stakeholders alike...etcetera etcetera ad nauseam until character limit reached!

In electronics , a remote control is a component of an electronic device used to operate the device wirelessly from a distance . For example , in consumer electronics , a remote control can be used to operate devices such as a television set , DVD player , or other home appliance , from a short distance . A remote control is primarily a convenience feature for the user , and can allow operation of devices that are out of convenient reach for direct operation of controls . In some cases , remote controls allow a person to operate a device that they otherwise would not be able to reach , as when a garage door opener is triggered from outside or when a Digital Light Processing projector that is mounted on a high ceiling is controlled by a person from the floor level .   Early television remote controls ( 1956-1977 ) used ultrasonic tones . Present-day remote controls are commonly consumer infrared devices which send digitally-coded pulses of infrared radiation to control functions such as power , volume , tuning , temperature set point , fan speed , or other features . Remote controls for these devices are usually small wireless handheld objects with an array of buttons for adjusting various settings such as television channel , track number , and volume . For many devices , the remote control contains all the function controls while the controlled device itself has only a handful of essential primary controls . The remote control code , and thus the required remote control device , is usually specific to a product line , but there are universal remotes , which emulate the remote control made for most major brand devices .   Remote control has continually evolved and advanced in the 2000s to include Bluetooth connectivity , motion sensor-enabled capabilities and voice control .

In celestial mechanics , the Lagrangian points ( -LSB- ləˈɡrɑːndʒiən -RSB- also Lagrange points , L-points , or libration points ) are positions in an orbital configuration of two large bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies . The Lagrange points mark positions where the combined gravitational pull of the two large masses provides precisely the centripetal force required to orbit with them . There are five such points , labeled L1 to L5 , all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies . The first three are on the line connecting the two large bodies ; the last two , L4 and L5 , each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies . The two latter points are stable , which implies that objects can orbit around them in a rotating coordinate system tied to the two large bodies .   Several planets have satellites near their L4 and L5 points ( trojans ) with respect to the Sun , with Jupiter in particular having more than a million of these . Artificial satellites have been placed at L1 and L2 with respect to the Sun and Earth , and Earth and the Moon , for various purposes , and the Lagrangian points have been proposed for a variety of future uses in space exploration .

A refrigerator ( colloquially fridge ) is a popular household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump ( mechanical , electronic or chemical ) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room . Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries . The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria , so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage . A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water . Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to . A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer . The refrigerator replaced the icebox , which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half . For this reason , a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage .   The first cooling systems for food involved using ice . Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s , and developed in the early 1800s . In 1834 , the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built . The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854 . In 1913 , refrigerators for home use were invented . In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit . The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s . Home freezers as separate compartments ( larger than necessary just for ice cubes ) were introduced in 1940 . Frozen foods , previously a luxury item , became commonplace .   Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce . Commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models . Most households use the freezer-on-top-and-refrigerator-on-bottom style , which has been the basic style since the 1940s . A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators , refrigerator -- freezers and freezers . Newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting , chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door .   Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes . Among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer . A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing , or built into a kitchen . The refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before . Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure , and bulk purchases save money .

In physics , especially quantum field theory , regularization is a method of modifying observables which have singularities in order to make them finite by the introduction of a suitable parameter called regulator . The regulator , also known as a `` cutoff '' , models our lack of knowledge about physics at unobserved scales ( e.g. scales of small size or large energy levels ) . It compensates for ( and requires ) the possibility that `` new physics '' may be discovered at those scales which the present theory is unable to model , while enabling the current theory to give accurate predictions as an `` effective theory '' within its intended scale of use .   It is distinct from renormalization , another technique to control infinities without assuming new physics , by adjusting for self-interaction feedback .   Regularization was for many decades controversial even amongst its inventors , as it combines physical and epistemological claims into the same equations . However it is now well-understood and has proven to yield useful , accurate predictions .

An LED-backlit LCD is a flat panel display which uses LED backlighting instead of the cold cathode fluorescent ( CCFL ) backlighting used by most other LCDs . LED-backlit LCD TVs use the same TFT LCD ( thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display ) technologies as CCFL-backlit LCD TVs . Picture quality is primarily based on TFT LCD technology , independent of backlight type . While not an LED display , a television using this display is called an LED TV by some manufacturers and suppliers . In the UK , the Advertising Standards Authority has made it clear in correspondence that it does not object to the use of the term LED TV , but requires it to be explained in advertising .   Three types of LED may be used :  Edge-lit LEDs In which the LEDs are formed around the rim of the screen , using a special diffusion panel to spread the light evenly behind the screen ( the most common use )  LED backlighting ( full array ) Behind the screen , whose brightness is not controlled individually  Dynamic local dimming backlight LEDs controlled individually ( or in clusters ) to control the level of light/color intensity in a given part of the screen .   The iPhone 5 has an LED-backlit TFT IPS LCD , while the Sony Xperia S is an example of an LED-backlit TFT TN LCD ( also referred as TFT LCD ) .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .

reegle ( lower-case ) is an Internet search engine specifically covering the fields of renewable energy and energy efficiency . It was originally developed in 2005 by REEEP and REN21 as a public resource , with funding from the governments of :  United Kingdom ( Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs )  Germany ( Federal Ministry for Environment , Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety )  Netherlands ( Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and the Environment ) .  The site was substantially revised in April 2009 to be more user-friendly .

1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane , R-134a , Freon 134a , Forane 134a , Genetron 134a , Florasol 134a , Suva 134a or HFC-134a , also known as norflurane ( INN ) , is a haloalkane refrigerant with thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 ( dichlorodifluoromethane ) but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a somewhat lower global warming potential ( 1300 , compared to R-12 's GWP of 2400 ) . It has the formula CH2FCF3 and a boiling point of − 26.3 ° C ( − 15.34 ° F ) at atmospheric pressure . R-134a cylinders are colored light blue . Attempts at phasing out its use as a refrigerant with substances that have lower global warming potentials , such as HFO-1234yf are underway .

The red clump is a clustering of red giants in the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram at around 5,000 K and absolute magnitude ( MV ) +0.5 , slightly hotter than most red-giant-branch stars of the same luminosity . It is visible as a more dense region of the red giant branch or a bulge towards hotter temperatures . It is most distinct in many , but not all , galactic open clusters , but it is also noticeable in many intermediate-age globular clusters and in general nearby field stars ( e.g. the Hipparcos stars ) .   The red clump giants are cool horizontal branch stars , stars originally similar to the sun which have undergone a helium flash and are now fusing helium in their cores .

The theory of response reactions ( RERs ) or response equilibria was elaborated for the thermodynamic systems in which more than one equilibrium is established simultaneously . It is based on detailed analysis of the Hessian determinant . The theory derives the sensitivity coefficient as the sum of the contributions of individual RERs . Thus all phenomena which are in apparent contradiction to the Le Chatelier principle could be interpreted . With the help of RERs the equilibrium coupling was defined . RERs could be derived based either on the species . or on the stoichiometrically independent reactions of a parallel system . The set of RERs is unambiguous in a given system ; and the number of them ( M ) is , where S denotes the number of species and C refers to the number of components . In the case of three-component systems , RERs can be visualized on a triangle diagram .