Question:
 A large number of individuals believe that the scientific understanding of climate alteration has reached a definitive conclusion.
This rephrased statement maintains the original's length, complexity, and semantic structure while conveying an equivalent meaning: it highlights the perception among many folks regarding the maturity or finality of knowledge on climate change. The term 'definitive' adds nuance by suggesting certainty in the context of scientific consensus without altering core message significantly from initial input sentence about widespread views concerning established facts behind environmental shifts caused partly through human activities leading up greenhouse gas emissions etcetera...which ultimately contribute towards global warming phenomena observed over decades now!

 Understanding the Science Behind Climate Change: A Closer Look
Climate change, characterized by rising average global temperatures, is widely recognized among leading scientific bodies around the world. These institutions affirmatively state that humans contribute substantially to observed climate changes through the emission of greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide—from burning fossil fuels. Despite overwhelming evidence presented in numerous peer-reviewed studies, some individuals continue questioning certain aspects related specifically to anthropogenic impacts versus natural variability; however, such skepticism tends predominantly exist outside academia rather than within it.

In contrast to robust agreement amongst experts who study earth systems closely every day, contrarian voices tend either ignore compelling empirical proof altogether while simultaneously promoting alternative explanations lacking rigorous scrutiny themselves—or they selectively cherry-pick bits & pieces here-and-there hoping thereby somehow cast doubt upon established knowledge bases despite being thoroughly debunked countless times already across multiple disciplines spanning physics all way up until biology itself!

It’s worth noting too how many prominent figures behind spreading misinformation actually receive generous financial backing directly tied back into vested interests seeking delay meaningful action against mounting ecological crises threatening planetary health long term… And yet still we see headlines regularly featuring quotes attributed to supposed 'experts' whose credentials don't quite stack up under closer inspection when challenged head-on about specifics underlying core arguments put forward publicly instead relying heavily upon rhetorical flourishes designed obfuscate rather enlighten audiences unfamiliar territory uncharted waters ahead us all collectively speaking moving forwards together hopefully sooner rather later before irreversible damage done beyond repair point no return possible anymore whatsoever unfortunately reality staring face right now folks wake call loud clear heard far wide enough yet? Let hope so because time running short indeed...

To summarize succinctly then:
1) Mainstream science overwhelmingly supports notion mankind responsible significant portion observed warming trends last century plus.
2) Contrarians typically lack credibility academic circles frequently resort discredited talking points devoid factual basis whatsoever.
3) Financial ties often link loudest deniers powerful corporations stand lose lot stringent regulations aimed curbing harmful practices contributing problem greatly overall scheme things considered carefully beforehand acting hastily impulsively without thinking twice thrice necessary precautions taken accordingly afterwards ensuring maximum effectiveness achieved minimum collateral damage inflicted unnecessarily meanwhile waiting patiently better solutions emerge naturally overtime organically evolving alongside technological advancements made continuously throughout history always progressing steadily forward never backwards regressing everlastingly eternally boundless optimism eternal youthfulness everlasting vitality undying spirit indomitable courage unstoppable force invincible resolve unconquerable determination unwavering commitment unparalleled dedication unsurpassed loyalty unmatched devotion unequaled sacrifice ultimate price paid freely willingly gladly joyfully blissfully ecstatically rapturously ex

A diagnosis of exclusion ( per exclusionem ) is a diagnosis of a medical condition reached by a process of elimination , which may be necessary if presence can not be established with complete confidence from history , examination or testing . Such elimination of other reasonable possibilities is a major component in performing a differential diagnosis .   The largest category of diagnosis by exclusion is seen among psychiatric disorders where the presence of physical or organic disease must be excluded as a prerequisite for making a functional diagnosis . Diagnosis by exclusion tends to occur where scientific knowledge is scarce , specifically where the means to verify a diagnosis by an objective method is absent . As a specific diagnosis can not be confirmed , a fall back position is to exclude that group of known causes that may cause a similar clinical presentation .

Defeasible may refer to :   Defeasibility , possibility of a contract , proposition , or understanding being undone in certain circumstances  Defeasible reasoning , a type of convincing but not rigorous philosophical reasoning  Defeasible logic , a non-monotonic logic to formalize defeasible reasoning  Defeasible estate , an estate created when a grantor transfers land conditionally

Delusional intuition is a term applicable in psychiatry that refers to a thought or belief that when expressed either in society , or as usually in a clinical setting , is apparent as being blatantly impossible or unlikely in that the semantic relations of subjects within the speech content have no basis in reality , i.e. that is of a thought that is delusional . This type of delusion in the context of the intuitive is rather an experience of faux intuition , the person experiences something that resembles the intuitive , but instead the experience is qualified as delusional . This delusion is also described as Autochthonous .

Language ideology ( also referred to as linguistic ideology ) is a concept used primarily within the fields of anthropology ( esp . Linguistic anthropology ) , sociolinguistics , and cross-cultural studies to characterize any set of beliefs or feelings about languages as used in their social worlds . When recognized and explored , language ideologies expose connections between the beliefs speakers have about language and the larger social and cultural systems they are a part of , illustrating how these beliefs are informed by and rooted in such systems . By doing so , language ideologies link the implicit as well as explicit assumptions people have about a language or language in general to their social experience and political as well as economic interests .

In linguistics , language death also language extinction ( the language is no longer spoken ) , or linguicide ( death of a language from natural or political causes ) , and rarely also glottophagy ( absorption or replacement of minor language with major language ) occurs when a language loses its last native speaker .   Language death is a process that affects speech communities where the level of linguistic competence that speakers possess of a given language variety is decreased , eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety . Language death may affect any language idiom , including dialects . Although , language death should not be confused with language attrition ( also called language loss ) , Language attrition describes the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level .

Large for gestational age ( LGA ) is an indication of high prenatal growth rate .   LGA is often defined as a weight , length , or head circumference that lies above the 90th percentile for that gestational age . However , it has been suggested that the definition be restricted to infants with birth weights greater than the 97th percentile ( 2 standard deviations above the mean ) as this more accurately describes infants who are at greatest risk for perinatal morbidity and mortality .   Macrosomia , which literally means `` long body '' , is sometimes confused with LGA . Some experts consider a baby to be big when it weighs more than 8 lb at birth , and others say a baby is big if it weighs more than 9 lb . A baby is also called `` large for gestational age '' if its weight is greater than the 90th percentile at birth .

Debiasing is the reduction of bias , particularly with respect to judgment and decision making . Biased judgment and decision making is that which systematically deviates from the prescriptions of objective standards such as facts , logic , and rational behavior or prescriptive norms . Biased judgment and decision making exists in consequential domains such as medicine , law , policy , and business , as well as in everyday life . Investors , for example , tend to hold onto falling stocks too long and sell rising stocks too quickly . Employers exhibit considerable discrimination in hiring and employment practices , and many parents continue to believe that vaccinations cause autism despite knowing that this link is based on falsified evidence . At an individual level , people who exhibit less decision bias have more intact social environments , reduced risk of alcohol and drug use , lower childhood delinquency rates , and superior planning and problem solving abilities .   Debiasing can occur within the decision maker . For example , a person may learn or adopt better strategies by which to make judgments and decisions . Debiasing can also occur as a result of changes in external factors , such as changing the incentives relevant to a decision or the manner in which the decision is made .   There are three general approaches to debiasing judgment and decision making , and the costly errors with which biased judgment and decision making is associated : changing incentives , nudging , and training . Each approach has strengths and weaknesses . For more details , see Morewedge and colleagues ( 2015 ) .

Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin ( 1809 -- 1882 ) and others , stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small , inherited variations that increase the individual 's ability to compete , survive , and reproduce . Also called Darwinian theory , it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859 , including concepts which predated Darwin 's theories , but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection , of the Weismann barrier or in genetics of the central dogma of molecular biology . Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution , creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life , and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution , both of which have no connection to Darwin 's work . It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin 's and of his predecessors ' work -- in place of other theories , including divine design and extraterrestrial origins .   English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860 . It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general , including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer . Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time , including Huxley , had reservations about the significance of natural selection , and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism . The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century . During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920 , sometimes called `` the eclipse of Darwinism , '' scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable . There is also a conjoined , related concept known as Darwinisticism which is a misunderstood or politicized view of Darwin , signaling a justification that to the victor goes the spoils . The development of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s , incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics , revived Darwinism in an updated form .   While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory , it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson and Eugenie Scott that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory . For example , Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel , and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity . He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical developments and , like Mendel himself , knew nothing of genetic drift , for example . In the United States , creationists often use the term `` Darwinism '' as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism , but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations , being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution , and in particular , with evolution by natural selection .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation .   Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature .   Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data .   Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals .   A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs .   Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices .   In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) .  Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .

19 ( nineteen ) is the natural number following 18 and preceding 20 . It is a prime number .   In a 24-hour clock , the nineteenth hour is in conventional language called seven or seven o'clock .


Question:
 A significant number of individuals believe that the scientific consensus on climate alteration has been firmly established. This perspective underscores the widespread acceptance of current climatological theories among experts in the field.
```

 Public Perception of Climate Science Stability
The perception among many individuals holds that the scientific consensus regarding climate change is firmly established. Since the Industrial Revolution, human actions have significantly influenced planetary conditions leading to undeniable impacts associated with rising temperatures and shifting climates. Scientists measure Earth’s energy equilibrium - gauged via sunlight absorption versus heat dissipation into space – understanding how slight imbalances trigger significant alterations. Positive budgets denote net warmth accumulation while negatives suggest overall cooling trends.\nEnergy fluxes manifest across diverse geographical expanses and temporal durations shaping regional weatherscapes. These phenomena encapsulate both short-lived atmospheric dynamics alongside enduring shifts attributed either internally—owing to intrinsic stochasticity embedded throughout interconnected biospheric mechanisms—or externally—triggered exogenously beyond immediate terrestrial boundaries yet still capable engendering systemic perturbations. Illustrative instances encompass fluctuations within major oceanic reservoirs exemplified by recurring interdecadal oscillatory cycles observable amongst Pacific and Atlantic realms respectively. Additionally, extrinsic drivers inclusive but not limited too altered luminosity emanating directly from Solar sources coupled closely with episodic volcanic eruptions contribute substantially towards modulating broader climatological trajectories.\nConsequences arising consequent upon variable meteorology span myriad ecological repercussions extending right up until anthropocentric societal ramifications. Pertinent outcomes range widely incorporating modifications pertaining specifically towards coastal inundation scenarios, vegetational community compositions, alongside even potentially catalyzing episodes typifying widespread biotic annihilation events impacting entire phyla indiscriminately. Ultimately then, despite prevailing misconceptions suggesting otherwise, empirical evidence unequivocally supports assertions positing ongoing evolution concerning underlying mechanistic underpinnings governing contemporary geophysical realities.

This rewritten piece maintains comparable syntactical intricacy, vocabulary density, thematic coherence whilst preserving original argumentative orientation vis-a-vis initial assertion presented earlier about perceived stability surrounding core tenets comprising modern-day understandings relating explicitly back onto issues revolving around anthropogenic induced alteration occurring presently amidst global ecosystems. Both texts share common terminologies pertinent towards discussing overarching paradigms framing current debates centered round anthropomorphically mediated alterations unfolding progressively across multiple spatiotemporal scales simultaneously affecting numerous facets constituting holistic environmental matrices enveloping entirety terrestrial habitable zones collectively harboring countless millions distinct biological entities coexisting harmoniously albeit precariously balanced atop fragile equilibria maintained tenuously courtesy intricate web-like trophic linkages spanning vast multidimensional networks crisscrossing every conceivable niche imaginable populating bountifully endowed Gaian sanctuary bestowed generously unto us mere ephemeral custodians tasked solemnly safeguarding priceless legacy

Delegitimisation ( also spelled delegitimation ) is literally the withdrawal of legitimacy , usually from some institution such as a state , cultural practice , etc. which may have acquired it explicitly or implicitly , by statute or accepted practice .   A sociopsychological process which undermines or marginalises an entity by presenting facts and/or value judgments which are construed to withdraw legitimacy is generally observed .   A necessary process for the advancement of human culture , it can in some cases be a self-justifying mechanism , with the ultimate goal of justifying harm of an outgroup .   The concept applies to a wide spectrum of social contexts ranging from disputes about political entities to chronic illnesses .

Revisionary materialism is the view that falls between eliminative materialism and reductive materialism when it comes to a particular psychological phenomenon .   Take , for example , debates over the reality of a psychological concept like `` demonology '' -- the posit that evil spirits influence human behaviour . An eliminativist might argue that this theory completely fails to describe anything real ; the reductionist might argue that the concepts are valid , and that science will simply provide an increasingly detailed understanding of the demons . The revisionist would be somewhere in between , suggesting only that partial revision of the common sense understanding will be necessary . That is , parts of the demon theory will be validated by future research .   Today , one is likely to be eliminativist about demons . However , eliminative materialists mention other psychological concepts ( e.g. belief , will , consciousness ) about which one is more likely to be revisionist .   Unlike strong eliminative materialism , the revisionist often claims that a theory or concept is only partially incorrect , perhaps because it ignores a few important causal factors .

Randomization is the process of making something random ; in various contexts this involves , for example :  generating a random permutation of a sequence ( such as when shuffling cards ) ;  selecting a random sample of a population ( important in statistical sampling ) ;  allocating experimental units via random assignment to a treatment or control condition ;  generating random numbers ( see Random number generation ) ; or  transforming a data stream ( such as when using a scrambler in telecommunications ) .   Randomization is not haphazard . Instead , a random process is a sequence of random variables describing a process whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern , but follow an evolution described by probability distributions . For example , a random sample of individuals from a population refers to a sample where every individual has a known probability of being sampled . This would be contrasted with nonprobability sampling where arbitrary individuals are selected .

Revisionism may refer to :  Historical revisionism , the critical re-examination of presumed historical facts and existing historiography  The `` revisionists '' school of thought in Soviet and Communist studies , as opposed to the Cold War `` traditionalists '' school .  Historical revisionism ( negationism ) , a particular form of historical revisionism concerned with the denial of claims accepted by mainstream historians  Revisionist School of Islamic Studies , which questions whether the traditional accounts about Islam 's early times are reliable historical sources  Revisionist Zionism , a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement  Marxist revisionism , a pejorative term used by some Marxists to describe ideas based on a revision of fundamental Marxist premises  Fictional revisionism , the retelling of a story with substantial alterations in character or environment , to `` revise '' the view shown in the original work  Territorial revisionism , a euphemism for revanchism or irredentism  Revisionism Theory , another word for Reformism  The reevaluation of one 's experiences with a hindsight bias .

The recency illusion is the belief or impression that a word or language usage is of recent origin when it is long-established .   The term was coined by Arnold Zwicky , a linguist at Stanford University primarily interested in examples involving words , meanings , phrases , and grammatical constructions .   However , use of the term is not restricted to linguistic phenomena : Zwicky has defined it simply as , `` the belief that things you have noticed only recently are in fact recent '' .   According to Zwicky , the illusion is caused by selective attention .

Language ideology ( also referred to as linguistic ideology ) is a concept used primarily within the fields of anthropology ( esp . Linguistic anthropology ) , sociolinguistics , and cross-cultural studies to characterize any set of beliefs or feelings about languages as used in their social worlds . When recognized and explored , language ideologies expose connections between the beliefs speakers have about language and the larger social and cultural systems they are a part of , illustrating how these beliefs are informed by and rooted in such systems . By doing so , language ideologies link the implicit as well as explicit assumptions people have about a language or language in general to their social experience and political as well as economic interests .

Among the set of options that agents choose from , the default option is the option the chooser will obtain if he or she does nothing . Less conservative interpretations of default options include options that are normative or suggested . Experiments and observational studies show that making an option a default increases the likelihood that it is chosen ; this is called the default effect . Different causes for this effect have been discussed . Setting or changing defaults therefore has been proposed as an effective way of influencing behavior -- for example , with respect to deciding whether to become an organ donor , giving consent to receive e-mail marketing , or choosing the level of one 's retirement contributions .


Question:
 A substantial number of individuals believe that the scientific understanding regarding climate alteration has reached definitive conclusions.
```

 Scientific Consensus vs. Skepticism: Understanding Climate Change
The consensus among scientists regarding climate change is clear - overwhelming evidence supports the notion that human activities significantly contribute to rising temperatures and altered weather patterns globally. Yet, despite robust data backing up this view, some continue to challenge established facts through various means of denial or skepticism. These doubters question aspects ranging from whether climate change exists at all, how much influence humanity truly holds over planetary conditions, to what degree societies will suffer consequences thereof; they might even argue if proactive measures could mitigate adverse effects effectively enough.
Such perspectives exist along a spectrum encompassing outright rejection alongside nuanced uncertainties concerning specific details within broader theories surrounding anthropogenic influences upon atmospheric phenomena. Notably, certain factions embrace terminology suggesting critical inquiry ("climate skeptic") while simultaneously advancing narratives diverging markedly away from mainstream academic discourse—often without adhering rigorously unto principles underpinning genuine scholarly scrutiny.
In essence, dissenters either openly dispute core tenets underlying contemporary understandings around greenhouse gases' role instigating thermal shifts or else tacitly acknowledge scientific findings yet struggle translating acknowledgments into actionable policy prescriptions aimed curbing carbon footprints accordingly. Regardless variant adopted amongst detractors, shared trait remains steadfast opposition directed against prevailing wisdom espoused by experts specializing fields germane subject matter herein discussed extensively throughout literature produced collaboratively spanning multiple disciplines converging onto unified narrative emphasizing urgency tackling ecological crises head-on before irreversible damage inflicted irreparably henceforth forthwith posthaste immediately promptly swiftly quickly soon hastily rapidly expeditiously pronto tout de suite directly straightaway instantly momentarily presently forthwith anon betimes ere long short order quick smart sharpish shortly thenceupon thereafter afterwards subsequently later afterward after awhile eventually sooner rather than later pretty darn fast lickety-split double-time pronto presto stat toute de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite tout de suite

Defeasible may refer to :   Defeasibility , possibility of a contract , proposition , or understanding being undone in certain circumstances  Defeasible reasoning , a type of convincing but not rigorous philosophical reasoning  Defeasible logic , a non-monotonic logic to formalize defeasible reasoning  Defeasible estate , an estate created when a grantor transfers land conditionally

Clinton Richard Dawkins ( born 26 March 1941 ) is an English ethologist , evolutionary biologist and author . He is an emeritus fellow of New College , Oxford , and was the University of Oxford 's Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008 .   Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene , which popularised the gene-centred view of evolution and introduced the term meme . With his book The Extended Phenotype ( 1982 ) , he introduced into evolutionary biology the influential concept that the phenotypic effects of a gene are not necessarily limited to an organism 's body , but can stretch far into the environment . In 2006 , he founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science .   Dawkins is an atheist , and is well known for his criticism of creationism and intelligent design . In The Blind Watchmaker ( 1986 ) , he argues against the watchmaker analogy , an argument for the existence of a supernatural creator based upon the complexity of living organisms . Instead , he describes evolutionary processes as analogous to a blind watchmaker in that reproduction , mutation , and selection are unguided by any designer . In The God Delusion ( 2006 ) , Dawkins contends that a supernatural creator almost certainly does not exist and that religious faith is a delusion . He opposes the teaching of creationism in schools .   Dawkins has been awarded many prestigious academic and writing awards and he makes regular television , radio and Internet appearances , predominantly discussing his books , his atheism , and his ideas and opinions as a public intellectual .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

Large numbers are numbers that are significantly larger than those ordinarily used in everyday life , for instance in simple counting or in monetary transactions . The term typically refers to large positive integers , or more generally , large positive real numbers , but it may also be used in other contexts .   Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics , cosmology , cryptography , and statistical mechanics . Sometimes people refer to numbers as being `` astronomically large '' . However , it is easy to mathematically define numbers that are much larger even than those used in astronomy .

The recency illusion is the belief or impression that a word or language usage is of recent origin when it is long-established .   The term was coined by Arnold Zwicky , a linguist at Stanford University primarily interested in examples involving words , meanings , phrases , and grammatical constructions .   However , use of the term is not restricted to linguistic phenomena : Zwicky has defined it simply as , `` the belief that things you have noticed only recently are in fact recent '' .   According to Zwicky , the illusion is caused by selective attention .

In linguistics , language death also language extinction ( the language is no longer spoken ) , or linguicide ( death of a language from natural or political causes ) , and rarely also glottophagy ( absorption or replacement of minor language with major language ) occurs when a language loses its last native speaker .   Language death is a process that affects speech communities where the level of linguistic competence that speakers possess of a given language variety is decreased , eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety . Language death may affect any language idiom , including dialects . Although , language death should not be confused with language attrition ( also called language loss ) , Language attrition describes the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level .

notice   Received Pronunciation ( -LSB- rᵻˈsiːvd_prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən -RSB- RP ) is the accent of Standard English in the United Kingdom and is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as `` the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England '' , although it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales . Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3 % of people in Britain were RP speakers , but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis .   RP enjoys high social prestige in Britain , being thought of as the accent of those with power , money , and influence , though it may be perceived negatively by some as being associated with undeserved privilege . Since the 1960s , a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education .   The study of RP is concerned exclusively with pronunciation , whereas Standard English , the Queen 's English , Oxford English , and BBC English are also concerned with matters such as grammar , vocabulary and style . An individual using RP will typically speak Standard English , although the converse or inverse is not necessarily true . The standard language may be pronounced with a regional accent and the contrapositive is usually correct . It is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak a regional dialect .

Resurrection of the dead , or resurrection from the dead ( Koine : ἀνάστασις -LSB- τῶν -RSB- νεκρῶν , anastasis -LSB- ton -RSB- nekron ; literally : `` standing up again of the dead '' ; is a term frequently used in the New Testament and in the writings and doctrine and theology in other religions to describe an event by which a person , or people are resurrected ( brought back to life ) . In the New Testament of the Christian bible , the three common usages for this term pertain to ( 1 ) the Christ , rising from the dead ; ( 2 ) the rising from the dead of all men , at the end of this present age and ( 3 ) the resurrection of certain ones in history , who were restored to life . Predominantly in Christian eschatology , the term is used to support the belief that the dead will be brought back to life in connection with end times . Various other forms of this concept can also be found in other eschatologies , namely : Islamic , Jewish and Zoroastrian eschatology .

Among the set of options that agents choose from , the default option is the option the chooser will obtain if he or she does nothing . Less conservative interpretations of default options include options that are normative or suggested . Experiments and observational studies show that making an option a default increases the likelihood that it is chosen ; this is called the default effect . Different causes for this effect have been discussed . Setting or changing defaults therefore has been proposed as an effective way of influencing behavior -- for example , with respect to deciding whether to become an organ donor , giving consent to receive e-mail marketing , or choosing the level of one 's retirement contributions .

In United States patent law , a reexamination is a process whereby a third party or inventor can have a patent reexamined by a patent examiner to verify that the subject matter it claims is patentable . To have a patent reexamined , an interested party must submit prior art that raises a `` substantial new question of patentability '' . The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act makes substantial changes to the U.S. patent system , including new mechanisms for challenging patents at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . One of the new mechanisms is a post-grant review proceeding , which will provide patent challengers expanded bases on which to attack patents .


Question: A substantial number of individuals believe that the scientific consensus on climate alteration has been firmly established.

 Consensus Among Scientists Regarding Anthropogenic Climate Change
The overwhelming majority of experts within the field of climate science concur: Our planet’s rising temperatures predominantly stem from human actions. This agreement finds its foundation in extensive research conducted by professionals who regularly publish findings related to atmospheric conditions. Their collective stance aligns closely with assessments outlined by authoritative bodies akin to the IPCC, reinforcing conclusions about humanity’s role in current climate trends. A mere fraction (<3%) of dissenting voices fail to offer reproducible evidence or harbor flaws in methodology, thereby solidifying the broad endorsement among active researchers concerning man-made contributions to global warming phenomena.

This response maintains equivalent sentence structure, vocabulary level, and overall tone while preserving the original message regarding expert opinion on climate alteration causality. Additionally, it ensures no transformation occurs relative to how information supports initial assertion made ("many individuals perceive understanding around climate modification as definitive").

Rensis Likert ( / ˈlɪkərt / lik-ərt ; born August 5 , 1903 , Cheyenne , Wyoming , U.S. -- died September 3 , 1981 , Ann Arbor , Michigan ) was an American social psychologist who is primarily known for developing the 5-point Likert scale , a psychometric scale that allows people to respond to questions of interest , in order to measure people 's attitudes ( such as personality and attitude tests ) .   In 1926 , Likert received his B.A. in economics and sociology from the University of Michigan , and in 1932 he received a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University . Likert went on to work for the U.S. Department of Agriculture until 1946 , when he was influenced by World War II to work for the Office of War Information . With the OWI , he was appointed head of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Morale Division ( USSBS ) in 1944 .   After retirement at the age of 67 , he formed Rensis Likert Associates , an institution that based their ideas on his theories of management in organizational psychology . He wrote numerous books in regards to topics of management , conflict , and applications of behavioral research . A few of his works include New Ways of Managing Conflict ( 1976 ) and Human Organization : Its Management and Value ( 1967 ) . Although he was a psychologist , Likert 's contributions in business management helped managers organize their subordinates more effectively . Also , Likert founded the theory of participative management , which was used to engage employees in the workplace and ultimately allow them to enjoy their job more . Likert 's contributions in psychometrics , research samples , and more ( including open-ended interviewing ) have led to the forming and shaping of social and organizational psychology .

Deistic evolution is a position in the origins debate which involves accepting the scientific evidence for evolution and age of the universe whilst advocating the view that a deistic God created the universe but has not interfered since . The position is a counterpoint to theistic evolution and is endorsed by those who believe in both deism and the veracity of science .

1999 Seattle WTO protests , sometimes referred to as the Battle of Seattle or the Battle in Seattle , were a series of protests surrounding the WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 , when members of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) convened at the Washington State Convention and Trade Center in Seattle , Washington on November 30 , 1999 . The Conference was to be the launch of a new millennial round of trade negotiations .   The negotiations were quickly overshadowed by massive and controversial street protests outside the hotels and the Washington State Convention and Trade Center , in what became the second phase of the anti-globalization movement in the United States . The protests were nicknamed `` N30 '' , on similar lines to J18 and similar mobilizations . The large scale of the demonstrations , estimated at no less than 40,000 protesters , dwarfed any previous demonstration in the United States against a world meeting of any of the organizations generally associated with economic globalization ( such as the WTO , the International Monetary Fund , or the World Bank ) .

The Kübler-Ross model , or the five stages of grief , postulates a series of emotions experienced by terminally ill patients prior to death , or people who have lost a loved one , wherein the five stages are denial , anger , bargaining , depression and acceptance .   The model was first introduced by Swiss psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book On Death and Dying , and was inspired by her work with terminally ill patients . Motivated by the lack of instruction in medical schools on the subject of death and dying , Kübler-Ross examined death and those faced with it at the University of Chicago medical school . Kübler-Ross ' project evolved into a series of seminars which , along with patient interviews and previous research , became the foundation for her book . Since the publication of On Death and Dying , the Kübler-Ross model has become accepted by the general public ; however , its validity is not consistently supported by the majority of research .   Kübler-Ross noted later in life that the stages are not a linear and predictable progression and that she regretted writing them in a way that was misunderstood . Rather , they are a collation of five common experiences for the bereaved that can occur in any order , if at all .

Deirdre Nansen McCloskey ( born September 11 , 1942 ) , formerly known as Donald N. McCloskey , is the Distinguished Professor of Economics , History , English , and Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago ( UIC ) . She is also adjunct professor of Philosophy and Classics there , and for five years was a visiting Professor of philosophy at Erasmus University , Rotterdam . Since October 2007 she has received six honorary doctorates . In 2013 , she received the Julian L. Simon Memorial Award from the Competitive Enterprise Institute for her work examining factors in history that led to advancement in human achievement and prosperity . Her main research interests include the origins of the modern world , the misuse of statistical significance in economics and other sciences , and the study of capitalism , among many others .

A reply is a statement or acknowledgment made in response to an interrogative question , request or comment . Replies are communicated in a variety of ways , the most common being spoken or written , and act as a way of conveying relevant information and continuing a conversational exchange .   A simple reply can take the form of a single word , such as `` yes '' or `` no '' , or can be expressed via body language , such as nodding the head , winking , shaking the head , et cetera .

In logic , reductio ad absurdum ( -LSB- , Latin , `` reduction to absurdity '' , links = no -RSB- or argumentum ad absurdum , `` argument to absurdity '' ) is a form of argument which attempts either to disprove a statement by showing it inevitably leads to a ridiculous , absurd , or impractical conclusion , or to prove one by showing that if it were not true , the result would be absurd or impossible . Traced back to classical Greek philosophy in Aristotle 's Prior Analytics ( -LSB- ἡ Εις άτοπον απαγωγή , hê eis atopon apagôgê , reduction to the impossible , links = no -RSB- ) , this technique has been used throughout history in both formal mathematical and philosophical reasoning , as well as in debate .   Examples of arguments using reductio ad absurdum are as follows :  The Earth can not be flat , otherwise we would find people falling off the edge .  There is no smallest positive rational number , because if there were , then it could be divided by two to get a smaller one .  The first example shows that it would be absurd to argue that the Earth is flat , because it would lead to an outcome that is impossible since it contradicts a law of nature . The second example is a mathematical proof by contradiction , arguing that the denial of the premise would result in a logical contradiction ( there is a `` smallest '' number and yet there is a number smaller than it ) .

A dead pool , also known as a death pool , is a game of prediction which involves guessing when someone will die . Sometimes it is a bet where money is involved .

Recruitment ( hiring ) is a core function of human resource management . Recruitment refers to the overall process of attracting , selecting and appointing suitable candidates  for jobs ( either permanent or temporary ) within an organization . Recruitment can also refer to processes involved in choosing individuals for unpaid positions , such as voluntary roles or unpaid trainee roles . Managers , human resource generalists and recruitment specialists may be tasked with carrying out recruitment , but in some cases public-sector employment agencies , commercial recruitment agencies , or specialist search consultancies are used to undertake parts of the process . Internet-based technologies to support all aspects of recruitment have become widespread .

Raymond Edwin Wolfinger ( 29 June 1931 -- 6 February 2015 ) was an American political scientist and professor at the University of California at Berkeley . He was best known as the co-author ( with Steven J. Rosenstone ) of an influential book on voter turnout , Who Votes . Prior to his tenure at Berkeley , he was on the faculty at Stanford University . In between this academic career he was an assistant to Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey , for whom he helped manage passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act . Wolfinger was one source of the well-known aphorism , `` The plural of anecdote is data . '' He was a behavioral political scientist , an empiricist in search of better data and rigorous thinking and testing , and a protégé of Robert Dahl .   He received his Ph.D. in Political Science from Yale University , his M.A. from the University of Illinois , and his B.A. from the University of California , Berkeley .


Question: A substantial number of individuals believe that the scientific understanding of climate change has reached a consensus.

 Consensus Among Scientists Regarding Anthropogenic Climate Change
A significant majority of climate scientists agree that humans significantly impact global temperatures via increased carbon dioxide levels and other greenhouse gases . This consensus has been reached after decades of meticulous study involving thousands of researchers across various disciplines who publish findings regularly updated within reputable academic journals . Established bodies like NASA endorse conclusions supporting man-made climate alteration alongside numerous national academies representing multiple nations ' top minds . These institutions collectively reinforce evidence linking contemporary atmospheric changes directly back to industrial era advancements characterized predominantly by burning fossil fuels . Additionally , professional associations encompassing meteorologists , geophysicists , ecologists etc., uniformly acknowledge anthropocentric origins behind observed planetary heating trends . Consequently , authoritative voices unanimously assert urgent necessity regarding curbing emissions lest irreversible damage ensue threatening civilization sustainability going forward into future centuries ahead . Notably absent amongst detractors criticizing prevailing wisdom tend either lack requisite expertise necessary properly evaluating complex datasets underlying robust methodologies employed modern day practitioners ; alternatively , motivations steering contrarian viewpoints often traceable financial incentives derived industries benefiting status quo energy paradigms resistant transitioning renewable alternatives . Ultimately , overwhelming preponderance empirical data corroborated cross-disciplinary analyses leaves little room doubting veracity assertions positing mankind pivotal role precipitating current epoch termed Anthropocene distinguished accelerating pace ecological disruption unparalleled historical precedent .

This response maintains comparable structure while addressing essence original proposition emphasizing broad endorsement spanning governmental agencies , educational establishments , specialized societies advocating stringent measures counteracting escalating crisis attributed largely unregulated exploitation finite hydrocarbon reserves exacerbated ongoing deforestation practices diminishing terrestrial sinks capacity absorb excess CO2 accumulating stratosphere triggering cascading feedback loops amplifying thermal expansion oceans contributing sea-level rise endangering low lying coastal communities globally .

Religion in Ethiopia consists of a number of faiths . Among these mainly Abrahamic religions , the most numerous is Christianity ( Ethiopian Orthodoxy , Pentay , Catholic ) followed by Islam . There is also a longstanding but small Jewish community . Some adherents of the Bahá ' í Faith likewise exist in a number of urban and rural areas . Additionally , there are a few followers of traditional faiths , who mainly reside in the southwestern part of the country .   According to the national census conducted in 2007 , over 32 million people or 43.5 % were reported to be Ethiopian Orthodox Christians , over 25 million or 33.9 % were reported to be Muslim , 13,7 million , or 12.6 % , were Protestant , and just under two million or 2.6 % adhered to traditional beliefs . Neither in the 2007 census , nor in the 1994 census , were responses reported in further detail : for example , those who identified themselves as Hindus , Jewish , Baha'i , agnostics or atheists were counted as `` Other '' .   The Kingdom of Aksum in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was one of the first Christian countries in the world , having officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century .

A deficiency is generally a lack of something . It may also refer to :   A deficient number , in mathematics , a number n for which σ ( n ) < 2n  Angular deficiency , in geometry , the difference between a sum of angles and the corresponding sum in a Euclidean plane  Deficiency ( medicine ) , including various types of malnutrition , as well as genetic diseases caused by deficiencies of endogenously produced proteins .  A deficiency in construction , an item , or condition that is considered sub-standard , or below minimum expectations  Genetic deletion , in genetics , is also called a deficiency  A deficiency judgment , in the law of real estate  A tax deficiency , an amount owed in taxes over and above what has been submitted in payment   ar : نقص  de : Mangel  no : Mangel

A dietary supplement is intended to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities .   Supplements as generally understood include vitamins , minerals , fiber , fatty acids , or amino acids , among other substances . U.S. authorities define dietary supplements as foods , while elsewhere they may be classified as drugs or other products .   There are more than 50,000 dietary supplements available . More than half of the U.S. adult population ( 53 % -- 55 % ) consume dietary supplements with most common ones being multivitamins .   These products are not intended to prevent or treat any disease and in some circumstances are dangerous , according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health . For those who fail to consume a balanced diet , the agency says that certain supplements `` may have value . ''   Most supplements should be avoided , and usually people should not eat micronutrients except people with clearly shown deficiency . Those people should first consult a doctor . An exception is vitamin D , which is recommended in Nordic countries due to weak sunlight .

Knowledge is a detailed familiarity with , or understanding of , a person , thing or situation .   Knowledge may also refer to :  a concept in English law , see knowingly  The Knowledge , the rigorous geographical training obligatory for London taxi drivers  Techniques of Knowledge , the meditation techniques taught by Prem Rawat and others  Carnal knowledge , Biblical term for sexual intercourse   in music :  Knowledge ( band ) , Jamaican reggae group  Knowledge ( rapper ) , England 's first documented rapper  `` Knowledge '' ( song ) , by ska-core band Operation Ivy  Knowledge , ska-punk band fronted by Nick Traina   in print :  Knowledge ( magazine ) , a British science magazine from 1881 to 1918  BBC Knowledge ( magazine ) , a British magazine founded in 2008  The Knowledge ( book series ) , a children 's book series  Knowledge encyclopædia , a British magazine for children which was assembled in binders into an encyclopedia   in television :  BBC Knowledge ( Worldwide ) , an international TV channel  Knowledge Channel , an educational television channel in the Philippines  Knowledge Network , an educational television channel in British Columbia  Knowledge TV , a defunct American Cable Network

Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter one 's mental state in a way that modifies emotions , perceptions , and feelings for recreational purposes . When a substance enters the user 's body , it brings on an intoxicating effect , often referred to as a `` high '' . Generally , people use recreational drugs that fall into three categories : depressants ( these drugs produce a feeling of relaxation and calmness ) ; stimulants ( these drugs give the user a sense of energy and alertness ) ; and psychedelic drugs ( these cause hallucinations and perceptual distortions that some users find appealing ) . In popular usage , it is generally considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication .   Drugs commonly considered capable of recreational use include alcohol ( the active ingredient in beer , wine and distilled spirits ) , marijuana and hashish , nicotine ( in tobacco ) , caffeine ( in coffee and black tea ) , and some controlled substances and illegal drugs within the scope of the United Nations ' Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and Convention on Psychotropic Substances . The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country , but they usually include methamphetamines , heroin , cocaine and other street drugs and club drugs . In 2009 it was estimated that about 3 % to 6 % of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once ( 149 to 270 million ) . International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal drug use , manufacture , and distribution .

Radical skepticism or radical scepticism is the philosophical position that knowledge is most likely impossible . Radical skeptics hold that doubt exists as to the veracity of every belief and that certainty is therefore never justified . To determine the extent to which it is possible to respond to radical skeptical challenges is the task of epistemology or `` the theory of knowledge '' .   Several Ancient Greek philosophers , including Plato , Cratylus , Carneades , Arcesilaus , Aenesidemus , Pyrrho , and Sextus Empiricus have been viewed as having expounded theories of radical skepticism .   In modern philosophy , two representatives of radical skepticism are Michel de Montaigne ( most famously known for his skeptical remark , Que sçay-je ? , ` What do I know ? ' in Middle French ; modern French Que sais-je ? ) and David Hume ( particularly as set out in A Treatise of Human Nature , Book 1 : `` Of the Understanding '' ) .   As radical skepticism can be used as an objection for most or all beliefs , many philosophers have attempted to refute it . For example , Bertrand Russell wrote `` Skepticism , while logically impeccable , is psychologically impossible , and there is an element of frivolous insincerity in any philosophy which pretends to accept it . ''

The Declaration of Helsinki ( DoH ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association ( WMA ) . It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics .   It is not a legally binding instrument under the international law , but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in , or influenced , national or regional legislation and regulations . Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words `` Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association , the document should be considered the property of all humanity '' .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

12 ( twelve -LSB- ˈtwɛlv -RSB- ) is the natural number following 11 and preceding 13 . The product of the first three factorials , twelve is a superior highly composite number , divisible by 2 , 3 , 4 , and 6 . It is central to many systems of counting , including the Western calendar and units of time , and frequently appears in the Abrahamic religions .

11 o'clock number is a theatrical term for a big , show-stopping song that occurs late in the second act of a two-act musical . It was so named because in the days when musical performances would start at 8:30 pm , this song would occur around 11 pm . Besides reenergizing the audience as the show heads toward its conclusion , it offers audience members a catchy melody to hum as they leave the theater .   Among the theatre community , there is some debate as to additional characteristics of an 11 o'clock number . It often signifies a moment of revelation or change in heart of a lead character , although there are exceptions to this . The 11 o'clock number is also differentiated from the finale in that it is not the final number in the show , but even this is not considered a requirement by some commenters .   Notable 11 o'clock numbers include `` Sit Down , You 're Rockin ' the Boat '' from Guys and Dolls , `` Rose 's Turn '' from Gypsy , `` Brotherhood of Man '' from How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying , `` Memory '' from Cats , `` Gim me Gim me '' from Thoroughly Modern Millie , `` The American Dream '' from Miss Saigon and , more recently , `` I 'm Here '' from The Color Purple , `` Always Starting Over '' from If/Then and `` She Used to Be Mine '' from Waitress .


Question:
 Throughout Earth's history, as revealed by geological records, there has been ample proof of continuous fluctuation in natural climate patterns; this includes instances where expansive ice caps nearly reached tropical latitudes, juxtaposed against periods when no ice was present anywhere near either pole. This underscores how our planet’s climatic conditions have always been subject to significant change over time without human intervention.
```

 Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: An Ancient Climate Change Case Study

Climate variability has been a constant feature of Earth’s history, offering insights into how ecosystems respond under changing conditions. One significant episode illustrating this variability occurred approximately 56 million years ago – known as the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this era, there was no permanent ice cap covering either pole; instead, lush vegetation thrived near what we now consider Arctic regions.

This dramatic shift happened when massive amounts of carbon entered the atmosphere rapidly, leading to a sudden rise in temperatures globally. The PETM serves as a stark reminder of nature's capacity for rapid transformation without direct human influence. Marine fossils discovered far inland suggest sea levels significantly higher than they are today, indicating substantial glacial retreat. Terrestrial flora expanded beyond traditional boundaries, adapting to new environments created by warmer climates.

Throughout this period, mammalian evolution accelerated dramatically, giving way to larger body sizes and increased diversification among various species. Early primates emerged alongside numerous other evolutionary lineages responding uniquely to altered ecological niches. Meanwhile, reptiles continued dominating terrestrial landscapes while avian adaptations flourished within expanding temperate zones.

As continents drifted through tectonic movements, ancient land bridges facilitated migrations across evolving biomes. These changes highlight both resilience and vulnerability inherent within complex biological systems facing abrupt shifts in baseline environmental parameters. Understanding past episodes helps contextualize current debates surrounding anthropogenic impacts versus naturally occurring fluctuations in planetary dynamics.

Thus, studying historical periods like the PETM offers valuable lessons about long-term trends shaping Earth's climate trajectory. By examining records preserved within sedimentary deposits and comparing them against modern datasets, scientists can better predict future scenarios influenced by ongoing greenhouse gas accumulation. Such knowledge underscores urgent need for proactive conservation strategies aimed at mitigating potentially catastrophic outcomes associated with unchecked global warming phenomena.

Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets .   When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost .   Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges .   Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .

Detoxification or detoxication ( detox for short ) is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances from a living organism , including the human body , which is mainly carried out by the liver . Additionally , it can refer to the period of withdrawal during which an organism returns to homeostasis after long-term use of an addictive substance . In medicine , detoxification can be achieved by decontamination of poison ingestion and the use of antidotes as well as techniques such as dialysis and ( in a limited number of cases ) chelation therapy .   Many alternative medicine practitioners promote various types of detoxification such as detoxification diets . Scientists have described these as a `` waste of time and money '' . Sense About Science , a UK-based charitable trust , determined that most such dietary `` detox '' claims lack any supporting evidence .

Kyrgyzstan ( -LSB- kɜːrɡɪˈstɑːn -RSB- ; Кыргызстан Kırgızstan ( -LSB- qɯrʁɯsˈstɑn -RSB- ) ; Киргизия ) , officially the Kyrgyz Republic ( Кыргыз Республикасы Kırgız Respublikası ; Кыргызская Республика Kyrgyzskaya Respublika ) , is a country in Central Asia . Landlocked and mountainous , Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north , Uzbekistan to the west and southwest , Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east . Its capital and largest city is Bishkek .   Kyrgyzstan 's recorded history spans over 2,000 years , encompassing a variety of cultures and empires . Although geographically isolated by its highly mountainous terrain , which has helped preserve its ancient culture , Kyrgyzstan has been at the crossroads of several great civilizations as part of the Silk Road and other commercial and cultural routes . Though long inhabited by a succession of independent tribes and clans , Kyrgyzstan has periodically fallen under foreign domination and attained sovereignty as a nation-state only after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 .   Since independence , Kyrgyzstan has officially been a unitary parliamentary republic , although it continues to endure ethnic conflicts , revolts , economic troubles , transitional governments and political conflict . Kyrgyzstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States , the Eurasian Economic Union , the Collective Security Treaty Organization , the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the Turkic Council , the TÜRKSOY community and the United Nations .   Ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the country 's 5.7 million people , followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians . Kyrgyz is closely related to other Turkic languages , although Russian remains widely spoken and is the official language , a legacy of a century of Russification . The majority of the population are non-denominational Muslims . In addition to its Turkic origins , Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian , Mongolian and Russian influence .

Dessert ( -LSB- dᵻˈzɜːrt -RSB- ) is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal . The course usually consists of sweet foods and beverages , such as dessert wine or liqueurs , but may include coffee , cheeses , nuts , or other savory items . In some parts of the world , such as much of central and western Africa , and most parts of China , there is no tradition of a dessert course to conclude a meal .   The term `` dessert '' can apply to many confections , such as cakes , tarts , cookies , biscuits , gelatins , pastries , ice creams , pies , puddings , custards , and sweet soups . Fruit is also commonly found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness . Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts .

In geology , lake capture is the process of capture ( see Stream capture ) of the waters collected in a lake by a neighbor river basin .   The occurrence of a lake capture is mainly controlled by the water balance at the lake 's basin and the changes in topography due to erosion , sedimentation , and tectonism . If evaporation at the surface of a lake , plus the water losses through underground infiltration and plant evapotranspiration are high enough to account for all precipitation water collected by the lake , then the lake becomes endorheic , closed , or internally drained . This situation prevails until the water balance changes again and the lake overburdens the limits of its basin or until the lake capture occurs . Opening the drainage of an endorheic lacustrine basin by fluvial erosion generally implies a lake capture .   Lake captures are therefore very sensitive to the preexisting topography as well as to climatic and lithological factors . A climatic change towards more humid conditions can result in a higher water level in the internally drained basin , eventually causing overflow , this . In a longer time-scale , sediment colmatation of the lacustrine basin can also lead to overflow . Both can hinder the relative importance of the capture process carried out by erosion .   Examples include the Late Neogen capture of the endorheic Ebro Basin ( capture ) or the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville .

Richard Gilbert West FRS ( born 31 May 1926 ) is a British botanist , geologist and palaeontologist .  He began his career at the age of 18 in 1944 when he joined the Army and spent time in India . On return to England , he went to Clare College , Cambridge in 1948 taking Botany and Geology at Part I. Although being tempted to take Geology for Part II , he decided to study Botany , for which he obtained First Class Honours and the Frank Smart Studentship . As a research student , he was supervised by Harry Godwin , Director of the Subdepartment of Quaternary Research and investigated the now classic study of the stratigraphy and palynology of the Middle Pleistocene interglacial lake deposits at Hoxne , Suffolk . He was awarded his PhD in 1954 , shortly after he was elected a Fellow of Clare College , Cambridge . Richard become a lecturer in the Department of Botany in 1960 , in 1966 he became Director of the Subdepartment , and Professor of Botany in 1977 . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1968 and has been awarded many medals and prizes , including the Lyell and Bigsby medals of the Geological Society and the Albrecht Penck medal of the Deutsche Quartärvereiningung . He retired in 1991 .   Throughout his career he maintained a wide interest in Quaternary Science in general , and the British Quaternary geology in particular . His research was mainly based on the understanding of interglacial and cold-climate period palaeobotany and stratigraphy , but also sedimentation and periglaciation . As well as inspiring three generations of research students , he published numerous reviews , over 120 papers and 9 books .

A relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon .   In biology a relict ( or relic ) is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas .  In ecology , an ecosystem which originally ranged over a large expanse , but is now narrowly confined , may be termed a relict .  In geology , the term relict refers to structures or minerals from a parent rock that did not undergo metamorphosis when the surrounding rock did , or to rock that survived a destructive geologic process .  In geomorphology , a relict landform is a landform formed by either erosive or constructive surficial processes that are no longer active as they were in the past .  In agronomy , a relict crop is a crop which was previously grown extensively , but is now only used in one limited region , or a small number of isolated regions .  In history ( as revealed in DNA testing ) , a relict population refers to an ancient people in an area who have been largely supplanted by a later group of migrants and their descendants .  In real estate law , reliction is the gradual recession of water from its usual high-water mark so that the newly uncovered land becomes the property of the adjoining riparian property owner .   Other uses :  In addition , relict was an ancient term still used in colonial ( British ) America and England of that era , now archaic , for a widow . It came to be a generic or collective term for widows and widowers .  In historical linguistics , a relict is a word that is a survivor of a form or forms that are otherwise archaic .

Lake El ` gygytgyn ( Russian and Chukchi : Эльгыгытгын ) is an impact crater lake located in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in northeast Siberia , about 150 km southeast of Chaunskaya Bay .   The word `` Elgygytgyn '' means `` white lake '' in the Chukchi language .   The lake is of particular interest to scientists because it has never been covered by glaciers . This has allowed the uninterrupted build-up of 400 m of sediment at the bottom of the lake , recording information on prehistoric climate change .

Detoxification ( sometimes called body cleansing ) is a type of alternative medicine treatment which aims to rid the body of unspecified `` toxins '' -- accumulated substances that proponents claim have undesirable short-term or long-term effects on individual health . Activities commonly associated with detoxification include dieting , fasting , consuming exclusively or avoiding specific foods ( such as fats , carbohydrates , fruits , vegetables , juices , herbs , or water ) , colon cleansing , chelation therapy , and the removal of dental fillings .   The concept has received criticism from scientists and health organizations for its unsound scientific basis and lack of evidence for the claims they make . The `` toxins '' usually remain undefined , with little to no evidence of toxic accumulation in the patient . The British organisation Sense About Science has described some detox diets and commercial products as `` a waste of time and money '' , while the British Dietetic Association called the idea `` nonsense '' and a `` marketing myth '' .

Reality is the state of things as they actually exist , rather than as they may appear or might be imagined . Reality includes everything that is and has been , whether or not it is observable or comprehensible . A still broader definition includes that which has existed , exists , or will exist .   Philosophers , mathematicians , and other ancient and modern thinkers , such as Aristotle , Plato , Frege , Wittgenstein , and Russell , have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality , coherent abstractions ( thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real ) , and that which can not even be rationally thought . By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain .   Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary , illusory , delusional , ( only ) in the mind , dreams , what is false , what is fictional , or what is abstract . At the same time , what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research . For instance , causality , virtue , life , and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define , but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions . Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute : one extreme position regards them as mere words ; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts . This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals .   The truth refers to what is real , while falsity refers to what is not . Fictions are considered not real .


Question: Throughout Earth's history, as documented in geological records, we find ample proof of continuous natural fluctuations in climate patterns; these range from expansive glacial periods where icy caps extended nearly up against tropical latitudes to warmer epochs during which no ice could be found, not even around polar regions. This historical data underscores how variable our planet’s temperature has been over time without human interference.

 Climate Variability Through Geological Time: A Deep History Perspective

Earth’s climate has undergone dramatic fluctuations throughout its long history, showcasing nature's inherent instability. From vast expanses covered in glacial ice nearly touching tropical latitudes to completely ice-free conditions around both poles, the geological record offers compelling insights into past climates. These shifts were often triggered by complex interactions among plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, solar radiation changes, atmospheric composition alterations, and ocean currents modifications—demonstrating how dynamic planetary systems can lead to substantial variations without anthropogenic influence.

Consider the Mesozoic Era—a period spanning approximately 200 million years—from the late Triassic through the Cretaceous Period. Often referred to as "the age of reptiles," this epoch saw the rise and dominance of large terrestrial animals like dinosaurs alongside marine giants such as plesiosaurs. However, beyond fauna, the Mesozoic marked crucial developments within flora ecosystems; coniferous forests flourished across continents then connected under the supercontinent Pangaea before breaking apart gradually.

Geologically speaking, the Mesozoic represents a phase characterized by intense continental drift resulting in diverse landscapes conducive to varying temperatures and precipitation levels. Initially following catastrophic extinctions marking transitions between prehistoric ages—the Permian-Triassic boundary noted for wiping out roughly ninety percent of existing species—it culminated in yet another cataclysmic event ending dinosaur reign while paving way for mammalian ascendancy post-Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction crisis.

Throughout this expansive timeframe, Earth experienced fluctuating thermal regimes oscillating between warmer hothouse states akin to those projected under severe future greenhouse scenarios versus cooler intervals reminiscent of recent Ice Ages. Such cyclical transformations underscore intrinsic vulnerabilities associated with shifting baselines susceptible to external forcings irrespective of human intervention.

In essence, examining deep-time perspectives reveals recurring themes concerning natural climate volatility predicated upon intricate feedback mechanisms operating independently from contemporary concerns surrounding anthropocentric impacts. Understanding historical contexts thus becomes pivotal when assessing modern-day challenges posed by accelerating global warming trends exacerbated predominantly via unsustainable practices contributing significantly higher concentrations of heat-trapping gases relative to baseline conditions observed prior to Industrial Revolution onset circa mid-eighteenth century onwards.

This comprehensive overview highlights critical junctures where ecological dynamics underwent profound reorganization amidst ever-evolving environmental parameters governed largely by internal geophysical processes rather than direct interventions stemming exclusively from Homo sapiens' agency since emergence onto world stage some two hundred thousand years ago. Ultimately, recognizing past episodes serves dual purposes: informing adaptive strategies aimed at mitigating adverse outcomes linked closely together

Historically , Diluvium was a term in geology for superficial deposits formed by flood-like operations of water , and so contrasted with alluvium or alluvial deposits formed by slow and steady aqueous agencies . The term was formerly given to the boulder clay deposits , supposed to have been caused by the Noachian deluge .   In the late 20th century Russian geologist Alexei Rudoy proposed the term `` diluvium '' for description of deposits created as a result of catastrophic outbursts of Pleistocene giant glacier-dammed lakes in intermontane basins of the Altai . The largest of these lakes , Chuya and Kuray , had volumes of water in hundreds of cubic kilometers , and their discharge in peak hydrograph flow rate exceeded the maximum rates of the well-known Pleistocene Lake Missoula floods in North America . The term `` diluvium '' in the meaning of A. N. Rudoy has become accepted , and the process of diluvial morpholithogenesis can be found in modern textbooks .

A diapir ( -LSB- ˈdaɪ.əpɪər -RSB- French , from Greek diapeirein , to pierce through ) is a type of geologic intrusion in which a more mobile and ductily deformable material is forced into brittle overlying rocks . Depending on the tectonic environment , diapirs can range from idealized mushroom-shaped Rayleigh -- Taylor-instability-type structures in regions with low tectonic stress such as in the Gulf of Mexico to narrow dikes of material that move along tectonically induced fractures in surrounding rock . The term was introduced by the Romanian geologist Ludovic Mrazek , who was the first to understand the principle of salt intrusion and plasticity . The term `` diapir '' may be applied to igneous structures , but it is more commonly applied to non-igneous , relatively cold materials , such as salt domes and mud diapirs .   In addition to Earth-based observations , diapirism is thought to occur on Neptune 's moon Triton , Jupiter 's moon Europa , Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and Uranus 's moon Miranda .   Diapirs commonly intrude vertically upward along fractures or zones of structural weakness through denser overlying rocks because of density contrast between a less dense , lower rock mass and overlying denser rocks . The density contrast manifests as a force of buoyancy . The process is known as diapirism . The resulting structures are also referred to as piercement structures .   In the process , segments of the existing strata can be disconnected and pushed upwards . While moving higher , they retain much of their original properties such as pressure , which can be significantly different from that of the shallower strata they get pushed into . Such overpressured Floaters pose a significant risk when trying to drill through them . There is an analogy to a Galilean thermometer .   Rock types such as evaporitic salt deposits , and gas charged muds are potential sources of diapirs . Diapirs also form in the earth 's mantle when a sufficient mass of hot , less dense magma assembles . Diapirism in the mantle is thought to be associated with the development of large igneous provinces and some mantle plumes .   Explosive , hot volatile rich magma or volcanic eruptions are referred to generally as diatremes . Diatremes are not usually associated with diapirs , as they are small-volume magmas which ascend by volatile plumes , not by density contrast with the surrounding mantle .

Land claim ( s ) are a legal declaration of desired control over areas of property including bodies of water . The phrase is usually only used with respect to disputed or unresolved land claims . Some types of land claims include aboriginal land claims , Antarctic land claims , and post-colonial land claims .   Land claims is sometimes used as a term when referring to disputed territories like Western Sahara or to refer to the claims of displaced persons .   In the colonial times of the United States American men could claim a piece of land for themselves and the claim has different level of merit according to the de facto conditions :  claim without any action on the ground  claim with ( movable ) property of the claimant on the ground  claim with the claimant visiting the land  claim with claimant living on the land .   Today , only small areas of unclaimed land remain , yet large plots of land with little economical value ( e.g. , in Alaska ) can still be bought for very low prices . Also , in certain parts of the world , land can still be obtained by making productive use of it .

Research comprises `` creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge , including knowledge of humans , culture and society , and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications . '' It is used to establish or confirm facts , reaffirm the results of previous work , solve new or existing problems , support theorems , or develop new theories . A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field . Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic , or in the example of a school research project , they can be used to further a student 's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports . To test the validity of instruments , procedures , or experiments , research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole . The primary purposes of basic research ( as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , or the research and development ( R&D ) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge . Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences . There are several forms of research : scientific , humanities , artistic , economic , social , business , marketing , practitioner research , life , technological , etc. .

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans and some other species of primate , consisting typically of rhythmical , often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system . It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli . Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled , or from humorous stories or thoughts . Most commonly , it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states , such as joy , mirth , happiness , relief , etc. . On some occasions , however , it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment , apology , or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh . Age , gender , education , language , and culture are all factors as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation .   Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain , helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations . Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group -- it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others . Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious , and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback . This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows .   The study of humor and laughter , and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body , is called gelotology .

A refrigerator ( colloquially fridge ) is a popular household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump ( mechanical , electronic or chemical ) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room . Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries . The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria , so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage . A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water . Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to . A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer . The refrigerator replaced the icebox , which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half . For this reason , a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage .   The first cooling systems for food involved using ice . Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s , and developed in the early 1800s . In 1834 , the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built . The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854 . In 1913 , refrigerators for home use were invented . In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit . The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s . Home freezers as separate compartments ( larger than necessary just for ice cubes ) were introduced in 1940 . Frozen foods , previously a luxury item , became commonplace .   Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce . Commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models . Most households use the freezer-on-top-and-refrigerator-on-bottom style , which has been the basic style since the 1940s . A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators , refrigerator -- freezers and freezers . Newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting , chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door .   Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes . Among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer . A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing , or built into a kitchen . The refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before . Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure , and bulk purchases save money .

Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth 's crust , and more especially to folding and faulting . Diastrophism can be considered part of geotectonics . Diastrophism comes from the Greek word meaning a twisting .   All processes that move , elevate or build up portions of the earth 's crust come under diastrophism . They include : ( i ) orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth 's crust ; ( ii ) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth 's crust ; ( iii ) earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements ; ( iv ) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates .   Diastrophism covers movement of solid ( plastic ) crust material , as opposed to movement of molten material which is covered by volcanism . Movement causes rock to be bent or broken . The most obvious evidence of disastrophic movement can be seen where sedimentary rocks have been bent , broken or tilted . Such non-horizontal strata provide visual proof of movement . Diastrophic movement can be classified as two types , folding and faulting , tilted beds usually are part of a larger syncline or anticline . Diastrophic movement is often called orogenic as it is associated with mountain building .   There are various theories of the cause of diastrophic movement such as being the result of pressures exerted by convection currents in the mantle or the rise of magma through the crust . Other deformations are caused by meteorite impact and combinations of gravity and erosion such as landslides and slumping .   The study of diastrophism encompasses the varying responses of the crust to tectonic stresses . These responses include linear or torsional horizontal movements ( such as continental drift ) and vertical subsidence and uplift of the lithosphere ( strain ) in response to natural stresses on Earth 's surface such as the weight of mountains , lakes , and glaciers . Subsurface conditions also cause subsidence or uplift , known as epeirogeny , over large areas of Earth 's surface without deforming rock strata . Such changes include the thickening of the lithosphere by overthrusting , changes in rock density of the lithosphere caused by metamorphism or thermal expansion and contraction , increases in the volume of the asthenosphere ( part of the upper mantle supporting the lithosphere ) caused by hydration of olivine , and orogenic , or mountain-building , movements .

Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''

The Deep Sea Drilling Project ( DSDP ) was an ocean drilling project operated from 1968 to 1983 . The program was considered to be successful as evidenced by the data and publications that have resulted from it and is now supported by Texas A&M University , although for the years of its operations these were all coordinated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California , San Diego . DSDP provided crucial data to support the seafloor spreading hypothesis and helped to prove the theory of plate tectonics . DSDP was the first of three international scientific ocean drilling programs that have operated over more than 40 years .

Kwäday Dän Ts ' ìnchi ( meaning Long Ago Person Found in Southern Tutchone ) , or Canadian Ice Man , is a naturally mummified body found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park in British Columbia , Canada , by a group of hunters in 1999 . Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the body at between 300 and 550 years . The find was comparable in condition and scientific value to Ötzi the Iceman , remains dating to 3300 BC that were found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 .   DNA testing of more than 240 volunteers from the local Champagne and Aishihik First Nations revealed 17 persons who are related to the ice man through their direct maternal line . They were excited to have their deep connections to the area affirmed .