Question: The terms "global warming" and "climate change", which denote distinct phenomena, have coexisted in scientific discourse over several decades. This reflects their nuanced differences as well as historical shifts in terminology within environmental science communities. Both phrases encapsulate aspects of our planet's evolving climate system but highlight varying focuses; while one emphasizes temperature increases globally, the other encompasses broader alterations including precipitation patterns and extreme weather events. These terminological distinctions serve crucial roles in accurately conveying complex climatological realities without oversimplification or misinterpretation by policymakers and public alike who must understand these issues comprehensively when addressing urgent ecological challenges ahead.

 Distinction Between "Global Warming" & "Climate Change"
The phrases "global warming" and "climate change," while often interchangeably used, denote distinct aspects within the broader context of environmental studies. "Global warming" specifically refers to the documented escalation in Earth’s overall temperatures attributed largely to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. Conversely, "climate change" encompasses a broader spectrum, detailing shifts in various meteorological conditions across diverse geographical locations over extended periods. Both terminologies have coexisted in academic discourse throughout several decades.
Historical data reveals that since the Industrial Revolution, there's been a notable surge in Earth's average temperature, corroborating observations recorded through multiple independent methods. Scientists affirm that human actions significantly contribute to this phenomenon; notably, the combustion of fossil fuels releases substantial volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere—this constitutes humanity's predominant impact on global warming trends.
According to comprehensive assessments conducted by reputable organizations like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), contemporary models predict varying degrees of temperature increases based upon differing scenarios concerning future greenhouse gas emissions. Projections indicate potential outcomes ranging from minimal rises under stringent regulatory measures up until severe escalations if current practices continue unabatedly.
Impacts vary widely depending upon specific geographic regions: some face heightened risks regarding desertification whereas others confront challenges posed by coastal flooding resulting from sea-level elevation. Common concerns encompass intensifying occurrences of extreme weather phenomena —such as hurricanes, droughts, torrential rains—and alterations impacting agricultural productivity cycles. Additionally, ecological repercussions loom ominously, threatening countless species’ survival prospects amidst rapidly transforming ecosystems.
Society grapples with devising appropriate strategies aimed at mitigating detrimental consequences arising from escalating planetary warmth. Proposed solutions range from curbing harmful pollutants via legislative reforms to developing innovative technologies capable of reversing damage inflicted thus far. International cooperation remains crucial given how interconnected modern societies truly are when addressing transnational issues like climate alteration.
Public awareness surrounding this critical subject continues growing steadily alongside mounting apprehensions vis-a-vis impending ramifications. Surveys reveal divergent attitudes globally yet highlight consensus amongst experts emphasizing urgency necessitating concerted action against looming threats embodied within ongoing modifications witnessed across terrestrial climates. Notwithstanding disparities evident amongst certain demographic segments particularly within influential economic powerhouses exemplified by USA-China dynamics, collective vigilance persists paramount ensuring sustainable futures devoid of catastrophic disruptions attributable hitherto unchecked anthropocentric endeavors contributing disproportionately towards exacerbation thereof.

This response maintains comparable lengths whilst preserving original complexities embedded within provided source material without compromising thematic integrity nor deviating substantially away from established parameters governing

Knickerbockers or knickers are a form of men 's or boys ' baggy-kneed trousers particularly popular in the early 20th century United States . Golfers ' plus twos and plus fours are breeches of this type . Before World War II , skiers often wore knickerbockers too , usually ankle-length .   Until after World War I , in many English-speaking countries , boys customarily wore short pants in summer and knickerbockers ( `` knickers '' or `` knee pants '' ) in winter . ( In British English knickers means underwear worn by women . )  At the onset of puberty , they graduated to long trousers . In that era , the transition to `` long pants '' was a major rite of passage . See , for example , the classic song `` Blues in the Night '' by Johnny Mercer : `` My mammy done told me , when I was in knee-pants , my mammy done told me , son ... '' .   Baseball players wear a stylized form of knickerbockers , although the pants have become less baggy in recent decades and some modern ballplayers opt to pull the trousers close to the ankles . The white trousers worn by American football officials are knickerbockers , and while they have become less baggy , they are still worn ending shortly below the knee . In recent years , the NFL has equipped its officials with long trousers rather than knickers in cold weather .

Regional geography is a major branch of geography . It focuses on the interaction of different cultural and natural geofactors in a specific land or landscape , while its counterpart , systematic geography , concentrates on a specific geofactor at the global level .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) .   Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy .

The Deutsches Rechtswörterbuch ( DRW ) or Dictionary of Historical German Legal Terms is a historic legal dictionary developed under the aegis of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities . The research unit took up work in 1897 and until today has completed 93.155 articles , ranging from Aachenfahrt ( pilgrimage to Aachen ) to selbzwölft ( being one of twelve persons ) . These have been published in 12 consecutive volumes and are also freely accessible online . In course of its research , the DRW also touches upon sources in Old English , of Hanseatic provenience and Pennsylvania German . The research unit will presumably conclude its work in 2036 .

Denglisch ( German spelling ) or Denglish ( English spelling ) is a portmanteau of the German words Deutsch and Englisch ( English ) . The term is used in all German-speaking countries to refer to the increasingly strong influx of macaronic English or pseudo-English vocabulary ( and other features of the language such as grammar and orthography ) into German . Many synonyms exist , including Germ ( l ) ish , Gerglish , Angleutsch , Genglish , and Engleutsch as well as Pseudo-Englisch . Both these and Denglish are also used to refer to incorrect English that is influenced by German .   To some extent , the influence of English on German can be described in terms of normal language contact ( which is active also in the reverse direction , see list of English words of German origin ) . The term Denglisch is however mostly reserved for forced , excessive exercises in anglicization , or pseudo-anglicization , of the German language .  The forced introduction of anglicisms , especially in marketing and business terminology , experienced a peak during the 1990s and the early 2000s , but the ubiquity of the practice has since made it much less fashionable or prestigious and since then , many publicistic commentators have argued against it .  Zeit Online ( itself an example of the prevalence of English loans in IT terminology ) in a 2007 article , while granting the possibility of excessive linguistic purism among those arguing against anglicizing influence on German , criticises ubiquitous use of English ( citing as example the fashion to label information desks at train stations , formerly simply known as Auskunft , with the anglicistic Service Point ) , and as an extreme case cites the pseudo-anglicistic Brain up ! chosen by then-minister for education Edelgard Bulmahn as a campaign slogan in 2004 .  The same slogan had already been satirized by Frankfurter Allgemeine in 2004 . That newspaper described how even the English-speaking sphere was mocking the unreflected and basically unnecessary kowtow as `` German linguistic submissiveness '' .

Rainmaking , also known as artificial precipitation , artificial rainfall and pluviculture , is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation , usually to stave off drought . According to the clouds ' different physical properties , this can be done using airplanes or rockets to sow to the clouds with catalysts such as dry ice , silver iodide and salt powder , to make clouds rain or increase precipitation , to remove or mitigate farmland drought , to increase reservoir irrigation water or water supply capacity , or to increase water levels for power generation .   In the United States , rainmaking was attempted by traveling showmen . It was practiced in the old west , but may have reached a peak during the dust bowl drought of the American West and Midwest in the 1930s . The practice was depicted in the 1956 film The Rainmaker . Attempts to bring rain directly have waned with development of the science of meteorology , the advent of laws against fraud and increased communication technology , with some exceptions such as cloud seeding and forms of prayer including rain dances , which are still practiced today . Prayer for more rain is also a cross cultural practice in Christians and Muslims in areas where people keep `` traditional '' non-scriptural religions . In the Christian areas the Defteras ( learned clerics of the Orthodox Christian Church ) believed to have the wisdom to arrest the rain , to bring hail to farms of individuals who refuse to comply with religious rules as well as to bring more rains when the rainy season fell short of giving the usual amount of rain needed for growing cereals .   The term is also used metaphorically to describe the process of bringing new clients into a professional practice , such as law , architecture , consulting , advertising , or investment banking -- in general , processes that bring money into a company .   It is also used to describe a confidence trick where the scammer takes money from the victim to influence a system over which they have no real control , but a random chance of the outcome happening anyway .

Language transfer ( also known as L1 interference , linguistic interference , and crosslinguistic influence ) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language . It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a bilingual or multilingual individual , whether from first to second , second to first or many other relationships . It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching , but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language , as when translating into a second language .

Decentralization is the process of redistributing or dispersing functions , powers , people or things away from a central location or authority . While centralization , especially in the governmental sphere , is widely studied and practiced , there is no common definition or understanding of decentralization . The meaning of decentralization may vary in part because of the different ways it is applied . Concepts of decentralization have been applied to group dynamics and management science in private businesses and organizations , political science , law and public administration , economics and technology .

Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the subject or object of violent behavior . Religious violence is , specifically , violence that is motivated by or in reaction to religious precepts , texts , or doctrines . This includes violence against religious institutions , people , objects , or when the violence is motivated to some degree by some religious aspect of the target or precept of the attacker . Religious violence does not refer exclusively to acts committed by religious groups , but also includes acts committed by secular groups against religious groups .   Religious violence , like all violence , is a cultural process that is context-dependent and very complex . Oversimplifications of religion and violence often lead to misguided understandings and exaggerations of causes for why some people commit violence and why most do not commit violence . Religious violence is primarily the domain of the violent `` actor '' , which may be distinguished between individual and collective forms of violence . Overall , religious violence is perpetrated for a wide variety of ideological reasons and is generally only one of the contributing social and political factors that leads to unrest .

In grammar , a reflexive verb is , loosely , a verb whose direct object is the same as its subject , for example , `` I wash myself '' . More generally , a reflexive verb has the same semantic agent and patient ( typically represented syntactically by the subject and the direct object ) . For example , the English verb to perjure is reflexive , since one can only perjure oneself . In a wider sense , the term refers to any verb form whose grammatical object is a reflexive pronoun , regardless of semantics ; such verbs are also referred to as pronominal verbs , especially in grammars of the Romance languages .   There are languages that have explicit morphology or syntax to transform a verb into a reflexive form . In many languages , reflexive constructions are rendered by transitive verbs followed by a reflexive pronoun , as in English - self ( e.g. , `` She threw herself to the floor . '' ) English employs reflexive derivation idiosyncratically , as in `` self-destruct '' .


Question: Since there hasn't been an increase in solar activity since 1970, it's unlikely that the Sun is contributing significantly to current climate change trends.

 Solar Activity vs. Climate Change
Contrary to some beliefs, solar activity has remained relatively stable since 1970, indicating its limited role in current global warming trends. Scientific evidence supports that recent increases in Earth’s temperatures result predominantly from anthropogenic sources—primarily carbon dioxide emissions linked to burning fossil fuels. Observations confirm glaciers retreating faster than ever before, shifts in plant blooming times signaling disrupted ecosystems, and altered crop yields impacting food security—all consequences of man-made climate alterations rather than solar variations. Addressing future challenges requires dual strategies: mitigating greenhouse gas outputs through sustainable practices while preparing societies for inevitable climate modifications via adaptation measures. Technological interventions known as geoengineering offer additional possibilities but come with uncertainties regarding effectiveness and risks. Immediate action can potentially cap end-century warming under 2°C above baseline conditions; conversely, business-as-usual scenarios project up to 4°C rise, posing severe difficulties in both adjustment and survival prospects across multiple sectors.

This response maintains comparable structure, vocabulary level, and thematic coherence with your original request while preserving the argumentative stance against attributing contemporary climate issues solely to solar dynamics instead emphasizing human culpability through emission-driven phenomena.

Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .

LP 71-82 is a red dwarf star , located in constellation Draco at 7.1 parsecs ( 23.2 light-years ) from Earth .

Radon is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number 86 . It is a radioactive , colorless , odorless , tasteless noble gas . It occurs naturally as an intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through which thorium and uranium slowly decay into lead ; radon , itself , is a decay product of radium . Its most stable isotope , 222Rn , has a half-life of 3.8 days . Since thorium and uranium are two of the most common radioactive elements on Earth , and since their isotopes have very long half-lives , on the order of billions of years , radon will be present in nature long into the future in spite of its short half-life as it is continually being regenerated .   Unlike all the other intermediate elements in the aforementioned decay chains , radon is , under normal conditions , gaseous and easily inhaled . Radon gas is a health hazard . It is often the single largest contributor to an individual 's background radiation dose , but due to local differences in geology , the level of the radon-gas hazard differs from location to location . Despite its short lifetime , radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings , especially , due to its high density , in low areas such as basements and crawl spaces . Radon can also occur in ground water -- for example , in some spring waters and hot springs .   Epidemiological studies have shown a clear link between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence of lung cancer . Radon is a contaminant that affects indoor air quality worldwide . According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency , radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer , after cigarette smoking , causing 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States . About 2,900 of these deaths occur among people who have never smoked . While radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer , it is the number one cause among non-smokers , according to EPA estimates . As radon itself decays , it produces other radioactive elements called radon daughters ( also known as radon progeny ) or decay products . Unlike the gaseous radon itself , radon daughters are solids and stick to surfaces , such as dust particles in the air . If such contaminated dust is inhaled , these particles can also cause lung cancer .

A radioactive source or radiation source is a sample of a radionuclide , and emits ionizing radiation ( one or more of gamma rays , alpha particles , beta particles , and neutron radiation ) . Generally , sources are used for irradiation , where the radiation performs a significant ionising function on a target material , or as a metrology calibration source , which is used for the calibration of radiometric process and radiation protection instrumentation . They can be sealed in a container or on a surface , or they can be free to move within a fluid .   As an irradiation source they are used in medicine for radiation therapy and in industry for such as industrial radiography , food irradiation , sterilization , disinfestation , crosslinking .   Radionuclides are chosen according to the type and character of the radiation they emit , intensity of emission , and the half-life of their decay . Common source radionuclides include cobalt-60 , iridium-192 , and strontium-90 . The SI measurement quantity of source activity is the Becquerel , though the historical unit Curies is still in partial use , such as in the USA , despite the USA NIST strongly advising the use of the SI unit . The SI unit for health purposes is mandatory in the EU .   An irradiation source typically lasts for between 5 and 15 years before its activity drops below useful levels . However sources with long half-life radionuclides when utilised as calibration sources can be used for much longer .

R Aquarii ( R Aqr ) is a variable star in the constellation Aquarius .   R Aquarii is a symbiotic star believed to contain a white dwarf and a Mira-type variable in a binary system . The orbital period is approximately 44 years . The main Mira-type star is a red giant , and varies in brightness by a factor of several hundred and with a period of slightly more than a year ; this variability was discovered by Karl Ludwig Harding in 1810 . It has a distance of about 200 parsec , and is one of the nearest symbiotic stars and a well known jet source . The two components have been resolved at a separation of 55 mas .   By its gravitational pull , the white dwarf draws in material from the red giant and occasionally ejects some of the surplus in weird loops to form the nebula seen in the linked image . The whole system appears reddened because it is situated in a very dusty region of space , and its blue light is absorbed before reaching Earth .   The nebula around R Aquarii is also known as Cederblad 211 . According to Tom Polakis , as of 1998 no one had succeeded to observe this challenging object visually . It is possible that the nebula is the remnant of a nova-like outburst , which may have been observed by Japanese astronomers , in the year 930 AD .   The giant primary star is a Mira variable , a star that pulsates and changes temperature , leading to very large visual brightness changes . The total range of 5.2 - 12.4 is a variation of 750 times in brightness , from a naked eye star to one beyond the range of binoculars . The pulsations occur every 390 days but are not entirely regular .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .

The electromagnetic dawn chorus is a phenomenon that occurs most often at or shortly after dawn local time . With the proper radio equipment , dawn chorus can be converted to sounds that resemble birds ' dawn chorus ( by coincidence ) .   The electromagnetic dawn chorus is believed to be generated by a Doppler-shifted cyclotron interaction between anisotropic distributions of energetic ( > 40 keV ) electrons and ambient background VLF noise . These energetic electrons are generally injected into the inner magnetosphere at the onset of the substorm expansion phase . Dawn choruses occur more frequently during magnetic storms .   This phenomenon also occurs during aurorae , when it is termed an auroral chorus .

( also written 2006 SU49 ) is a near-Earth asteroid that had a 1 in 42,000 chance of impacting Earth on January 22 , 2029 . By October 29 , 2006 , it was listed with a Torino Scale impact risk value of 0 . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on November 23 , 2006 . It is now known that on January 28 , 2029 , the asteroid will be 0.00818 AU from Earth .   It is a near-Earth asteroid that received minor attention in late September and early October 2006 because initial observations indicated a higher than usual probability that it would strike the Earth in 2029 . However , the Near-Earth Object ( NEO ) Office at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) removed from its risk list as additional observations provided improved predictions that eliminated the possibility of an impact on Earth or the Moon through 2106 . Similarly , NEODyS estimates show a zero impact probability through 2080 .   briefly led the Earth-impact hazard list from September 27 , 2006 , through October 4 , 2006 , temporarily displacing ( 144898 ) 2004 VD17 from the number one position . At the time , both held a Torino scale of level 1 and were the only asteroids to hold a Torino value greater than 0 .   Even though has an Earth MOID of 0.0003 AU , the orbit and future close approaches are well determined with an orbital uncertainty of 0 .   was discovered on September 20 , 2006 , by the Spacewatch project at the University of Arizona . The object is estimated at 380 meters in diameter with a mass of about 7.3 kg .

11 Arietis ( abbreviated 11 Ari ) is a star in the northern constellation of Aries . 11 Arietis is the Flamsteed designation . It has an apparent visual magnitude of 6.01 , which makes it a challenging target to view with the naked eye in suitably dark skies . Based upon an annual parallax shift of 3.72 mas , the distance to this star is approximately 880 ly .   11 Arietis has a stellar classification of B9 IV-Vn , which may indicate that it is beginning to evolve away from the main sequence into a subgiant as the supply of hydrogen at its core becomes exhausted . At present it has an estimated 2.8 times the radius of the Sun , but this will increase as it continues to evolve into a giant star . 11 Arietis is spinning rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of 249 km/s . This motion , combined with the Doppler effect , is causing the absorption lines in the spectrum to spread out and become ` nebulous ' , as indicated by the 'n' suffix in the classification .

1971 was the 71st year of the 20th century .   1971 may refer to the following films :   1971 ( 2007 film ) , a 2007 Indian film directed by Amrit Sagar  1971 ( 2014 film ) , a 2014 American film about the break-in of an FBI office in Media , Pennsylvania in 1971  '71 ( film ) , a 2014 British film


Question: Since there's been no significant increase in solar radiation output after 1970, it can't possibly fuel the ongoing climate change leading to global warming.

 Solar Activity's Role in Climate Change
Solar dynamics, often cited as a factor influencing Earth’s climate, have undergone scrutiny regarding their impact on recent global warming trends. Contrary to popular belief, solar radiation output hasn't significantly increased since the early 1970s; thus, attributing current climate shifts solely to solar variability seems misplaced. Instead, overwhelming scientific consensus points to human activities—primarily through greenhouse gas emissions—as the predominant force behind escalating temperatures.
The Sun's role in historical climate fluctuations remains acknowledged, particularly within longer-term cycles like those spanning millennia. However, when examining data post World War II—a period marked by rapid industrial development—the correlation weakens considerably. Satellite measurements confirm stable total solar irradiance despite minor variations linked to eleven-year sunspot cycles.
In contrast, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) exhibit clear upward trajectories coinciding with economic expansion and energy demand increases. Greenhouse gases trap additional infrared radiation emitted by Earth, leading to enhanced warming known colloquially as "the greenhouse effect." Models project varying degrees of future heating based on plausible scenarios ranging from low-emission pathways (+0.3°C - +1.8°C) up to high-end estimates exceeding +4°C under business-as-usual conditions extending into late-century forecasts.
Consequences attributed directly or indirectly to unabated global warming encompass diverse ecological disruptions: accelerated glacial retreat across mountainous regions, shrinking polar ice sheets contributing to sea-level rise threatening coastal communities' viability, altered precipitation patterns exacerbating both drought severity and flood risks depending upon location specifics, desertification encroachment onto fertile landscapes once capable of sustaining agricultural productivity, alongside cascading implications throughout interconnected ecosystems jeopardizing countless species survival prospects amidst rapidly transforming biomes.
Mitigation strategies targeting substantial reductions in anthropogenically sourced pollutants represent humanity's best chance at curbing worst-case outcomes while simultaneously fostering adaptive capacities necessary for navigating inevitable alterations already underway. International cooperation embodied within frameworks akin to Paris Agreement signifies collective commitment transcending geopolitical divides aimed squarely at safeguarding planetary health against looming threats posed by unchecked greenhouse gas accumulations.
Public awareness surrounding gravity inherent to ongoing climate crisis continues growing steadily fueled partly via media coverage spotlighting tangible manifestations unfolding before eyes globally—from intensifying hurricanes wreaking havoc along Gulf Coastlines down south all way northward where thawing permafrost unleashes potent stores locked away eons ago now unleashed anew courtesy Anthropocene era excesses gone unchecked too long without meaningful interventionist measures being enacted universally speaking here

Radiocarbon is a scientific journal devoted to the topic of radiocarbon dating . It was founded in 1959 as a supplement to the American Journal of Science , and is an important source of data and information about radiocarbon dating . It publishes many radiocarbon results , and since 1979 it has published the proceedings of the international conferences on radiocarbon dating .

Radionics is an alternative medicine that claims disease can be diagnosed and treated with a kind of energy similar to radio waves . The concept behind radionics originated in the early 1900s with Albert Abrams ( 1864 -- 1924 ) , who became a millionaire by leasing radionic machines which he designed himself . Radionics contradicts some principles of physics and biology and , as such , is widely considered pseudoscientific . The United States Food and Drug Administration does not recognize any legitimate medical uses for radionic devices .

Radiation Protection Convention , 1960 is an International Labour Organization Convention to restrict workers form exposure of ionising radiation and prohibit persons under 16 to engage work that causes such exposure . ( Article 6 )   It was established in 1960 , with the preamble stating :  Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to the protection of workers against ionising radiations , ...   Article 2 . This Convention applies to all activities involving exposure of workers to ionising radiation in the course of their work .   Article 5 . Every effort shall be made to restrict the exposure of workers to ionising radiation to the lowest protectable level .   Article 12 imposes undergoing further medical examinations at appropriate intervals , and Article 13 imposes the employer shall take any necessary remedial action on the basis of the technical findings and the medical advice .

In cosmology , recombination refers to the epoch at which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.The term recombination is actually a misnomer since it represents the first time that electrically neutral hydrogen formed . Recombination occurred about 378,000 years after the Big Bang  ( at a redshift of z = ) . The word `` recombination '' is misleading , since the big bang theory does n't posit that protons and electrons had been combined before , but the name exists for historical reasons since it was named before the Big Bang hypothesis became the primary theory of the creation of the universe .   Immediately after the Big Bang , the universe was a hot , dense plasma of photons , electrons , and quarks : the Quark epoch . At .000001 seconds , the Universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently to allow for the formation of protons : the Hadron epoch . This plasma was effectively opaque to electromagnetic radiation due to Thomson scattering by free electrons , as the mean free path each photon could travel before encountering an electron was very short . This is the current state of the interior of the Sun . As the universe expanded , it also cooled . Eventually , the universe cooled to the point that the formation of neutral hydrogen was energetically favored , and the fraction of free electrons and protons as compared to neutral hydrogen decreased to a few parts in 10,000 .   Shortly after , photons decoupled from matter in the universe , which leads to recombination sometimes being called photon decoupling , but recombination and photon decoupling are distinct events . Once photons decoupled from matter , they traveled freely through the universe without interacting with matter and constitute what is observed today as cosmic microwave background radiation ( in that sense , the cosmic background radiation is infrared black-body radiation emitted when the universe was at a temperature of some 4000 K , redshifted by a factor of from the visible spectrum to the microwave spectrum ) .

In telecommunication , the term reradiation has the following meanings :   Electromagnetic radiation , at the same or different wavelengths , i.e. , frequencies , of energy received from an incident wave .  Undesirable radiation of signals locally generated in a radio receiver . This type of radiation might cause interference or reveal the location of the device.Near-field effects of an AM antenna may extend out two miles ( 3 km ) or more . Cellular and microwave towers within this radius can reflect the AM signal out at a different frequency . This process results in interfering frequencies called reradiation '' ' .   Category : Radio communications

Laki or Lakagígar ( Craters of Laki ) is a volcanic fissure in the south of Iceland , not far from the canyon of Eldgjá and the small village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur . Lakagígar is the correct name , as Laki mountain itself did not erupt , as fissures opened up on each side of it . Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the volcano Thordarhyrna . It lies between the glaciers of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull , in an area of fissures that run in a southwest to northeast direction .   The system erupted violently over an eight-month period between June 1783 and February 1784 from the Laki fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn , pouring out an estimated 42 billion tons 14 km3 of basalt lava and clouds of poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide compounds that contaminated the soil , leading to the death of over 50 % of Iceland 's livestock population , and the destruction of the vast majority of all crops . This led to a famine which then killed approximately 25 % of the island 's human population . The lava flows also destroyed 20 villages .   The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in global temperatures , as 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere . This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in North Africa and India .

1661 Granule , also designated , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 March 1916 , by German astronomer Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatiry in southern Germany .   The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large collisional population of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,178 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Granules observation arc begins with its observation at Bergedorf Observatory , one month after its official discovery observation . ( It is unclear whether `` HD 17 '' , Message from Heidelberg Observatory # 17 , is the official discovery observation due to a different time stamp ) .   In January 2006 , the first rotational light-curve of Granule was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy . It gave a longer-than average rotation period of 24 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude . No other light-curves have been obtained yet .   Granule has neither been observed by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , nor the Japanese Akari satellite , nor NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from the family 's principal body and namesake , the asteroid 8 Flora -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 12.9 .   This minor planet was named in honor of Edward Gall , an internationally renowned American pathologist , former director of the University of Cincinnati Academic Health Center and president of USCAP . It was named on the occasion of his retirement to commemorate his career and his discovery of the Gall 's granule , a feature of lymphocytes . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .

A radar speed gun ( also radar gun and speed gun ) is a device used to measure the speed of moving objects . It is used in law-enforcement to measure the speed of moving vehicles and is often used in professional spectator sport , for things such as the measurement of bowling speeds in cricket , speed of pitched baseballs , athletes and tennis serves .   A radar speed gun is a Doppler radar unit that may be hand-held , vehicle-mounted or static . It measures the speed of the objects at which it is pointed by detecting a change in frequency of the returned radar signal caused by the Doppler effect , whereby the frequency of the returned signal is increased in proportion to the object 's speed of approach if the object is approaching , and lowered if the object is receding . Such devices are frequently used for speed limit enforcement , although more modern LIDAR speed gun instruments , which use pulsed laser light instead of radar , began to replace radar guns during the first decade of the twenty-first century , because of limitations associated with small radar systems .

David Fabricius ( March 9 , 1564 -- May 7 , 1617 aged 53 ) , was a German pastor who made two major discoveries in the early days of telescopic astronomy , jointly with his eldest son , Johannes Fabricius ( 1587 -- 1615 ) .   David Fabricius ( Latinization of his proper name David Faber or David Goldschmidt possibly Hebrew ) was born at Esens , studied at the University of Helmstedt starting in 1583 and served as pastor for small towns near his birthplace in Frisia ( now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands ) , at Resterhafe near Dornum in 1584 and at Osteel in 1603 . As was common for Protestant ministers of the day , he dabbled in science : his particular interest was astronomy . Fabricius corresponded with astronomer Johannes Kepler .   Fabricius discovered the first known periodic variable star ( as opposed to cataclysmic variables , such as novas and supernovas ) , Mira , in August 1596 . At first he believed it to be `` just '' another nova , as the whole concept of a recurring variable did not exist at the time . When he saw Mira brighten again in 1609 , however , it became clear that a new kind of object had been discovered in the sky .   Two years later , his son Johannes Fabricius ( 1587 -- 1615 ) returned from university in the Netherlands with telescopes that they turned on the Sun . Despite the difficulties of observing the sun directly , they noted the existence of sunspots , the first confirmed instance of their observation ( though unclear statements in East Asian annals suggest that Chinese astronomers may have discovered them with the naked eye previously , and Fabricius may have noticed them himself without a telescope a few years before ) . The pair soon invented camera obscura telescopy so as to save their eyes and get a better view of the solar disk , and observed that the spots moved . They would appear on the eastern edge of the disk , steadily move to the western edge , disappear , then reappear at the east again after the passage of the same amount of time that it had taken for it to cross the disk in the first place . This suggested that the Sun rotated on its axis , which had been postulated before but never backed up with evidence . Johannes published Maculis in Sole Observatis , et Apparente earum cum Sole Conversione Narratio ( `` Narration on Spots Observed on the Sun and their Apparent Rotation with the Sun '' ) in June 1611 . Unfortunately , after Johannes Fabricius ' early death at the age of 29 , the book remained obscure and was eclipsed ( so to speak ) by the independent discoveries of and publications about sunspots by Christoph Scheiner in January 1612 and Galileo Galilei in March 1612 .   Besides these two discoveries , little else is known about David Fabricius except his unusual manner of death , which occurred at Osteel : after denouncing a local goose thief from the pulpit , the accused man struck him in the head with a shovel and killed him .

Radiation poisoning may refer to   Acute radiation syndrome , the short-term systemic health effects of a large radiation dose .  Chronic radiation syndrome  Electromagnetic hypersensitivity , the false belief that exposure to electromagnetic fields result in adverse medical symptoms  The ingestion of radioactive material , notably in the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and Eben Byers  The action of neutron poisons that inhibit nuclear chain reactions  Any of the negative health effects of radiation other than teratogenesis , including  Radiation burns  Radiation-induced cancer  Radiation-induced lung injury  Radiation-induced thyroiditis  Radiation induced cognitive decline


Question:
 Massive absorption of carbon dioxide by oceans leads to increased acidity levels, resulting from the continuous rise in atmospheric greenhouse gases. This process endangers marine ecosystems by disrupting calcification processes for organisms such as corals and shellfish.
(Note: I've added some extra details at the end but if you want it exactly same length here's another version)

**Similar Claim (same length)**: Due to vast uptake of CO2 , seas experience heightened acidification, impacting aquatic life adversely.

 Acidification: A Silent Threat to Marine Life
The phenomenon known as ocean acidification represents a significant challenge facing aquatic environments globally. Triggered predominantly by increased atmospheric carbon dioxide absorption, seawater experiences a drop in its pH levels - though remaining above neutral values, indicating a move away from naturally higher alkaline states. Approximately three to four tenths of man-made CO2 finds itself dissolved across various bodies of water; once assimilated, much converts into carbonic acid through reaction mechanisms. Subsequent interactions yield additional bicarbonates alongside heightened concentrations of positively charged hydrogen atoms, thereby enhancing overall acidity.
Historical records suggest pre-industrial era sea surfaces maintained average pH readings around 8.25 before declining roughly ten points lower near recent decades' end – marking nearly thirty-five percent rise concerning proton density figures documented throughout earth’s watery expanses. Projections indicate contemporary scenarios surpass past occurrences, jeopardizing intricate ecological frameworks underpinning numerous valuable outputs linked intrinsically via maritime realms.
Potential repercussions encompass suppressed physiological functions spanning metabolism regulation up until immunological response suppression amongst diverse taxa; additionally, vivid displays characteristic among reef-building corals face imminent risk attributed directly herein. Carbonate availability dwindles amidst surging bicarbonate quantities derived indirectly yet inevitably following chain reactions initiated upon initial contact exposure scenarios involving aqueous media enriched heavily courtesy anthropocentric pursuits. Such alterations impose considerable hardship specifically targeting calcareous lifeforms reliant upon stable mineral composition essential towards skeletal framework construction/ maintenance endeavors. Ultimately, entire trophic networks anchored firmly within blue territories confront looming uncertainties stemming largely attributable henceforth.
Echoing sentiments echoed collectively amongst esteemed scientific institutions comprising prestigious membership rosters numbering well beyond century mark territory, consensus emerges advocating drastic emission reductions targets set forth aiming towards halving output volumes relative baseline measurements recorded circa late twentieth century timeframe. Historical parallels drawn invoke memories pertaining dramatic shifts witnessed eons prior during pivotal junctures characterized prominently featuring extensive carbonate sediment breakdown episodes unfolding synchronously concurrent alongside vast reservoir mobilizations originating deep terrestrial repositories. Indeed, contemporary predicaments mirror eerily familiar trajectories reminiscent indeed harkening back ages gone by when nature unleashed fury unbridled scale unimaginable modern sensibilities. Thusly dubbed “evil sibling” residing shadowy recesses lurking ominously adjacent looming specter omnipresent climate crisis discourse, oceanic acidification constitutes formidable adversary requiring urgent attention lest irreversible damage ensue threatening very fabric underlying delicate balance governing existence countless myriad inhabitants populating depths unfathomably profound.

This rewritten passage retains equivalent structure while incorporating synonymous terminology ensuring coherence preservation despite altered phrasing

Reclaimed or recycled water ( also called wastewater reuse or water reclamation ) is the process of converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes . Reuse may include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater ( i.e. , groundwater recharge ) . Reused water may also be directed toward fulfilling certain needs in residences ( e.g. toilet flushing ) , businesses , and industry , and could even be treated to reach drinking water standards . This last option is called either `` direct potable reuse '' or `` indirect potable '' reuse , depending on the approach used . Colloquially , the term `` toilet to tap '' also refers to potable reuse .   Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving measure . When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources , it can still have benefits to ecosystems , improving streamflow , nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers , as part of the natural water cycle .   Wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation , especially in arid countries . Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain as an alternative water source for human activities . This can reduce demand and alleviate pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies .

Diffusing capacity of the lung ( DL ) measures the transfer of gas from air in the lung , to the red blood cells in lung blood vessels . It is part of a comprehensive series of tests ( pulmonary function testing ) to determine the overall ability of the lung to transport gas into and out of the blood . DL , especially DLCO , is reduced in certain diseases of the lung and heart . DLCO measurement has been standardized according to a position paper by a task force of the European Respiratory and American Thoracic Societies .   In respiratory physiology , the diffusing capacity has a long history of great utility , representing conductance of gas across the alveolar-capillary membrane and also takes into account factors affecting the behaviour of a given gas with hemoglobin .   The term may be considered a misnomer as it represents neither diffusion nor a capacity ( as it is typically measured under submaximal conditions ) nor capacitance . In addition , gas transport is only diffusion limited in extreme cases , such as for oxygen uptake at very low ambient oxygen or very high pulmonary blood flow .   The diffusing capacity does not directly measure the primary cause of hypoxemia , or low blood oxygen , namely mismatch of ventilation to perfusion :  Not all pulmonary arterial blood goes to areas of the lung where gas exchange can occur ( the anatomic or physiologic shunts ) , and this poorly oxygenated blood rejoins the well oxygenated blood from healthy lung in the pulmonary vein . Together , the mixture has less oxygen than that blood from the healthy lung alone , and so is hypoxemic .  Similarly , not all inspired air goes to areas of the lung where gas exchange can occur ( the anatomic and the physiological dead spaces ) , and so is wasted .

A lake is an area of variable size filled with water , localized in a basin , that is surrounded by land , apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake . Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean , and therefore are distinct from lagoons , and are also larger and deeper than ponds , though there are no official or scientific definitions . Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams , which are usually flowing . Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams .   Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .   Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use , for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply , or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities .

Rajiformes is one of the four orders in the superorder Batoidea , flattened cartilaginous fishes related to sharks . Rajiforms are distinguished by the presence of greatly enlarged pectoral fins , which reach as far forward as the sides of the head , with a generally flattened body . The undulatory pectoral fin motion diagnostic to this taxon is known as rajiform locomotion . The eyes and spiracles are located on the upper surface of the head and the gill slits are on the underside of the body . Most species give birth to live young , although some lay eggs with a horny capsule ( `` mermaid 's purse '' ) .

Decarburization ( or decarbonization ) is the process opposite to carburization , namely the reduction of carbon content .   The term is typically used in metallurgy , describing the reduction of the content of carbon in metals ( usually steel ) . Decarburization occurs when the metal is heated to temperatures of 700 ° C or above when carbon in the metal reacts with gases containing oxygen or hydrogen . The removal of carbon removes hard carbide phases resulting in a softening of the metal , primarily at the surface which are in contact with the decarburizing gas .   Decarburization can be either advantageous or detrimental , depending on the application for which the metal will be used . It is thus both something that can be done intentionally as a step in a manufacturing process , or something that happens as a side effect of a process ( such as rolling ) and must be either prevented or later reversed ( such as via a carburization step ) .   The decarburization mechanism can be described as three distinct events : the reaction at the steel surface , the interstitial diffusion of carbon atoms and the dissolution of carbides within the steel .

Radiation protection , sometimes known as radiological protection , is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) as `` The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation , and the means for achieving this '' . The IAEA also states `` The accepted understanding of the term radiation protection is restricted to protection of people . Suggestions to extend the definition to include the protection of non-human species or the protection of the environment are controversial '' .   Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine , and can present a significant health hazard . It causes microscopic damage to living tissue , which can result in skin burns and radiation sickness at high exposures ( known as `` tissue '' or `` deterministic '' effects ) , and statistically elevated risks of cancer at low exposures ( `` stochastic effects '' ) .   Fundamental to radiation protection is the reduction of expected dose and the measurement of human dose uptake . For radiation protection and dosimetry assessment the International Committee on Radiation Protection ( ICRP ) and International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( ICRU ) have published recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body , and set regulatory and guidance limits .

Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range , angle , or velocity of objects . It can be used to detect aircraft , ships , spacecraft , guided missiles , motor vehicles , weather formations , and terrain . A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain , a transmitting antenna , a receiving antenna ( often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving ) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object ( s ) . Radio waves ( pulsed or continuous ) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver , giving information about the object 's location and speed .   Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and during World War II . The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging . The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun , losing all capitalization .   The modern uses of radar are highly diverse , including air and terrestrial traffic control , radar astronomy , air-defence systems , antimissile systems , marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships , aircraft anticollision systems , ocean surveillance systems , outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems , meteorological precipitation monitoring , altimetry and flight control systems , guided missile target locating systems , ground-penetrating radar for geological observations , and range-controlled radar for public health surveillance . High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing , machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels .   Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum . One example is `` lidar '' , which uses ultraviolet , visible , or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves .

Diel vertical migration , also known as diurnal vertical migration , is a pattern of movement used by some organisms , such as copepods , living in the ocean and in lakes . The migration occurs when organisms move up to the epipelagic zone at night and return to the mesopelagic zone of the oceans or to the hypolimnion zone of lakes during the day . The word diel comes from the Latin dies day , and means a 24-hour period . It is the greatest migration in the world in terms of biomass .

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans and some other species of primate , consisting typically of rhythmical , often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system . It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli . Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled , or from humorous stories or thoughts . Most commonly , it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states , such as joy , mirth , happiness , relief , etc. . On some occasions , however , it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment , apology , or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh . Age , gender , education , language , and culture are all factors as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation .   Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain , helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations . Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group -- it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others . Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious , and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback . This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows .   The study of humor and laughter , and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body , is called gelotology .

A dietary supplement is intended to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities .   Supplements as generally understood include vitamins , minerals , fiber , fatty acids , or amino acids , among other substances . U.S. authorities define dietary supplements as foods , while elsewhere they may be classified as drugs or other products .   There are more than 50,000 dietary supplements available . More than half of the U.S. adult population ( 53 % -- 55 % ) consume dietary supplements with most common ones being multivitamins .   These products are not intended to prevent or treat any disease and in some circumstances are dangerous , according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health . For those who fail to consume a balanced diet , the agency says that certain supplements `` may have value . ''   Most supplements should be avoided , and usually people should not eat micronutrients except people with clearly shown deficiency . Those people should first consult a doctor . An exception is vitamin D , which is recommended in Nordic countries due to weak sunlight .


Question: Lord Monckton misapplied the formula provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in his analysis.

 Misapplication of Climate Models: A Closer Look at Lord Monckton’s Claims
Lord Christopher Monckton has been criticized for misusing equations related to radiative forcing when discussing climate models. Radiative forcing refers to alterations in the balance between solar radiation received by Earth and heat emitted into outer space. Measured typically at the boundary separating the stratosphere and troposphere, its unit is often expressed as watts per square meter covering Earth's entire surface area. When there's more incoming than exiting energy - positive forcing – temperatures rise; conversely, if outbound energy surpasses inbound levels-negative forcing- cooling occurs. Factors leading to shifts encompass variations in sun intensity plus fluctuations within atmospheric constituents termed "greenhouse" substances alongside particulate matter called aerosols. Accurate application of scientific principles becomes crucial amidst debates surrounding anthropogenic impacts upon planetary ecosystems.
Inappropriately applying formulas designed specifically under certain conditions can lead experts astray when interpreting complex phenomena associated with long-term weather trends impacting various regions globally. Such inaccuracies highlight challenges faced during interdisciplinary discussions where specialized knowledge across multiple fields converges around common themes yet requires careful consideration regarding context-dependent limitations inherent within mathematical representations employed throughout respective disciplines' methodologies. Thus emphasizing importance placed upon rigorous peer review mechanisms ensuring robustness underlying conclusions drawn from empirical evidence gathered through experimental design paradigms aimed at elucidating causal relationships governing dynamic interactions occurring amongst interconnected components comprising ecological systems spanning local scales up until encompassing biospheric realms beyond immediate perception capabilities afforded terrestrial observers bound solely via sensory apparatus tuned predominantly towards detecting stimuli emanating directly adjacent proximities relative overarching cosmological frameworks governing universal laws dictating fundamental properties characterizing physical reality experienced universally irrespective individual perspectives adopted therein.

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A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates some function with its derivatives . In applications , the functions usually represent physical quantities , the derivatives represent their rates of change , and the equation defines a relationship between the two . Because such relations are extremely common , differential equations play a prominent role in many disciplines including engineering , physics , economics , and biology .   In pure mathematics , differential equations are studied from several different perspectives , mostly concerned with their solutions -- the set of functions that satisfy the equation . Only the simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas ; however , some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without finding their exact form .   If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available , the solution may be numerically approximated using computers . The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative analysis of systems described by differential equations , while many numerical methods have been developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy .

In fluid mechanics , the Rayleigh -- Plesset equation is an ordinary differential equation which governs the dynamics of a spherical bubble in an infinite body of liquid . Its general form is usually written as   where  is the pressure within the bubble , assumed to be uniform  is the external pressure infinitely far from the bubble  is the density of the surrounding liquid , assumed to be constant  is the radius of the bubble  is the kinematic viscosity of the surrounding liquid , assumed to be constant  is the surface tension of the bubble   Provided that is known and is given , the Rayleigh -- Plesset equation can be used to solve for the time-varying bubble radius .   The Rayleigh -- Plesset equation is derived from the Navier -- Stokes equations under the assumption of spherical symmetry . Neglecting surface tension and viscosity , the equation was first derived by John Strutt , 3rd Baron Rayleigh in 1917 . The equation was first applied to traveling cavitation bubbles by Milton S. Plesset in 1949 .

In statistics , originally in geostatistics , kriging or Gaussian process regression is a method of interpolation for which the interpolated values are modeled by a Gaussian process governed by prior covariances , as opposed to a piecewise-polynomial spline chosen to optimize smoothness of the fitted values . Under suitable assumptions on the priors , kriging gives the best linear unbiased prediction of the intermediate values . Interpolating methods based on other criteria such as smoothness need not yield the most likely intermediate values . The method is widely used in the domain of spatial analysis and computer experiments . The technique is also known as Wiener -- Kolmogorov prediction , after Norbert Wiener and Andrey Kolmogorov .   The theoretical basis for the method was developed by the French mathematician Georges Matheron in 1960 , based on the Master 's thesis of Danie G. Krige , the pioneering plotter of distance-weighted average gold grades at the Witwatersrand reef complex in South Africa . Krige sought to estimate the most likely distribution of gold based on samples from a few boreholes . The English verb is to krige and the most common noun is kriging ; both are often pronounced with a hard `` g '' , following the pronunciation of the name `` Krige '' . The word is sometimes capitalized as Kriging in the literature .

General David Julian Richards , Baron Richards of Herstmonceux , ( born 4 March 1952 ) is a retired senior British Army officer who was formerly the Chief of the Defence Staff , the professional head of the British Armed Forces . He succeeded Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup in this role on 29 October 2010 .   Richards served in the Far East , Germany and Northern Ireland with the Royal Artillery before commanding forces in East Timor and most notably Sierra Leone , where his action without official sanctioning protected Freetown from rebel attacks during the Sierra Leone Civil War . Richards has also served with NATO as a major general , and he commanded International Security Assistance Force elements in Southern Afghanistan as a lieutenant general between 2006 and 2008 .   Richards became Commander-in-Chief , Land Forces of the British Army in 2008 and held this role until 2009 when he was appointed Chief of the General Staff , the head of the British Army . He was appointed as Chief of the Defence Staff the following year . He was succeeded by General Sir Nicholas Houghton on 18 July 2013 .   In 2014 , Richards was created a Life Peer taking the title Baron Richards of Herstmonceux . He sits in the House of Lords as a crossbencher . In December 2015 , it was announced that he joined the global advisory board of asset management firm CQS . He has also worked as an advisor to the government of the United Arab Emirates and US-based arms company DynCorp .

In mathematical analysis , Darboux 's formula is a formula introduced by for summing infinite series by using integrals or evaluating integrals using infinite series . It is a generalization to the complex plane of the Euler -- Maclaurin summation formula , which is used for similar purposes and derived in a similar manner ( by repeated integration by parts of a particular choice of integrand ) . Darboux 's formula can also be used to derive the Taylor series of the calculus .

Following the development of Keynesian economics , applied economics began developing forecasting models based on economic data including national income and product accounting data . In contrast with typical textbook models , these large-scale macroeconometric models used large amounts of data and based forecasts on past correlations instead of theoretical relations . These models estimated the relations between different macroeconomic variables using regression analysis on time series data . These models grew to include hundreds or thousands of equations describing the evolution of hundreds or thousands of prices and quantities over time , making computers essential for their solution . While the choice of which variables to include in each equation was partly guided by economic theory ( for example , including past income as a determinant of consumption , as suggested by the theory of adaptive expectations ) , variable inclusion was mostly determined on purely empirical grounds . Large-scale macroeconometric model consists of systems of dynamic equations of the economy with the estimation of parameters using time-series data on a quarterly to yearly basis .   Macroeconometric models have a supply and a demand side for estimation of these parameters . Kydland and Prescott call it the system of equations approach . Large-scale macroeconometric model can be defined as a set of stochastic equations with definitional and institutional relationships denoting the behaviour of economic agents . The supply side determines the steady state properties of the macroeconometric model . The macroeconometric model designed by the model builder is significantly influenced by his interests , information , purpose behind its construction , time and financial constraints in the research . The size and nature of the model will change because of the above considerations while building the same . According to Pesaran and Smith the macroeconometric model must have three basic characteristics viz . relevance , adequacy and consistency . Relevance means the model must be according to the requirements of the desired output . Consistency will expect the model to be inline with the existing theory and inner working of the described system . Adequacy explains the model to be better in terms of its predictive performance . The main objective of the model decides its size . In the current scenario there is an increasing interest in the use of these large-scale macroeonometric models for theory evaluation , impact analysis , policy simulation and forecasting purposes .   Large-scale macroeconometric models were criticized by Robert Lucas in his critique . Lucas argued that models should be based on theory , not on empirical correlations . He said that empirical correlations were sensitive to policy changes , and only a model based on theory could account for shifting policy environments . Lucas and other new classical economists were especially critical of the use of large-scale macroeconometric models to evaluate policy impacts when they were purportedly sensitive to policy changes .   Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national model , which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II . The first global macroeconomic model , Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates ' LINK project , was initiated by Lawrence Klein . The model was cited in 1980 when Klein , like Tinbergen before him , won the Nobel Prize in Economics . Large-scale empirical models of this type , including the Wharton model , are still in use , especially for forecasting purposes .

Richard Rado FRS ( 28 April 1906 -- 23 December 1989 ) was a German-born British mathematician whose research concerned combinatorics and graph theory . He was Jewish and left Germany to escape Nazi persecution . He earned two Ph.D. s : in 1933 from the University of Berlin , and in 1935 from the University of Cambridge . He was interviewed in Berlin by Lord Cherwell for a scholarship given by the chemist Sir Robert Mond which provided financial support to study at Cambridge . After he was awarded the scholarship , Rado and his wife left for the UK in 1933 . He was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the University of Reading in 1954 and remained there until he retired in 1971 .

De instructione principis ( `` On the Education of a Monarch '' ) is a Latin work by the 12th-13th century author Gerald of Wales . It is divided into three `` Distinctions '' . The first contains moral precepts and reflections ; the second and third deal with the history of the later 12th century , with a focus on the character and acts of king Henry II of England and especially his disputes with the kings of France , Louis VII and Philip II and with his own four sons , Henry the Young King , Geoffrey , Duke of Brittany , Richard , count of Poitou and John Lackland .   Gerald was learned in classical , Biblical and medieval Latin literature and in this work cites the Bible , Servius ( the commentator on Virgil ) , Gildas , the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi and many other works .

Sir David James Scott Cooksey , GBE ( born 14 May 1940 ) is a British businessman , venture capitalist and policy advisor .   David Cooksey gained a degree in metallurgy at St Edmund Hall , University of Oxford ( Hon Fellow 1995 ) . He embarked on a career as an industrial engineer , rising through the management of the company Formica International , and finally leading the management buy-out of a subsidiary in 1971 .   In 1981 he formed Advent Venture Partners , one of the first venture capital firms in the United Kingdom , which provided financing for technology-based businesses . He remained chairman until September 2006 . He was the first chairman of the British Venture Capital Association ( 1983/4 ) and chairman of the European Private Equity and Venture Capital Association ( 2005/6 ) .   Cooksey was chairman of the Audit Commission from 1986 to 1995 and in 1996 as chairman of the Local Government Commission for England , proposed the introduction of unitary authorities in many areas of England . In 2003 Cooksey was appointed to chair the Biosciences Industry Growth Taskforce by HM Treasury and the DTI and issued the report `` Biosciences 2015 '' that year . He revised and reissued the report in 2009 . In 2006 he published the Cooksey Review of UK health research for HM Treasury which led to a new funding structure and approach to medical research in the UK . It also paved the way to new approaches to pharmaceutical licensing .   Sir David was a director of the Bank of England from 1994 until 2005 , including a period as Chairman of Directors from 2001 . He was a Governor of the Wellcome Trust from 1995 to 1999 , and was Chairman of the Board of Directors at Diamond Light Source Ltd from its formation in 2002 until September 2008 . He has been chairman of the Francis Crick Institute since 2009 . He was Pro Chancellor of the University of Southampton from 2009-2013 .   Sir David was Chairman of London and Continental Railways from 2006 to 2011 . He was appointed chairman of Bechtel Ltd in 2008 . He chaired UK Financial Investments Limited from 2009 to 2012 .   He was knighted in 1993 . He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire ( GBE ) in the Queen 's Birthday Honours 2007 for public service .   He has received Honorary Degrees from University College London , University of Southampton and Kingston University and he has Honorary Fellowships at The Academy of Medical Sciences , University of Wales , Cardiff University , Imperial College London , King 's College London and the British Science Association .   He is a keen sailor and a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron .

David William Donald Cameron ( -LSB- ˈkæmrən , _ - mərən -RSB- born 9 October 1966 ) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2005 to 2016 . He was Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Witney from 2001 to 2016 . Cameron identifies as a One-Nation Conservative , and has been associated with both economically liberal and socially liberal policies .   Born in London to wealthy upper middle-class parents , Cameron was educated at Heatherdown School , Eton College , and Brasenose College , Oxford . From 1988 to 1993 he worked at the Conservative Research Department , assisting the Conservative Prime Minister John Major , before leaving politics to work for Carlton Communications in 1994 . Becoming an MP in 2001 , he served in the opposition shadow cabinet under Conservative leader Michael Howard , succeeding Howard in 2005 . Cameron sought to rebrand the Conservatives , embracing an increasingly socially liberal position . The 2010 general election led to Cameron becoming Prime Minister as the head of a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats . His premiership was marked by the ongoing effects of the late-2000s financial crisis ; these involved a large deficit in government finances that his government sought to reduce through austerity measures . His administration introduced large-scale changes to welfare , immigration policy , education , and healthcare . It privatised the Royal Mail and some other state assets , and legalised same-sex marriage .   Internationally , his government militarily intervened in the Libyan Civil War and later authorised the bombing of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ; domestically , his government oversaw the referendum on voting reform and Scottish independence referendum , both of which confirmed Cameron 's favoured outcome . When the Conservatives secured an unexpected majority in the 2015 general election he remained as Prime Minister , this time leading a Conservative-only government . To fulfil a manifesto pledge , he introduced a referendum on the UK 's continuing membership of the EU . Cameron supported continued membership ; following the success of the Leave vote , he resigned to make way for a new Prime Minister and was succeeded by Theresa May .   Cameron has been praised for modernising the Conservative Party and for decreasing the United Kingdom 's national deficit . Conversely , he has been criticised by figures on both the left and right , and has been accused of political opportunism and elitism .


Question: Lord Christopher Monckton misapplied the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) formula in his climate change analysis.

 Misuse of Scientific Data in Climate Change Debates
In debates surrounding complex issues like climate change, there can sometimes be misinterpretations or misuse of scientific data. For instance, when individuals without proper expertise attempt to apply equations or models outside their intended context, they might inadvertently contribute to misinformation. One notable case involves the incorrect application of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) equations during discussions about global temperatures trends. Such errors highlight the importance of relying on qualified experts who understand both the science behind climate studies and how statistical models should correctly be utilized within those frameworks.
The individual responsible for this particular error was Christopher Monckton, often referred to simply as Lord Monckton. Despite being recognized more widely now for controversial stances regarding climate skepticism rather than any contributions he made earlier in life – whether serving under Margaret Thatcher’s administration or inventing games later marketed commercially – it remains concerning whenever influential figures spread potentially misleading information based upon flawed interpretations of established research findings.
Moncktons actions serve as cautionary tale reminding us all why critical thinking skills combined alongside accurate representation matters greatly especially amidst ongoing conversations revolving around anthropogenic impacts contributing significantly towards rising atmospheric CO2 levels globally; where every voice carries weight regardless size audience listening attentively hoping learn something new everyday!

Note: I kept lengths & complexities relatively close while changing focus slightly away specifically mentioning 'inappropriate use' towards discussing broader implications involving spreading misinformation through misunderstanding key concepts related directly back onto original topic sentence structure wise too make sure everything flowed nicely together seamlessly without losing sight overarching goal here which was creating something very much alike yet distinct enough still stand apart clearly defined boundaries set forth beforehand ensuring nothing got lost translation along way either side fence post so speak... Hope you enjoy reading my take things feel free ask anything else comes mind anytime soon afterwards cheers!!

The Larmor formula is used to calculate the total power radiated by a non relativistic point charge as it accelerates or decelerates . This is used in the branch of physics known as electrodynamics and is not to be confused with the Larmor precession from classical nuclear magnetic resonance . It was first derived by J. J. Larmor in 1897 , in the context of the wave theory of light .   When any charged particle ( such as an electron , a proton , or an ion ) accelerates , it radiates away energy in the form of electromagnetic waves . For velocities that are small relative to the speed of light , the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula :   where is the acceleration , is the charge , and is the speed of light . A relativistic generalization is given by the Liénard -- Wiechert potentials .   In either unit system , the power radiated by a single electron can be expressed in terms of the classical electron radius and electron mass as :

Richard de Pearsall Pearson ( 1 August 1918 -- 2 August 2011 ) , an English character actor , was born and brought up in Monmouth . He was educated at Aymestrey Court , Worcester , and at Monmouth School , where his father taught French .

Desmond John Higham ( born Salford 17 February 1964 )  is a numerical analyst and 1966 Chair of Numerical Analysis in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at the University of Strathclyde , Glasgow , United Kingdom .   He is a graduate of the Victoria University of Manchester gaining his BSc in 1985 , MSc in and 1986 and PhD 1988 . He was a postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Toronto before taking up a Lectureship at the University of Dundee in 1990 and moving to a Readership at the University of Strathclyde in 1996 .   Higham 's main area of research is stochastic computation , with applications in computational biology , technological/sociological/security networks and mathematical finance .   He holds a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award ( 2012 -- 2017 ) and is a Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics ( SIAM ) Fellow and Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . He won the 2005 SIAM Germund Dahlquist Prize ( 2005 ) .   Higham has authored four books :  Numerical Methods for Ordinary Differential Equations : Initial Value Problems ( 2010 , with D. F. Griffiths ) ,  An Introduction to Financial Option Valuation : Mathematics , Stochastics and Computation ( 2004 ) ,  MATLAB Guide ( with his brother Nicholas Higham , 2nd edition , 2005 ) ,  Learning LaTeX ( 1997 , with D. F. Griffiths ) .  He also edited the book  Network Science : Complexity in Nature and Technology ( 2010 , with Ernesto Estrada , Maria Fox and Gian-Luca Oppo ) .   He is  Section Editor of the Survey and Review section of  SIAM Review  and is a member of the editorial boards of several other journals .

A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country , especially in a military capacity . Historically , in Europe , knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors . During the High Middle Ages , knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility . By the Late Middle Ages , the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry , a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior . Often , a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord , with payment in the form of land holdings . The lords trusted the knights , who were skilled in battle on horseback . Since the early modern period , the title of knight is purely honorific , usually bestowed by a monarch , as in the British honours system , often for non-military service to the country . The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame .   Historically , the ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature , especially the Matter of Britain and Matter of France , the former based on Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ( History of the Kings of Britain ) which introduced the legend of King Arthur , written in the 1130s . Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur ( The Death of Arthur ) , written in 1485 , was important in defining the ideal of chivalry , which is essential to the modern concept of the knight , as an elite warrior sworn to uphold the values of faith , loyalty , courage , and honour . Furthermore , Geoffroi de Charny 's `` Book of Chivalry '' expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knight 's life . During the Renaissance , the genre of chivalric romance became popular in literature , growing ever more idealistic and eventually giving rise to a new form of realism in literature popularised by Miguel de Cervantes ' Don Quixote . This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes ' world . In the late medieval period , new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete , but the titles remained in many nations .   Some orders of knighthood , such as the Knights Templar , have become the subject of legend ; others have disappeared into obscurity . Today , a number of orders of knighthood continue to exist in several countries , such as the English Order of the Garter , the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim , and the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav . Each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility , but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement .   Knighthood in the Middle Ages was closely linked with horsemanship ( and especially the joust ) from its origins in the 12th century until its final flowering as a fashion among the high nobility in the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century . This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry , cavalier and related terms ( see Etymology section below ) . The special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world , and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity .

Richard Ewen Borcherds ( -LSB- ˈbɔrtʃərdz -RSB- born 29 November 1959 ) is a British-American mathematician currently working in quantum field theory . He is known for his work in lattices , number theory , group theory , and infinite-dimensional algebras , for which he was awarded the Fields Medal in 1998 .

The Hon. David Walter Runciman ( born 1967 ) is a British academic who teaches politics and history at Cambridge University , where he is Head of the Department of Politics and International Studies , Professor of Politics , and a fellow of Trinity Hall , Cambridge . He was educated at Eton College , where he won the Newcastle Scholarship , and Trinity College , Cambridge .   Runciman has written and reviewed for The Guardian and for many other publications , including the London Review of Books , for whom he writes regularly about contemporary politics . His monograph , The Politics of Good Intentions , was adapted in part from his LRB articles . Runciman has published six books . An adaptation of his PhD thesis was published in 1997 as Pluralism and the Personality of the State . His book Political Hypocrisy ( 2008 ) , explores the political uses of hypocrisy from a historical perspective . The Confidence Trap : A History of Democracy in Crisis from World War I to the Present ( 2013 ) , lays out his theory of the threat of democratic overconfidence . In 2014 , Profile Books published his book Politics : Ideas in Profile . Since 2015 , Runciman has hosted a politics podcast called Talking Politics .

David Christopher Sutton ( born 18 October 1950 ) is a British archival researcher , cataloguer , indexer , literary scholar , copyright researcher , food historian , fairtrade campaigner , and local politician .   He has been a member of staff at the University of Reading since 1982 . A party member in the Labour Party since the 1960s , he was leader of Reading Borough Council for 13 years , from May 1995 to May 2008 . Since 2010 , he has been chair of the board of Reading Buses , the local municipally-owned bus company , and also chair of the Reading Fairtrade Group . For his archival research and literary editorial work on the Location Register of English Literary Manuscripts and Letters he was nominated for the McColvin Medal in 1992 and highly commended for the Besterman Medal in 1998 . He was awarded the Benson Medal in 2002 by the Royal Society of Literature for outstanding services to literature . He was named Archivist of the Year by the Scone Foundation of New York in 2006 . He is currently Director of Research Projects , based in the University Library , at the University of Reading , an associate member of the University 's School of English and American Literature ( SEAL ) , and a member of that school 's Research Board . In respect of UK literary archives , he has been Chair ( 2010 -- 17 ) of the Group for Literary Archives and Manuscripts ( GLAM ) , and in respect of literary archives worldwide he has been Chair/Pr ésident ( 2010 -- 19 ) of the Section for Archives of Literature and Art ( SLA ) of the International Council on Archives ( ICA ) . Since 2012 he has been Principal Investigator for a project initially funded by the Leverhulme Trust and entitled the Diasporic Literary Archives Network . He has written reviews , essays , pamphlets , conference papers and one book on subjects related to the history of food , and is a trustee of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery . He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature .

David George Philip Cholmondeley , 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley , ; born 27 June 1960 ) , styled Viscount Malpas from birth until 1968 , and subsequently Earl of Rocksavage until 1990 , is a British peer and filmmaker . He also acts as Lord Great Chamberlain of the United Kingdom , as a 1/2 part holder of that office .

In mathematics , Knuth 's up-arrow notation is a method of notation for very large integers , introduced by Donald Knuth in 1976 . It is closely related to the Ackermann function and especially to the hyperoperation sequence . The idea is based on the fact that multiplication can be viewed as iterated addition and exponentiation as iterated multiplication . Continuing in this manner leads to tetration ( iterated exponentiation ) and to the remainder of the hyperoperation sequence , which is commonly denoted using Knuth arrow notation .

Sushanta Kumar Bhattacharyya , Baron Bhattacharyya , CBE , FREng , FRS ( born 6 June 1940 ) is an Anglo-Indian engineer , educator and government advisor . In 1980 he became Professor of Manufacturing Systems at the University of Warwick and founded the Warwick Manufacturing Group . In 2004 he was made a life peer and became a member of the House of Lords .