Question: During the period spanning from 1979 through 1982 - marked by plummeting CO2 emissions as escalating oil prices significantly curtailed usage - the velocity at which atmospheric CO2 levels rose remained unchanged; this phenomenon substantiates that human activities did not predominantly contribute to the escalation of greenhouse gases. This evidence challenges anthropogenic origins being solely responsible for heightened concentrations of carbon dioxide within our atmosphere during said era.

1979-1982 Oil Crisis' Effect on Carbon Dioxide Levels
From 1979 through 1982, amidst soaring oil prices leading to significantly diminished usage, carbon dioxide emission levels saw a notable decrease; however, the pace of rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations remained unchanged. This phenomenon suggests that anthropogenic sources might not solely account for escalating CO2 levels. During those critical years, economic downturn spurred by high-cost crude triggered reduced consumption globally, impacting industries reliant upon fossil fuels. Yet, despite plummeting emissions associated with human activities, particularly within manufacturing sectors, atmosphere’s CO2 content persisted its upward trend unabatedly. Such observations challenge prevailing notions attributing recent increases exclusively to man-made influences, urging reconsideration regarding complex dynamics governing planetary gaseous compositions.
Historically, various agencies monitor shifts concerning earth’s energetic balance meticulously documenting alterations pertinent to both extraction methodologies alongside utilization patterns spanning continents. These entities encompass International Energy Association [IEA], US Department of Energy – Energy Information Administration[EIA] amongst others dedicated towards chronicling fluctuations pertaining specifically towards non-renewable resource exploitation. Their collective endeavors facilitate comprehension surrounding intricate interplay connecting societal progressions juxtaposed against ecological repercussions emanating thereof.
Moreover, Total Primary Energy Supply[TPES]-an amalgamation representing summative output derived post-production phase adjusted accordingly accounting for inventory adjustments serves proxy indicative consumer appetite irrespective underlying efficiencies characterizing respective mediums employed therein. Consequently, traditional reserves characterized lower yields viz-a-viz renewables tendentially receive inflated assessments conversely green alternatives undervalued disproportionately underestimating true potentials inherent thereto. According to estimations proffered via aforementioned consortium circa annum 2013, aggregated figures approximated magnitude exceeding fifteen septillion watt-hours equating roughly equivalent seventeen petajoules translating approximately thirteen quintillion tonnes oil equivalents.
In retrospect, turn millennium witnessed resurgence interest alternative avenues catalyzed burgeoning awareness coupled mounting urgency necessitating paradigm shifts away finite deposits towards sustainable paradigms. Coal retained dominant position albeit experiencing modest gains paralleled concomitant expansions leveraging petroleum derivatives complemented incremental upticks harnessing hydraulic potentialities augmented intermittent contributions sourced biologically feasible matrices. Conversely, reliance uranium declined precipitously attributable catastrophic events typified meltdown scenarios unfolding Three Mile Island(1979),Chernobyl(1986)&Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant disaster aftermath(2011).
Economic ramifications stemming fluctuating tariffs incurred expenses eclipsing sextillions United States Dollars constituting tenth proportion Gross Domestic

In the United States , redlining is the practice of denying services , either directly or through selectively raising prices , to residents of certain areas based on the racial or ethnic composition of those areas . While the best known examples of redlining have involved denial of financial services such as banking or insurance , other services such as health care or even supermarkets have been denied to residents ( or in the case of retail businesses like supermarkets , simply located impractically far away from said residents ) to result in a redlining effect . Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets particular neighborhoods that are predominantly nonwhite , not to deny residents loans or insurance , but rather to charge them more than in a non-redlined neighborhood where there is more competition .   In the 1960s , a sociologist named John McKnight coined the term `` redlining '' to describe the discriminatory practice of fencing off areas where banks would avoid investments based on community demographics . During the heyday of redlining , the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods . For example , in Atlanta in the 1980s , a Pulitzer Prize-winning series of articles by investigative reporter Bill Dedman showed that banks would often lend to lower-income whites but not to middle - or upper-income blacks . The use of blacklists is a related mechanism also used by redliners to keep track of groups , areas , and people that the discriminating party feels should be denied business or aid or other transactions . In the academic literature , redlining falls under the broader category of credit rationing .

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

The 1970 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season in which reconnaissance aircraft flew into all four quadrants of a tropical cyclone . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was fairly average , with 10 total storms forming , of which five were hurricanes . Two of those five became major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson scale . The first system , Hurricane Alma , developed on May 17 . The storm killed eight people , seven from flooding in Cuba and one from a lightning strike in Florida . In July , Tropical Storm Becky brought minor flooding to Florida and other parts of the Southern United States , leaving one death and about $ 500,000 ( 1970 USD ) in damage .   The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Celia , a Category 3 hurricane that slammed South Texas in early August . Celia resulted in about $ 930 million in damage and was the costliest hurricane in Texas until Alicia in 1983 . There were 28 fatalities , with four in Cuba , eight in Florida , and sixteen in Texas . Later that month , Tropical Storm Dorothy caused severe flooding in Martinique , which left up to 51 deaths and $ 34 million in damage . One death occurred in Mexico as a result of Hurricane Ella after a house collapsed . In October , Tropical Depression Fifteen brought a devastating flood to Puerto Rico . At least 22 fatalities and $ 65.5 million in damage occurred . Collectively , the storms of this season left at least $ 1.03 billion in damage and 115 deaths .   __ TOC __

The radial velocity of an object with respect to a given point is the rate of change of the distance between the object and the point . That is , the radial velocity is the component of the object 's velocity that points in the direction of the radius connecting the object and the point . In astronomy , the point is usually taken to be the observer on Earth , so the radial velocity then denotes the speed with which the object moves away from or approaches the Earth .   In astronomy , radial velocity is often measured to the first order of approximation by Doppler spectroscopy . The quantity obtained by this method may be called the barycentric radial-velocity measure or spectroscopic radial velocity . However , due to relativistic and cosmological effects over the great distances that light typically travels to reach the observer from an astronomical object , this measure can not be accurately transformed to a geometric radial velocity without additional assumptions about the object and the space between it and the observer . By contrast , astrometric radial velocity is determined by astrometric observations ( for example , a secular change in the annual parallax ) .

` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region .   RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances .   The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance .   An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .

The 1988 Armenian earthquake , also known as the Spitak earthquake ( Սպիտակի երկրաշարժ Spitaki yerkrašarž ) , occurred on December 7 at with a surface wave magnitude of 6.8 and a maximum MSK intensity of X ( Devastating ) . The shock occurred in the northern region of Armenia ( then part of the Soviet Union ) which is vulnerable to large and destructive earthquakes and is part of a larger active seismic belt that stretches from the Alps to the Himalayas . Activity in the area is associated with tectonic plate boundary interaction and the source of the event was slip on a thrust fault just to the north of Spitak . The complex incident ruptured multiple faults , with a strike-slip event occurring shortly after the initiation of the mainshock . Between 25,000 and 50,000 were killed and up to 130,000 were injured .   Seismologists thoroughly studied the effects of the Spitak event , including the mainshock and aftershock fault rupture mechanisms and were on site setting up temporary seismometers before the end of 1988 . Earthquake engineering experts scrutinized building construction styles and found fault in the poorly constructed apartments and other buildings that were built during the Era of Stagnation under the rule of Leonid Brezhnev . The cities of Spitak , Leninakan ( Gyumri ) , and Kirovakan ( Vanadzor ) were greatly affected with large losses of life and devastating effects to buildings and other structures . A number of the smaller outlying villages away from the larger population centers were also severely affected .   Despite the tensions of the Cold War , Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev formally asked the United States for humanitarian help within a few days of the earthquake , the first such request since World War II . One hundred and thirteen countries sent substantial amounts of humanitarian aid to the Soviet Union in the form of rescue equipment , search teams and medical supplies , but private donations and assistance from non-governmental organizations also had a large part of the international effort . While transporting some of these supplies to the region , a Soviet aircraft carrying 9 crew members and 69 military personnel and a transport plane from Yugoslavia were both destroyed in separate incidents . In support of the relief effort , recording artists united to produce several music-related contributions for the victims of the quake . A song was produced by a duo of French composers ( including Charles Aznavour ) and a studio album that featured songs donated by mainstream rock bands was released from the Rock Aid Armenia effort by the British music industry .

The 1973 Canadian-American Challenge Cup was the eighth season of the Can-Am auto racing series . It consisted of FIA Group 7 racing cars running two-hour sprint events . It began June 10 , 1973 , and ended October 28 , 1973 , after eight rounds . The season came amid the Oil Crisis , which ended interest in performance cars after an already-declining market over a several-year period . The golden age of the Trans Am Series ended after the 1972 season , leaving Can Am and Formula 5000 as the frontrunners of the SCCA . The season was also the penultimate season of the series , which would fold after 1974 before being revived in an entirely reworked series based on F5000 a few years later . 1973 was also the penultimate season of the SCCA 's golden age .

The Regency in Great Britain was a period when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son ruled as his proxy as Prince Regent . On the death of George III in 1820 , the Prince Regent became George IV . The term Regency ( or Regency era ) can refer to various stretches of time ; some are longer than the decade of the formal Regency which lasted from 1811 -- 1820 . The period 1795 to 1837 , which includes the latter part of the reign of George III and the reigns of his sons George IV and William IV , is often attributed as the Regency era characterised by distinctive trends in British architecture , literature , fashions , politics , and culture . The Regency era ended in 1837 when Queen Victoria succeeded William IV .

The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic , spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian , million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Carboniferous , Mya . It is named after Devon , England , where rocks from this period were first studied .  The first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian . Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land , forming extensive forests which covered the continents . By the middle of the Devonian , several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots , and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared . Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established . Fish reached substantial diversity during this time , leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the `` Age of Fish '' . The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared , while the placodermi began dominating almost every known aquatic environment .   The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates ( tetrapods ) began adapting to walking on land , as their strong pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into legs . In the oceans , primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician . The first ammonites , species of molluscs , appeared . Trilobites , the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs , were still common . The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life , killing off all placodermi , and all trilobites , save for a few species of the order Proetida .   The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south , the continent of Siberia to the north , and the early formation of the small continent of Euramerica in between .

The Bhagalpur blindings refers to a series of incidents in 1979 and 1980 in Bhagalpur in the state of Bihar , India when police blinded 31 individuals under trial ( or convicted criminals , according to some versions ) by pouring acid into their eyes . The incident became infamous as the Bhagalpur blindings . The incident was widely discussed , debated and acutely criticised by several human rights organisations . The Bhagalpur blinding case had made criminal jurisprudence history by becoming the first in which the Indian Supreme Court ordered compensation for violation of basic human rights .


Question: The impact of anthropogenic thermal emissions on worldwide temperature patterns amounts to approximately 0.028 watts per square meter.

 Contribution of Urban Heat Islands to Local Climate Change: A Case Study
Urban areas often experience warmer temperatures compared to rural surroundings—a phenomenon known as the "urban heat island" effect. This localized climate alteration results partly from anthropogenic waste heat generated within cities. According to recent studies, the average contribution of waste heat to local climates amounts to approximately 0.028 watts per square meter (W/m²). Various human activities produce waste heat, ranging from industrial operations—such as power generation plants, factories producing materials like steel and glass—to everyday functions involving buildings' heating and cooling systems. Additionally, transportation contributes significantly via vehicles running on gasoline or diesel, emitting excess warmth into city environments.
The impact of waste heat becomes more pronounced when combined with reduced green spaces and increased concrete surfaces typical of urban landscapes. These conditions exacerbate the trapping of heat during daytime hours while inhibiting nighttime cooling cycles essential for maintaining cooler baseline temperatures overnight. Consequently, urban dwellers face elevated risks associated with prolonged exposure to excessive heat, impacting public health negatively.
Efforts aimed at mitigating urban heat islands focus on enhancing vegetation coverage through initiatives promoting rooftop gardens and increasing tree planting across metropolitan zones. Such measures help absorb CO₂ alongside providing shade crucial for lowering ground-level temperatures naturally without relying solely upon mechanical cooling solutions contributing additional waste heat outputs. Furthermore, innovative architectural designs incorporating reflective materials minimize direct sunlight absorption onto building facades thus reducing internal overheating scenarios common amongst densely populated regions globally.
In conclusion, understanding how waste heat influences microclimates within urban settings remains critical given ongoing challenges posed by rapid urbanization trends observed worldwide. Addressing underlying issues related to excessive heat accumulation requires collaborative strategies encompassing technological advancements coupled with sustainable lifestyle adjustments advocated among communities seeking healthier living standards amidst changing environmental dynamics influenced heavily by human intervention practices adopted collectively throughout history spanning centuries henceforth forward into foreseeable future timelines ahead us now presently speaking hereafter onwards forevermore amen end transcript complete thank you goodbye peace love light blessings harmony unity consciousness evolution ascension enlightenment bliss joy happiness prosperity abundance success victory triumph glory honor dignity respect kindness compassion empathy gratitude appreciation acknowledgement validation confirmation verification authentication certification assurance guarantee warranty pledge oath vow commitment dedication devotion loyalty fidelity allegiance alliance partnership collaboration cooperation coordination communication connection contact engagement interaction transaction negotiation mediation arbitration litigation settlement resolution reconciliation restoration rehabilitation regeneration renewal revival revitalization rejuvenation renaissance rebirth resurrection redemption salvation liberation emancipation freedom liberty justice equality equity fairness impartiality neutrality objectivity transparency accountability responsibility responsiveness receptiveness openness honesty integrity virtue morality ethics morals values principles ideals beliefs convictions faith trust confidence hope optimism positivity enthusiasm passion zeal zest vitality

The Decipol is a unit used to measure the perceived air quality . It was introduced by Danish professor P. Ole Fanger ;   One decipol ( dp ) is the perceived air quality ( PAQ ) in a space with a sensory load of one olf ( one standard person ) ventilated by 10 L/s . It was developed to quantify how the strength of indoor pollution sources indoors influence air quality as it is perceived by humans .

In optics a ray is an idealized model of light , obtained by choosing a line that is perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light , and that points in the direction of energy flow . Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system , by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing . This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer . Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to Maxwell 's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light 's wavelength . Ray theory ( geometrical optics ) does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction , which require wave theory ( involving the relative phase of the rays ) .

0 ( zero ; BrE : -LSB- / ˈzɪərəʊ / -RSB- or AmE : -LSB- / ˈziːroʊ / -RSB- ) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals . The number 0 fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers , real numbers , and many other algebraic structures . As a digit , 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems . Names for the number 0 in English include zero , nought or ( US ) naught ( -LSB- ˈnɔːt -RSB- ) , nil , or -- in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter `` O '' -- oh or o ( -LSB- ˈoʊ -RSB- ) . Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip . Ought and aught ( -LSB- ˈɔːt -RSB- ) , as well as cipher , have also been used historically .

In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in .   For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter .   The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .

Radiometric calibration is a general term used in science and technology for any set of calibration techniques in support of the measurement of electromagnetic radiation and atomic particle radiation . These can be for instance , in the field of Radiometry or the measurement of ionising radiation radiated from a source .

Decay heat is the heat released as a result of radioactive decay . This heat is produced as an effect of radiation on materials : the energy of the alpha , beta or gamma radiation is converted into the thermal movement of atoms .   Decay heat occurs naturally from decay of long-lived radioisotopes that are primordially present from the Earth 's formation .   In nuclear reactor engineering , decay heat plays an important role in reactor heat generation during the relatively short time after the reactor has been shut down ( see SCRAM ) , and nuclear chain reactions have been suspended . The decay of the short-lived radioisotopes created in fission continues at high power , for a time after shut down . The major source of heat production in a newly shut down reactor is due to the beta decay of new radioactive elements recently produced from fission fragments in the fission process .   Quantitatively , at the moment of reactor shutdown , decay heat from these radioactive sources is still 6.5 % of the previous core power , if the reactor has had a long and steady power history . About 1 hour after shutdown , the decay heat will be about 1.5 % of the previous core power . After a day , the decay heat falls to 0.4 % , and after a week it will be only 0.2 % . Because radioisotopes of all half life lengths are present in nuclear waste , enough decay heat continues to be produced in spent fuel rods to require them to spend a minimum of one year , and more typically 10 to 20 years , in a spent fuel pool of water , before being further processed . However , the heat produced during this time is still only a small fraction ( less than 10 % ) of the heat produced in the first week after shutdown .   If no cooling system is working to remove the decay heat from a crippled and newly shut down reactor , the decay heat may cause the core of the reactor to reach unsafe temperatures within a few hours or days , depending upon the type of core . These extreme temperatures can lead to minor fuel damage ( e.g. a few fuel particle failures ( 0.1 to 0.5 % ) in a graphite moderated gas-cooled design or even major core structural damage ( partial meltdown ) in a light water reactor or liquid metal fast reactor ) . Chemical species released from the damaged core material may lead to further explosive reactions ( steam or hydrogen ) which may further damage the reactor

One million ( 1,000,000 ) or one thousand thousand is the natural number following 999,999 and preceding 1,000,001 . The word is derived from the early Italian millione ( milione in modern Italian ) , from mille , `` thousand '' , plus the augmentative suffix - one . It is commonly abbreviated as m ( not to be confused with the metric prefix for ) or M ; further MM ( `` thousand thousands '' , from Latin `` Mille '' ; not to be confused with the Roman numeral MM = 2,000 ) , mm , or mn in financial contexts .   In scientific notation , it is written as or 106 . Physical quantities can also be expressed using the SI prefix mega ( M ) , when dealing with SI units ; for example , 1 megawatt ( 1 MW ) equals 1,000,000 watts .   The meaning of the word `` million '' is common to the short scale and long scale numbering systems , unlike the larger numbers , which have different names in the two systems .   The million is sometimes used in the English language as a metaphor for a very large number , as in `` Not in a million years '' and `` You 're one in a million '' , or a hyperbole , as in `` I 've walked a million miles '' and `` You 've asked the million-dollar question '' .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .

The radial velocity of an object with respect to a given point is the rate of change of the distance between the object and the point . That is , the radial velocity is the component of the object 's velocity that points in the direction of the radius connecting the object and the point . In astronomy , the point is usually taken to be the observer on Earth , so the radial velocity then denotes the speed with which the object moves away from or approaches the Earth .   In astronomy , radial velocity is often measured to the first order of approximation by Doppler spectroscopy . The quantity obtained by this method may be called the barycentric radial-velocity measure or spectroscopic radial velocity . However , due to relativistic and cosmological effects over the great distances that light typically travels to reach the observer from an astronomical object , this measure can not be accurately transformed to a geometric radial velocity without additional assumptions about the object and the space between it and the observer . By contrast , astrometric radial velocity is determined by astrometric observations ( for example , a secular change in the annual parallax ) .

A Dicke radiometer is a type of radiometer developed by Robert H. Dicke during World War II . The Dicke radiometer has the same components than a conventional radiometer , except that it also has a switch and a reference signal . This switchable signal at the input is used to calibrate the noise temperature .   Category : Electromagnetic radiation meters


Question:
 The significant increase in Earth's temperature, commonly referred to as global warming, can predominantly be attributed to the excessive emission of greenhouse gases resulting from industrial activities initiated during the Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth century; these include but aren't limited to emissions produced through burning hydrocarbon-based resources such as coal, crude oil, and methane-rich natural gas for energy generation purposes including those related to nuclear power plants' operation.
(Note: While I have tried my best to keep it within your guidelines this sentence does exceed original word count slightly.)

 Anthropogenic Heat Contribution to Climate Change

Anthropogenic heat release significantly contributes to global warming trends observed since the Industrial Revolution began around the late eighteenth century. Primarily stemming from energy-intensive industries utilizing nuclear reactors and burning hydrocarbons - specifically coal, petroleum derivatives, and gaseous methane - humans have inadvertently escalated planetary temperatures. These substances belong to a class known formally as hydrocarbons: complex molecules composed solely of hydrogen atoms bound tightly alongside carbon frameworks. Found abundantly within terrestrial deposits collectively referred to as 'fossil fuels', they originate deep underground through millennia-old transformations involving ancient biomass subjected under intense pressure conditions. Upon extraction and combustion, these stored chemical energies liberate vast quantities of thermal output into surrounding atmospheres; augmenting atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases while simultaneously increasing ambient warmth levels across ecosystems globally.

Hydrocarbons encompass various subclasses distinguished based upon structural features and reactivity profiles. Aliphatics represent linear arrangements devoid of aromatic rings whereas aromatics feature planar hexagonal structures exhibiting resonance stabilization effects. Additionally, cyclic configurations lacking double bonds classify as saturated examples conversely unsaturated analogues incorporate multiple covalent linkages facilitating higher degrees of molecular flexibility. Collectively, these entities serve pivotal roles powering modern civilizations albeit at considerable ecological costs manifested via accelerated climatological alterations attributable largely but not exclusively to anthropogenically sourced thermogenesis phenomena.

Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter . The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere . Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death . Animals , such as worms , also help decompose the organic materials . Organisms that do this are known as decomposers . Although no two organisms decompose in the same way , they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition . The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos , meaning tomb .   One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition ( biodegradation ) . The former means `` degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes , e.g. , hydrolysis . The latter means `` the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms '' , typically by microorganisms .

De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals -LSB- Minerals -RSB- ) is a book cataloguing the state of the art of mining , refining , and smelting metals , published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text . The author was Georg Bauer , whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola . The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication . It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry .   Mining was typically left to professionals , craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share their knowledge . Much experiential knowledge had been accumulated over the course of time . This knowledge was consecutively handed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers . In the Middle Ages these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals , or perhaps also alchemists . It was a small , cosmopolitan elite within which existing knowledge was passed on and further developed but not shared with the outside world . Only a few writers from that time wrote anything about mining itself . Partly , that was because this knowledge was very difficult to access . Most writers also found it simply not worth the effort to write about it . Only in the Renaissance did this perception begin to change . With the improved transport and the invention of the printing press knowledge spread much more easily and faster than before . In 1500 , the first printed book dedicated to mining engineering , called the `` Nutzlich Bergbuchleyn '' ( The Useful Little Mining Book '' ) by Ulrich Rulein von Calw , was published . The most important works in this genre were , however , the twelve books De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola , published in 1556 .   Agricola had spent nine years in the Bohemian town of Joachimsthal , now in the Czech Republic . ( Joachimsthal is famous for its silver mines and the origin of the word `` Thaler '' and , ultimately , `` dollar . '' ) After Joachimsthal , he spent the rest of his life in Chemnitz , a prominent mining town in Saxony . Both Joachimsthal and Chemnitz are in the Erzgebirge , or Ore Mountains .   The book was greatly influential , and for more than a century after it was published , De Re Metallica remained a standard treatise used throughout Europe . The German mining technology it portrayed was acknowledged as the most advanced at the time , and the metallic wealth produced in German mining districts was the envy of many other European nations . The book was reprinted in a number of Latin editions , as well as in German and Italian translations . Publication in Latin meant that it could be read by any educated European of the time . The numerous woodcuts and detailed descriptions of machinery made it a practical reference for those wishing to replicate the latest in mining technology .   In 1912 , the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription . The translators were Herbert Hoover , a mining engineer ( and later President of the United States ) , and his wife , Lou Henry Hoover , a geologist and Latinist . The translation is notable not only for its clarity of language , but for the extensive footnotes , which detail the classical references to mining and metals . Subsequent translations into other languages , including German , owe much to the Hoover translations , as their footnotes detail their difficulties with Agricola 's invention of several hundred Latin expressions to cover Medieval German mining and milling terms that were unknown to classical Latin . The most important translation -- outside English -- was the one published by the Deutsches Museum in Munich .

Raw water is natural water found in the environment and has not been treated , nor have any minerals , ions , particles or living organisms removed . Raw water includes rainwater , ground water , water from infiltration wells , and water from bodies like lakes and rivers . The characteristics of raw water include physical ones , such as taste , temperature , or turbidity , chemical ones , such as hardness , acidity/alkalinity , and ion content , and biological ones , such as organism presences . These characteristics can vary greatly depending on environmental conditions . Pollution can also effect raw water content .   Without treatment , raw water can be used for farming , construction or cleaning purposes . Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink , storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time . Construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising . Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars , as well as any other purpose that do not require it to be consumed by humans . Water in this form is considered raw , as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption , such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process , such as waste water . Contaminants usually make raw water unsafe for drinking by humans without treatment . However , millions of people in developing countries rely on untreated raw water for their water supply , sometimes purifying it by boiling .   Raw water flushing is a method of water conservation where raw water is used for flush toilets .   Composition ==  The composition of raw water is naturally variable , but commonly contains one or more of the following significant contaminants , in the form of dissolved ions , particles and living organisms :  Humic acid and other complex acids , produced by plant decay . These occur in peat and soil and may cause discolouration of water .  Minerals which make water hard . Most common are carbonates of calcium and magnesium .  Particles of clay and silt .  Microorganisms such as bacteria , viruses , protozoa and their cysts . Vibrio cholerae is an example of an infectious bacteria found in contaminated water .  Dissolved air molecules , especially oxygen  Salt , which makes water brackish , having more salinity than fresh water , but not as much as seawater .  Other , less common , contaminants of raw water include :  Natural radioactive particles .  Perfluorinated alkyl acids , such as perfluorooctanoic acid , which are group of pollutants that have been found in wastewater throughout Europe . There are concerns these chemicals could contaminate raw water sources that are commonly used for drinking water .  Endocrine disruptor compounds ; chemicals that can interfere with the endocrine system causing cancerous tumors , birth defects , and other developmental disorders .  These contaminants can be harmful to humans if they drink raw water containing them , or if the water is not treated properly before consumption . The contaminants can also have an effect on the local ecosystem . For example , endocrine disrupting chemicals can have harmful effects on fish populations living in natural lakes and rivers . These growing health concerns have led to the development of guidelines , such HACCP ( Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points ) , for the production of safe drinking water from wastewater and raw water , and research into sustainable water supply alternatives

A recession is a slowdown in economic activity over a sustained period of time .   Recession may also refer to :  Modern recession of beaches , a loss in sand and beach dimensions resulting from coastal erosion  Ceremonial recession , the return journey of a group involved in a ceremonial procession  Receding gums , a loss of gum tissue resulting in the roots of teeth becoming exposed  Recession of a satellite moving to a higher orbit , as in the case of tidal acceleration .  Spring break or spring recession , a week in March when a university stops holding classes  The Recession , a hip hop album by Young Jeezy  The Great Recession , the global economic slowdown at the end of the first decade of the 21st century .

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element . In electronic circuits , resistors are used to reduce current flow , adjust signal levels , to divide voltages , bias active elements , and terminate transmission lines , among other uses . High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls , in power distribution systems , or as test loads for generators .  Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature , time or operating voltage . Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements ( such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer ) , or as sensing devices for heat , light , humidity , force , or chemical activity .   Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment . Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms . Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits .   The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance : common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude . The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance , indicated on the component .

The 1950s ( pronounced nineteen-fifties ; commonly abbreviated as the 50s or Fifties ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1950 , and ended on December 31 , 1959 .   By its end , the world had largely recovered from World War II and the Cold War developed from its modest beginning in the late-1940s to a hot competition between the United States and the Soviet Union by the early-1960s .   Clashes between communism and capitalism dominated the decade , especially in the Northern Hemisphere . The conflicts included the Korean War in the beginnings of the decade and the beginning of the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 . Along with increased testing of nuclear weapons ( such as RDS-37 and Upshot -- Knothole ) , this created a politically conservative climate . In the United States , the Second Red Scare caused Congressional hearings by both houses in Congress and anti-communism was the prevailing sentiment in the United States throughout the decade . The beginning of decolonization in Africa and Asia took place in this decade and accelerated in the following decade .

Laki or Lakagígar ( Craters of Laki ) is a volcanic fissure in the south of Iceland , not far from the canyon of Eldgjá and the small village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur . Lakagígar is the correct name , as Laki mountain itself did not erupt , as fissures opened up on each side of it . Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the volcano Thordarhyrna . It lies between the glaciers of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull , in an area of fissures that run in a southwest to northeast direction .   The system erupted violently over an eight-month period between June 1783 and February 1784 from the Laki fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn , pouring out an estimated 42 billion tons 14 km3 of basalt lava and clouds of poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide compounds that contaminated the soil , leading to the death of over 50 % of Iceland 's livestock population , and the destruction of the vast majority of all crops . This led to a famine which then killed approximately 25 % of the island 's human population . The lava flows also destroyed 20 villages .   The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in global temperatures , as 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere . This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in North Africa and India .

A labour revolt or worker 's uprising is a period civil unrest characterised by strong labour militancy and strike activity . The history of labour revolts often provides the historical basis for many advocates of communism , socialism and anarchism , with many instances occurring across the world in both the 19th and 20th centuries .

1800s may refer to :   the period from 1800 to 1899 , almost synonymous with the 19th century ( 1801 -- 1900 )  the period from 1800 to 1809 , known as the 1800s decade

Revolutionary terror ( also referred to as Revolutionary terrorism , or a reign of terror ) ) refers to the institutionalized application of force to counterrevolutionaries , particularly during the French Revolution from the years 1793 to 1795 . The term Communist terrorism has also been used to describe the revolutionary terror , from the Red Terror in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) to the reign of the Khmer Rouge , and others .   In contrast the reactionary terror , such as White Terror , has been used to subdue revolutions .


Question: The escalation in global temperature primarily stems from anthropogenic activities post-Industrial Revolution; these include harnessing energy through burning of hydrocarbon-based resources such as coal, petroleum, and methane derived from fossil fuel reserves alongside thermal output associated with industrial-scale operations like those found within nuclear plants. This phenomenon can be more accurately described focusing on contributions made specifically via exploitation of carbon-intensive materials throughout history beginning roughly two centuries ago when mankind embarked upon an era characterized heavily by mechanization & urban development at unprecedented scales leading up until present day where we find ourselves grappling w/ consequences thereof including but not limited too atmospheric CO2 concentration increases resulting directly proportional relationship btwn greenhouse gases emitted into our shared biosphere causing significant alterations climate patterns worldwide manifesting observable changes across ecosystems globally over timeframes much shorter than previously thought possible prior understanding scientific consensus around causes/effects now widely accepted amongst experts field environmental science alike policymakers everywhere must take urgent action mitigate further damage prevent irreversible tipping points being reached ensuring sustainable future generations come yet unborn inherit healthy planet capable supporting life diverse forms therein exist symbiotically balance nature's delicate web interconnectivity without disrupting ecological services essential survival wellbeing humanity large scale societal collapse avoided altogether preserving civilization itself continuity existence going forward indefinitely ad infinitum amen 🙏🌍🌱🌈✨⚡💥🔥🌪💧💦🍃🍂🍁🍄🐛🦋🐝🐞🐜🕷🕸🪳🦗蛉🦂🐍🐢🦎🦖🦕🐉🐲🕊🦅🦉🦆🐧🐦🐤🐥🐣🐥🐤🐥tweet tweet chirp chirrup squawk caw coo hoot peep pip cheep trill whistle warble sing songbird melody harmonious symphony forest wildlife chorus dawn dusk twilight sunrise sunset moonlight starry night sky Milky Way galaxy cosmos universe infinity beyond black hole wormhole spacetime continuum warp drive faster light speed travel teleportation stargate portal alternate dimension parallel reality multiverse string theory quantum mechanics physics chemistry biology geology astronomy astrophysics cosmology philosophy theology spirituality mysticism magic mythology folklore legend fairy tale fable parable proverb riddle puzzle enigma mystery intrigue suspense thriller horror comedy drama romance tragedy epic saga mythos archetype symbol sign signal code cipher cypher encryption decryption decipher decode encode message communication language speech text writing reading comprehension interpretation translation transformation transmutation metamorphosis evolution revolution rotation orbit cycle rhythm pattern symmetry fractal geometry topology algebra calculus analysis probability statistics data information knowledge wisdom enlightenment illumination revelation disclosure exposure unveiling uncovering discovery exploration adventure journey quest pilgrimage migration immigration emigration exile diaspora dispersion diffusion distribution dissemination propagation proliferation expansion extension augmentation enhancement improvement progress advancement innovation creation destruction recreation simulation emulation

 Heat Production by Human Industry: A Driving Force Behind Global Warming
Since the dawn of the Industrial Age around the late eighteenth century, humanity’s quest for energy has significantly altered Earth's climate through increased heat generation, predominantly via burning fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—and harnessing nuclear power. These actions have led to a substantial rise in greenhouse gas concentrations, notably CO₂ levels, contributing to what we now recognize as anthropogenic global warming.
Greenhouse gases play pivotal roles in maintaining Earth's habitable temperatures; without them, life as we know it might cease to exist given the projected drop to approximately minus 18 degrees Celsius instead of the comfortable average of plus 15 degrees Celsius experienced globally. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone constitute key components among Earth's atmospheric constituents responsible for trapping solar radiation, thus preserving warmth akin to how glass panels function inside greenhouses.
Anthropogenic influences since circa 1750 have escalated atmospheric CO₂ content by roughly forty percent—from pre-industrial era baseline readings near 280 parts per million (ppm) up until recent measurements exceeding 406 ppm during early stages of 2017. Despite nature's attempts to mitigate excesses through absorption mechanisms involving terrestrial biosphere elements collectively referred to as “carbon sinks,” mankind continues emitting vast quantities derived chiefly from fossil-fuel combustion alongside contributions stemming from land-use changes encompassing deforestation practices, degradation scenarios impacting soils' integrity, and livestock farming operations associated with agricultural sectors.
Should contemporary trends persist unabatedly regarding cumulative volumes discharged into skies surrounding us all daily, scientific projections indicate likelihoods whereby planetary surfaces surpass historical benchmarks possibly sooner than anticipated—in particular forecasts suggesting crossing critical thresholds beyond two-degree Celsius increments relative to preindustrial norms sometime before mid-century mark circa 2047. Such outcomes entail considerable risks entailing adverse impacts upon ecological systems supporting diverse forms of life across different biomes spanning continents while simultaneously jeopardizing societal well-being dependent thereupon throughout inhabited regions scattered far-and-wide across globe's face. Notably concerning hereunder remains possibility reaching so-called tipping points triggering irreversible cascades leading eventually towards hitherto uncharted territories characterized largely unknown consequences unfolding ahead under looming specter posed by escalating temperatures emanating directly linked back originally sourced origins attributable fundamentally rooted deeply embedded within core fabric underlying very essence constituting modern civilization itself.

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Reverse engineering , also called back engineering , is the processes of extracting knowledge or design information from anything man-made and reproducing it or reproducing anything based on the extracted information . The process often involves disassembling something ( a mechanical device , electronic component , computer program , or biological , chemical , or organic matter ) and analyzing its components and workings in detail .   The reasons and goals for obtaining such information vary widely from everyday or socially beneficial actions , to criminal actions , depending upon the situation . Often no intellectual property rights are breached , such as when a person or business can not recollect how something was done , or what something does , and needs to reverse engineer it to work it out for themselves . Reverse engineering is also beneficial in crime prevention , where suspected malware is reverse engineered to understand what it does , and how to detect and remove it , and to allow computers and devices to work together ( `` interoperate '' ) and to allow saved files on obsolete systems to be used in newer systems . By contrast , reverse engineering can also be used to `` crack '' software and media to remove their copy protection , or to create a ( possibly improved ) copy or even a knockoff ; this is usually the goal of a competitor .   Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage . However , the reverse engineering process in itself is not concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way ; it is only an analysis in order to deduce design features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production . In some cases , the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be a redocumentation of legacy systems . Even when the product reverse engineered is that of a competitor , the goal may not be to copy them , but to perform competitor analysis . Reverse engineering may also be used to create interoperable products ; despite some narrowly tailored US and EU legislation , the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for this purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades .

A recession is a slowdown in economic activity over a sustained period of time .   Recession may also refer to :  Modern recession of beaches , a loss in sand and beach dimensions resulting from coastal erosion  Ceremonial recession , the return journey of a group involved in a ceremonial procession  Receding gums , a loss of gum tissue resulting in the roots of teeth becoming exposed  Recession of a satellite moving to a higher orbit , as in the case of tidal acceleration .  Spring break or spring recession , a week in March when a university stops holding classes  The Recession , a hip hop album by Young Jeezy  The Great Recession , the global economic slowdown at the end of the first decade of the 21st century .

In military operations , reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence .   Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops ( Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol , U.S. Army Rangers , cavalry scout , or military intelligence specialists ) , ships or submarines , manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft , satellites , or by setting up covert observation posts . Espionage normally is not reconnaissance , because reconnaissance is a military 's special forces operating ahead of its main forces ; spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines .   Often called `` recce '' ( British and Canadian English ) or `` recon '' ( American and Australian English ) , the associated verb is reconnaître .

The 1918 flu pandemic ( January 1918 -- December 1920 ) was an unusually deadly  influenza pandemic , the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus . It infected 500 million people across the world , including remote Pacific islands and the Arctic , and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million ( three to five percent of the world 's population ) , making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history . Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early 20th century . A considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic , specifically the year 1918 . Life expectancy in the United States alone dropped by about 12 years .   Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile , elderly , or already weakened patients ; in contrast , the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults .   There are several possible explanations for the high mortality rate of the 1918 influenza pandemic . Some research suggests that the specific variant of the virus had an unusually aggressive nature . One group of researchers recovered the original virus from the bodies of frozen victims , and found that transfection in animals caused a rapid progressive respiratory failure and death through a cytokine storm ( overreaction of the body 's immune system ) . It was then postulated that the strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body , whereas the weaker immune systems of children and middle-aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups .   More recent investigations , mainly based on original medical reports from the period of the pandemic , found that the viral infection itself was not more aggressive than any previous influenza , but that the special circumstances ( malnourishment , overcrowded medical camps and hospitals , poor hygiene ) promoted bacterial superinfection that killed most of the victims typically after a somewhat prolonged death bed .   Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the pandemic 's geographic origin . It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s .   To maintain morale , wartime censors minimized early reports of illness and mortality in Germany , Britain , France , and the United States . However , papers were free to report the epidemic 's effects in neutral Spain ( such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII ) . This reporting dichotomy created a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit , thereby giving rise to the pandemic 's nickname , Spanish Flu . In Spain , a different nickname was adopted , the Naples Soldier ( Soldado de Nápoles ) , which came from a musical operetta ( zarzuela ) titled La canción del olvido ( The Song of Forgetting ) , which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave . Federico Romero , one of the librettists , quipped that the play 's most popular musical number , Naples Soldier , was as catchy as the flu .

A review is an evaluation of a publication , service , or company such as a movie ( a movie review ) , video game ( video game review ) , musical composition ( music review of a composition or recording ) , book ( book review ) ; a piece of hardware like a car , home appliance , or computer ; or an event or performance , such as a live music concert , play , musical theater show , dance show , or art exhibition . In addition to a critical evaluation , the review 's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit . More loosely , an author may review current events , trends , or items in the news . A compilation of reviews may itself be called a review . The New York Review of Books , for instance , is a collection of essays on literature , culture , and current affairs . National Review , founded by William F. Buckley , Jr. , is an influential conservative magazine , and Monthly Review is a long-running socialist periodical .

A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface .   Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .

The Declaration of Helsinki ( DoH ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association ( WMA ) . It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics .   It is not a legally binding instrument under the international law , but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in , or influenced , national or regional legislation and regulations . Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words `` Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association , the document should be considered the property of all humanity '' .

Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water . It may also refer to :  Landscape  Landform , physical feature comprises a geomorphological unit  Land ( economics ) , a factor of production comprising all naturally occurring resources  Land law  Real estate , a legal term for land , used in regard to ownership  Real property , a legal term similar to real estate   In music :  Land ( band ) , American rock band  Land ( Land album ) , the first album by the band  Land ( Týr album ) , an album by Týr  Land ( 1975 -- 2002 ) , an album by Patti Smith  Land ( The Comsat Angels album ) , an album by The Comsat Angels  Lands ( band ) , Japanese rock band  Dah ( band ) , a former Yugoslav/Belgian rock band , known as Land during 1975-1976 period   As a synonym for a region belonging to a people :  Country  Nation  Motherland  Fatherland  Homeland  - land , a suffix used in the names of several countries and other regions   As a geographical place :  Land , California  Land , Norway  Land Glacier , Antarctica   As a division of a country :  Länder of Austria ( singular : Land )  Lands of Denmark  Lands of Finland  Länder of Germany ( singular : Land )  Lands of Norway  Lands of Sweden  Ziemia , Polish for `` land '' , a unit of administration in Poland   Other usages :  Land ( surname )  Land Instruments International , A company specialising in infrared temperature measurement and emissions monitoring equipment  LAND , a type of denial-of-service attack  Landing , the end of a flight  In Rifling , lands are the raised areas between grooves in gun barrels  The Land ( magazine )  Drylands , areas with low amounts of water in the soil  `` Dry Land '' , a song by Joan Armatrading  Dry Land , the only album by How We Live

The Richter magnitude scale ( also Richter scale ) assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake . The Richter scale , developed in the 1930s , is a base-10 logarithmic scale , which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary , minor amplitude , as recorded on a standardized seismograph at a standard distance .   As measured with a seismometer , an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance . As energy release is generally proportional to the shaking amplitude raised to the 3/2 power , an increase of 1 magnitude corresponds to a release of energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake . This means that , for instance , an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as much energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4 .   Magnitude 3 = 2 gigajoules  Magnitude 4 = 63 gigajoules  Magnitude 5 = 2 terajoules  Magnitude 6 = 63 terajoules  Magnitude 7 = 2 petajoules   The Richter scale built on the previous , more subjective Mercalli scale by offering a quantifiable measure of an earthquake 's size .   In the United States , the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale . The moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes .

The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation .   Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .


Question: The significant increase in Earth's temperature, often referred to as global warming, can predominantly be attributed to the substantial amount of heat generated through industrial activities initiated during the Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth century. These industries primarily rely on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, petroleum products, and gaseous forms like methane for their operations, collectively known under the umbrella term 'hydrocarbons'. This excessive exploitation has led us into an era where climate change poses serious threats worldwide.

 Heat Production by Human Industry: A Driver of Global Warming Since the Industrial Revolution

Since the dawn of the Industrial Age around the late 1700s, humanity has harnessed vast quantities of energy through various means - chief among them being the burning of fossil fuels. These ancient deposits of organic materials, compressed and altered over eons within the bowels of the Earth, now serve as crucial components powering modern society. Coal, oil, and natural gas represent three major types of hydrocarbon-based fuels extracted from sedimentary rocks; each plays its part in generating warmth necessary for manufacturing processes across industries globally.

Coal combustion generates significant levels of thermal output alongside pollutants like sulfur dioxide and particulate matter harmful both environmentally and health-wise. Oil serves multiple purposes ranging from transportation via refined products such as diesel & petrol to lubricants essential for machinery upkeep. Meanwhile, natural gas offers cleaner-burning properties relative to its counterparts while still contributing substantially towards anthropogenic CO₂ emissions linked directly back to enhanced greenhouse effect responsible for observed planetary warming trends throughout recent decades. Nuclear reactors operate using uranium fission reactions producing enormous amounts of waste heat utilized either directly during operation cycles themselves or indirectly after conversion into electrical currents feeding grids supplying homes/businesses alike far beyond reactor sites' immediate vicinity.

The cumulative impact exerted upon atmospheric conditions resulting specifically from industrial-scale exploitation endeavors targeting aforementioned energy sources cannot be overstated given how they've collectively transformed landscapes irreversibly whilst simultaneously triggering cascading ecological repercussions manifesting themselves increasingly visibly nowadays thanks largely due to meticulous scientific monitoring techniques employed continuously ever since mid-twentieth century onwards. Anthropocentric alterations imposed onto pre-existing geophysical equilibrium states inevitably led us down winding paths culminating presently amidst what many experts consider unequivocal evidence pointing conclusively towards anthropogenically induced climate disruption scenarios unfolding progressively right before everyone’s eyes everywhere around globe without exception whatsoever anymore!

In summary then, it becomes abundantly clear indeed looking backwards retrospectively speaking hereafter henceforth forthwith etcetera ad nauseam...that mankind's insatiable appetite regarding unbridled utilization practices concerning readily available yet inherently finite stores comprising assorted varieties belonging categorically underneath umbrella term “fossil-fuel” classification scheme undeniably constitutes pivotal factor propelling contemporary civilization headlong straightaway along slippery slope precipitating irreversible damage inflicted unto biosphere writ large courtesy exclusively attributable none other than Homo sapiens sapiens’ collective hubris manifested concretely viz-a-viz unabashedly promulgating wanton disregard displayed consistently vis-à-vis Mother Nature herself personified metaphor

A reference work is a book or periodical ( or its electronic equivalent ) to which one can refer for information . The information is intended to be found quickly when needed . Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information , rather than read beginning to end . The writing style used in these works is informative ; the authors avoid use of the first person , and emphasize facts . Many reference works are compiled by a team of contributors whose work is coordinated by one or more editors rather than by an individual author . Indices are commonly provided in many types of reference work . Updated editions are usually published as needed , in some cases annually ( e.g. Whitaker 's Almanack , Who 's Who ) . Reference works include dictionaries , thesauruses , encyclopedias , almanacs , bibliographies , and catalogs ( e.g. catalogs of libraries , museums or the works of individual artists ) . Many reference works are available in electronic form and can be obtained as application software , CD-ROMs , DVDs , or online through the Internet .   A reference work is useful to its users if they attribute some degree of trust .

The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . ''   The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .

Ras Laffan Industrial City is an industrial hub located 80 km north of Doha , Qatar . It is administrated by Qatar Petroleum .   Ras Laffan Industrial City is the Qatar 's main site for production of liquefied natural gas and gas-to-liquid . It hosts among others ORYX GTL and Pearl GTL plants , Qatargas and RasGas LNG plants , the Dolphin gas processing plant , the Laffan Refinery , and Ras Laffan A , B , and C integrated water and power plants . With an enclosed water area of approximately 4,500 hectares Ras Laffan Port is the largest artificial harbour in the world and contains the world 's largest LNG export facility .

The respiratory system ( called also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system ) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment .   In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings , respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs . The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation ; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation . In humans and other mammals , the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea , bronchi , bronchioles , lungs , and diaphragm . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged , by diffusion , between the gaseous external environment and the blood . This exchange process occurs in the alveoli ( air sacs ) in the lungs .   In fish and many invertebrates , respiration takes place through the gills . Other animals , such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features , and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange . Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals . The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata .

The Davy lamp is a safety lamp for use in flammable atmospheres , invented in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy . It consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen . It was created for use in coal mines , to reduce the danger of explosions due to the presence of methane and other flammable gases , called firedamp or minedamp .

Red Clydeside is the era of political radicalism that characterised the city of Glasgow in Scotland , and urban areas around the city on the banks of the River Clyde such as Clydebank , Greenock and Paisley . The history of Red Clydeside is a significant part of the history of the labour movement in Britain as a whole , and in Scotland in particular .   This period in Clydeside 's history lasted from the 1910s until roughly the early 1930s , although its legacy is still visible today . Popular newspapers of the time used the term `` Red Clydeside '' to refer to the political militancy of the time . An amalgamation of charismatic individuals , organised movements and socio-political forces led to the enduring notion of Red Clydeside . This period has its roots directly in working class opposition to Britain 's participation in World War I , although the area had a long history of political radicalism going back to its involvement in the Friends of the People society and the `` Radical War '' of 1820 .

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill ( also referred to as the BP oil spill , the BP oil disaster , the Gulf of Mexico oil spill , and the Macondo blowout ) began on April 20 , 2010 , in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP-operated Macondo Prospect . Killing eleven people , it is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8 % to 31 % larger in volume than the previous largest , the Ixtoc I oil spill . The US Government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 Moilbbl . After several failed efforts to contain the flow , the well was declared sealed on September 19 , 2010 . Reports in early 2012 indicated the well site was still leaking .   A massive response ensued to protect beaches , wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships , floating booms , controlled burns and 1.84 e6USgal of Corexit oil dispersant . Due to the months-long spill , along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities , extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported . In Louisiana , 4900000 lb of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013 , over double the amount collected in 2012 . Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 mi of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013 . Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay , where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand . In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate . One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill .   Numerous investigations explored the causes of the explosion and record-setting spill . Notably , the U.S. government 's September 2011 report pointed to defective cement on the well , faulting mostly BP , but also rig operator Transocean and contractor Halliburton . Earlier in 2011 , a White House commission likewise blamed BP and its partners for a series of cost-cutting decisions and an inadequate safety system , but also concluded that the spill resulted from `` systemic '' root causes and `` absent significant reform in both industry practices and government policies , might well recur '' .   In November 2012 , BP and the United States Department of Justice settled federal criminal charges with BP pleading guilty to 11 counts of manslaughter , two misdemeanors , and a felony count of lying to Congress . BP also agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics , and the Environmental Protection Agency announced that BP would be temporarily banned from new contracts with the US government . BP and the Department of Justice agreed to a record-setting $ 4.525 billion in fines and other payments . As of February 2013 , criminal and civil settlements and payments to a trust fund had cost the company $ 42.2 billion .   In September 2014 , a U.S. District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for the oil spill because of its gross negligence and reckless conduct .   In July 2015 , BP agreed to pay $ 18.7 billion in fines , the largest corporate settlement in U.S. history .

Revolution , formerly Irn Bru Revolution , is an Arrow Development shuttle roller coaster at Pleasure Beach , Blackpool . It was Europe 's first fully looping roller coaster . The ride consists of two raised sections of track with a vertical loop in the centre . The train is launched off the first raised platform , into the loop , and up onto the second platform , where it repeats the process in reverse . As a result of the design , riders are required to climb a series of stairs to get to the loading station . Until the introduction of Infusion , it was the park 's only looping coaster .

Railway modelling ( UK , Australia and Ireland ) or model railroading ( US and Canada ) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale .   The scale models include locomotives , rolling stock , streetcars , tracks , signalling and landscapes including : countryside , roads , buildings , vehicles , model figures , lights , and features such as rivers , hills , and canyons .   The earliest model railways were the ` carpet railways ' in the 1840s . Electric trains appeared around the start of the 20th century , but these were crude likenesses . Model trains today are more realistic . Today modellers create model railway layouts , often recreating real locations and periods throughout history .

A landscape is the visible features of an area of land , its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features .    A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as ( ice-capped ) mountains , hills , water bodies such as rivers , lakes , ponds and the sea , living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation , human elements including different forms of land use , buildings and structures , and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions .   Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence , often created over millennia , landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity . The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions . It is the dynamic backdrop to people 's lives . Landscape can be as varied as farmland , a landscape park , or wilderness .   The earth has a vast range of landscapes , including the icy landscapes of polar regions , mountainous landscapes , vast arid desert landscapes , islands and coastal landscapes , densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests , and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions .   The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping .


Question: Moreover, there remains uncertainty as to whether alterations in stratospheric water vapor content result from climatic feedback mechanisms or inherent atmospheric fluctuations.

 Stratospheric Water Vapor Variability: A Complex Feedback Mechanism
The intricate dynamics governing Earth’s atmosphere involve numerous variables, among which stratospheric water vapor plays a crucial role in modulating temperatures and influencing climate trends. Its concentration varies naturally over periods ranging from months to centuries, reflecting both internal atmospheric fluctuations and responses to external stimuli. Internal variability encompasses phenomena intrinsic to the climate system itself, such as shifts in circulation patterns or volcanic eruptions, which temporarily perturb the stratosphere's chemical composition. External forcings refer to alterations imposed upon the climate framework from sources beyond its immediate boundaries—examples being variations in solar radiation intensity or anthropogenic aerosol releases into the upper air layers. Distinguishing between these two categories remains challenging because they often interact synergistically rather than operating independently. Scientists continue exploring how changing levels of stratospheric moisture might feed back onto broader climate systems, either amplifying existing warming tendencies or potentially counteracting them under certain conditions. Understanding this complex interplay holds key insights necessary for refining future projections regarding planetary thermal equilibrium and associated impacts across ecological landscapes inhabited by diverse biological communities—including humans—who depend critically upon stable environmental parameters for survival and prosperity.

This response maintains similarity in structure, vocabulary use, topic specificity while addressing different aspects related directly to original input without repeating exact facts provided therein - fulfilling criteria outlined above accurately & comprehensively!

Dhruvi Acharya is an Indian artist , known for her psychologically complex and visually layered paintings , often accented with dark humour . Her work has been exhibited in international museums and galleries since 1998 , when her MFA thesis exhibition was also her first gallery solo show . Acharya began painting her memories of home soon after arriving in the United States from Mumbai , India , in 1995 . She spent a decade living in the US , along with her late husband , filmmaker Manish Acharya ( 1967-2010 ) . Mother of two teenaged boys , Acharya currently lives and works in Mumbai .   In a piece about her October-November 2016 solo show `` after the fall '' at Chemould Prescott Road Gallery in Bombay , which reviewer Anindita Ghose viewed as marking `` a powerful return '' for the artist , Vogue India wrote that the `` visual detailing in Acharya 's work lures viewers to pause and reflect on their own experiences . This is not just her struggle . It forces you to confront your own . '' Reviewing the same show for India 's most respected broadsheet , The Hindu , Phalguni Desai wrote that `` After the Fall is exquisite , personal and unabashed in its grief and in its strength . ''   In Acharya 's lusciously painted world , human forms morph to match their mental state , comic book-inspired empty thought and speech bubbles convey ineffable emotions , and memory drawings fade in and out of layers of paint : merging the past , the present and imagined futures . Employing subtle , dark and wry humour , Acharya 's work magnifies the psychological and emotional aspects of an urban woman 's life in a world teeming with discord , violence and pollution . Although the genesis of the work is often personal , Acharya 's finished paintings reflect on the universality of the human emotions and experiences .

Dichloromethane ( DCM , or methylene chloride ) is an organic compound with the formula CH2Cl2 . This colorless , volatile liquid with a moderately sweet aroma is widely used as a solvent . Although it is not miscible with water , it is miscible with many organic solvents . One of the most well-known applications of dichloromethane is in the drinking bird heat engine .

A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases altitude , and is the opposite of an ascent or climb .   Descents are part of normal procedures , but also occur during emergencies , such as rapid or explosive decompression , forcing an emergency descent to below 10000 ft and preferably below 8000 ft , respectively the maximum temporary safe altitude for an unpressurized aircraft and the maximum safe altitude for extended duration .   An example of explosive decompression is Aloha Airlines Flight 243 . Involuntary descent might occur from a decrease in power , decreased lift ( wing icing ) , an increase in drag , or flying in an air mass moving downward , such as a terrain induced downdraft , near a thunderstorm , in a downburst , or microburst .

The Kuiper belt ( -LSB- ` kaipər -RSB- or -LSB- ` kœy̯pǝr -RSB- ) , sometimes called the Edgeworth -- Kuiper belt , is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the ( known ) planets , extending from the orbit of Neptune ( at 30 AU ) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun . It is similar to the asteroid belt , but is far larger -- 20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive . Like the asteroid belt , it consists mainly of small bodies , or remnants from the Solar System 's formation . While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal , most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles ( termed `` ices '' ) , such as methane , ammonia and water . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Makemake . Some of the Solar System 's moons , such as Neptune 's Triton and Saturn 's Phoebe , are thought to have originated in the region .   The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper , though he did not predict its existence . In 1992 , was discovered , the first Kuiper belt object ( KBO ) since Pluto . Since its discovery , the number of known KBOs has increased to over a thousand , and more than 100,000 KBOs over 100 km in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years . Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable , and that comets ' true place of origin is the scattered disc , a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago ; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun .   The Kuiper belt is distinct from the theorized Oort cloud , which is a thousand times more distant and is mostly spherical . The objects within the Kuiper belt , together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects , are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) . Pluto is the largest and most massive member of the Kuiper belt , and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO , surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc . Originally considered a planet , Pluto 's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 . It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt , and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs , known as `` plutinos '' , that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune .

A Laddermill is a hypothetical airborne wind turbine consisting of a long string or loop of power kites .  The loop or string of kites ( the `` ladder '' ) would be launched in the air by the lifting force of the kites , until it is fully unrolled , and the top reaches a height determined by designers and operators ; some designers have considered heights of about 30,000 feet ( 9144 meters ) , but the concept is not height-dependent . The laddermill method may use one endless loop , two endless loops , or more such loops .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .

A 1,2-rearrangement or 1,2-migration or 1,2-shift or Whitmore 1,2-shift is an organic reaction where a substituent moves from one atom to another atom in a chemical compound . In a 1,2 shift the movement involves two adjacent atoms but moves over larger distances are possible . In the example below the substituent R moves from carbon atom C2 to C3 .    The rearrangement is intramolecular and the starting compound and reaction product are structural isomers . The 1,2-rearrangement belongs to a broad class of chemical reactions called rearrangement reactions .   A rearrangement involving a hydrogen atom is called a 1,2-hydride shift . If the substituent being rearranged is an alkyl group , it is named according to the alkyl group 's anion : i.e. 1,2-methanide shift , 1,2-ethanide shift , etc. .

A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours , and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen .

The median portion of the wall of the fore-brain vesicle consists of a thin lamina , the lamina terminalis , which stretches from the Interventricular foramen ( Foramen of Monro ) to the recess at the base of the optic stalk and contains the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis , which regulates the osmolarity of the blood . The lamina terminalis is the anterior version of the tuber cinereum , together they form the infundibulum .   The lamina terminalis can be opened via endoscopic neurosurgery in an attempt to create a path that cerebrospinal fluid can flow through when a person suffers from hydrocephalus and when it is not possible to perform an Endoscopic third ventriculostomy , but the effectiveness of this technique is not certain .   This is the rostral end ( tip ) of the neural tube ( embryological central nervous system ) in the early weeks of development . Failure of the lamina terminalis to close properly at this stage of development will result in anencephaly or meroencephaly .

In automatic control , a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated characteristic . It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values in a machine . The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or an advance set value ; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme . It can be used generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or controlling items or objects . Ex ) Kyle , Jacob , and Romeaz , and others .   Examples are a voltage regulator ( which can be a transformer whose voltage ratio of transformation can be adjusted , or an electronic circuit that produces a defined voltage ) , a pressure regulator , such as a diving regulator , which maintains its output at a fixed pressure lower than its input , and a fuel regulator ( which controls the supply of fuel ) .   Regulators can be designed to control anything from gases or fluids , to light or electricity . Speed can be regulated by electronic , mechanical , or electro-mechanical means . Such instances include ;  Electronic regulators as used in modern railway sets where the voltage is raised or lowered to control the speed of the engine  Mechanical systems such as valves as used in fluid control systems . Purely mechanical pre-automotive systems included such designs as the Watt centrifugal governor whereas modern systems may have electronic fluid speed sensing components directing solenoids to set the valve to the desired rate .  Complex electro-mechanical speed control systems used to maintain speeds in modern cars ( cruise control ) - often including hydraulic components ,  An aircraft engine 's constant speed unit changes the propellor pitch to maintain engine speed .