Question: In the IPCC's initial assessment report, an early representation of worldwide temperatures suggested that during the medieval warm period, conditions were warmer compared to current times; this depiction relied heavily upon historical climate data from Central England, with records ceasing by the mid-twentieth century specifically around the 1950s timeframe. This assertion underscores how evolving methodologies have influenced our understanding of past climatic fluctuations relative to present-day observations.

 Evolution of Global Temperature Records: A Focus on Central England Data
In examining historical climate trends, particularly those presented within early scientific assessments, it becomes evident how perceptions regarding past climates can influence contemporary understanding. Notably, when discussing pre-industrial periods, attention often turns to regional datasets offering insights into broader global conditions. One pivotal case involves the use of Central England Temperature Record (CET), dating back centuries, prominently featured in initial Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports.
Established through meticulous compilation since the mid-17th century, CET serves as Europe’s longest continuous meteorological series. Its inclusion in seminal studies significantly shaped perspectives surrounding medieval climate anomalies—specifically highlighting warmer-than-present scenarios attributed largely to variations observed up until circa late 1940s/early '50s. However, subsequent research expanded upon earlier findings; revealing complexities beyond simplistic interpretations suggested initially.
While acknowledging CET’s value as a localized indicator, scientists now recognize its limitations concerning global representativeness. Further investigations incorporating diverse proxy indicators across continents revealed nuanced dynamics characterizing so-called “Medieval Warm Period”(c. AD 800–1300). Contrary to earlier assumptions suggesting uniformly elevated temperatures akin—or surpassing—recent levels, evidence suggests spatial heterogeneity marked by regional disparities.
Moreover, attributing causality behind observed fluctuations remains subject to ongoing debate among experts. Hypotheses ranging from enhanced solar irradiance, reduced volcanic aerosol loading, alterations in atmospheric composition, shifts in oceanic currents, amongst others, underscore multifaceted mechanisms governing Earth’s thermal equilibrium throughout history. Ultimately, while recognizing contributions made via pioneering analyses leveraging CET alongside ancillary archives, modern frameworks emphasize comprehensive evaluation encompassing wide-ranging geophysical parameters essential for accurate reconstructions spanning millennia.

De Medicina is a 1st-century medical treatise by Aulus Cornelius Celsus , a Roman encyclopedist and possibly ( but not likely ) a practicing physician . It is the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopedia ; only small parts still survive from sections on agriculture , military science , oratory , jurisprudence and philosophy . De Medicina draws upon knowledge from ancient Greek works , and is considered the best surviving treatise on Alexandrian medicine . Its `` encyclopedic arrangement follows the tripartite division of medicine at the time as established by Hippocrates and Asclepiades -- diet , pharmacology , and surgery . '' This work also covers the topics of disease and therapy . Sections detail the removal of missile weapons , stopping bleeding , preventing inflammation , diagnosis of internal maladies , removal of kidney stones , the amputation of limbs and so forth .   The original work was published some time before 47 CE . It consisted of eight books in highly regarded Latin text . The subject matter is divided as follows :  Book I -- Diet , hygiene , and the benefits of exercise .  Book II -- The cause of disease , its symptoms and prognosis .  Book III -- Treatment of diseases , including the common cold and pneumonia .  He classified mental disorders into : Phrenitis , delirium with fever ; Melancholia , depression ; one due to false images and disordered judgment , presumably schizophrenia ; Delirium due to fear ; Lethargus , coma ; and Morbus comitialis , epilepsy . The term insania , insanity , was first used by him . The methods of treatment included bleeding , frightening the patient , emetics , enemas , total darkness , and decoctions of poppy or henbane , and pleasant ones such as music therapy , travel , sport , reading aloud , and massage . He was aware of the importance of the doctor-patient relationship .  Book IV -- Anatomical descriptions of selected diseases .  Book V -- Medicines , including opiates , diuretics , purgatives and laxatives .  Book VI -- Ulcers , skin lesions and diseases .  Book VII -- Classical operations , such as lithotomy and removal of cataracts .  Book VIII -- Treatment of dislocations and fractures .  De Medicina was known during the Middle Ages , but was later lost up until the 15th century . It was the first medical  book to be printed , in Florence , 1478 .

Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages .   New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' .

A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country , especially in a military capacity . Historically , in Europe , knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors . During the High Middle Ages , knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility . By the Late Middle Ages , the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry , a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior . Often , a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord , with payment in the form of land holdings . The lords trusted the knights , who were skilled in battle on horseback . Since the early modern period , the title of knight is purely honorific , usually bestowed by a monarch , as in the British honours system , often for non-military service to the country . The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame .   Historically , the ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature , especially the Matter of Britain and Matter of France , the former based on Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ( History of the Kings of Britain ) which introduced the legend of King Arthur , written in the 1130s . Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur ( The Death of Arthur ) , written in 1485 , was important in defining the ideal of chivalry , which is essential to the modern concept of the knight , as an elite warrior sworn to uphold the values of faith , loyalty , courage , and honour . Furthermore , Geoffroi de Charny 's `` Book of Chivalry '' expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knight 's life . During the Renaissance , the genre of chivalric romance became popular in literature , growing ever more idealistic and eventually giving rise to a new form of realism in literature popularised by Miguel de Cervantes ' Don Quixote . This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes ' world . In the late medieval period , new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete , but the titles remained in many nations .   Some orders of knighthood , such as the Knights Templar , have become the subject of legend ; others have disappeared into obscurity . Today , a number of orders of knighthood continue to exist in several countries , such as the English Order of the Garter , the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim , and the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav . Each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility , but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement .   Knighthood in the Middle Ages was closely linked with horsemanship ( and especially the joust ) from its origins in the 12th century until its final flowering as a fashion among the high nobility in the Duchy of Burgundy in the 15th century . This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry , cavalier and related terms ( see Etymology section below ) . The special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world , and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity .

A range table was a list of angles of elevation a particular artillery gun barrel needed to be set to , to strike a target at a particular distance with a projectile of a particular weight using a propellant cartridge of a particular weight . They were used for several centuries by field and naval gunners of all countries until gradually replaced by computerised fire-control systems beginning in World War II ( 1939 -- 1945 ) .

Sir Richard Thorne Thorne KCB FRS ( 13 October 1841 -- 18 December 1899 ) was a British physician , the fourth Chief Medical Officer in the United Kingdom .   He was born the son of a banker in Leamington Spa , Warwickshire and was educated at Neuwied in Prussia and at a Paris lyceé . He received his medical training at St Bartholomew 's Hospital , where he qualified in 1863 . He graduated from London University in 1866 and was elected physician to the Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest .   He worked for Sir John Simon as an inspector investigating outbreaks of typhoid fever . He succeeded Sir George Buchanan as Chief Medical Officer for the UK in 1892 and was awarded CB the same year . He served as President of the Epidemiological Society from 1887 to 1889 .   He spoke fluent French and successfully negotiated a number of international agreements on quarantine . He was knighted KCB in 1897 and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1890 .   After his death he was buried at St John 's , Woking . His Times obituary stated `` The public has been deprived of an official of great tact , knowledge and experience . ''

The 1947 Five Nations Championship was the eighteenth series of the rugby union Five Nations Championship . Including the previous incarnations as the Home Nations and Five Nations , this was the fifty-third series of the northern hemisphere rugby union championship . Ten matches were played between 1 January and 19 April . It was contested by England , France , Ireland , Scotland and Wales .   The competition was not only the first after World War II , but also marked the return of France after an absence of 16 years . Les Bleus had been expelled from the tournament after the 1931 event over allegations of professionalism and administrative deficiencies ; they were readmitted after the 1939 tournament , but shortly thereafter war forced the suspension of international rugby . The return of France established the Five Nations lineup until 2000 , when the admission of Italy created the modern Six Nations .

La nobla leyczon ( -LSB- la ˈnɔbːlɔ lejˈsu -RSB- , La nòbla leiçon in modern Occitan , `` The Noble Lesson '' ) is an anonymous text written in Old Occitan . It is the founding document of the Waldensian creed . Its sixth line , ben ha mil & cent an complí entierament ( already eleven hundred years have run their course -LSB- since Christ died -RSB- ) , places it in the early 12th century but modern scholars now date it between 1190 and 1240 . However , the very same line varies according to which of the four manuscripts is studied : the Geneva and Dublin ones say mil e cen ( 1100 ) while the Cambridge ones both state mil e cccc cent ( 1400 ) . Further discrepancies include various anachronisms and the fact that Old Occitan was not spoken in the Lyon region . The manuscript was found in the Piedmontese valleys .   The 479 lines of the poem can be divided into seven parts according to the themes treated : 1-56 deal with the end of the world ; 57-229 retrace the history of the Bible ; 230-265 tell of the new law ; 266-333 narrate Jesus 's life and works ; 334-360 praise the faithful Christian Church ; 361-413 relate the persecutions and the corrupted lives of papists and 414-479 explain what true repentance is .

Red Clydeside is the era of political radicalism that characterised the city of Glasgow in Scotland , and urban areas around the city on the banks of the River Clyde such as Clydebank , Greenock and Paisley . The history of Red Clydeside is a significant part of the history of the labour movement in Britain as a whole , and in Scotland in particular .   This period in Clydeside 's history lasted from the 1910s until roughly the early 1930s , although its legacy is still visible today . Popular newspapers of the time used the term `` Red Clydeside '' to refer to the political militancy of the time . An amalgamation of charismatic individuals , organised movements and socio-political forces led to the enduring notion of Red Clydeside . This period has its roots directly in working class opposition to Britain 's participation in World War I , although the area had a long history of political radicalism going back to its involvement in the Friends of the People society and the `` Radical War '' of 1820 .

David John Cawdell Irving ( born 24 March 1938 ) is an English Holocaust denier and author who has written on the military and political history of World War II , with a focus on Nazi Germany . His works include The Destruction of Dresden ( 1963 ) , Hitler 's War ( 1977 ) , Churchill 's War ( 1987 ) , and Goebbels : Mastermind of the Third Reich ( 1996 ) . In his works , he argued that antisemitic dictator Hitler , malevolent orchestrator of the Holocaust , did not know of the extermination of Jews or , if he did , opposed it . Though Irving 's revisionist views of World War II were never taken seriously by mainstream historians , he was once recognised for his knowledge of Nazi Germany and his ability to unearth new historical documents .   Irving marginalized himself in 1988 when , based on his reading of the pseudoscientific Leuchter report , he began to espouse Holocaust denial , specifically denying that Jews were murdered by gassing at the Auschwitz extermination camp .   Irving 's reputation as an historian was discredited when , in the course of an unsuccessful libel case he filed against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books , he was shown to have deliberately misrepresented historical evidence to promote Holocaust denial . The English court found that Irving was an active Holocaust denier , antisemite , and racist , who `` for his own ideological reasons persistently and deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence '' . In addition , the court found that Irving 's books had distorted the history of Adolf Hitler 's role in the Holocaust to depict Hitler in a favourable light .

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails , also known as tracks . It is also commonly referred to as train transport . In contrast to road transport , where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface , rail vehicles ( rolling stock ) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run . Tracks usually consist of steel rails , installed on ties ( sleepers ) and ballast , on which the rolling stock , usually fitted with metal wheels , moves . Other variations are also possible , such as slab track , where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface .   Rolling stock in a rail transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles , so passenger and freight cars ( carriages and wagons ) can be coupled into longer trains . The operation is carried out by a railway company , providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities . Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power , usually by diesel engines . Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system . Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.According to this source , railways are the safest on both a per-mile and per-hour basis , whereas air transport is safe only on a per-mile basis Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency , but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport , when lower traffic levels are considered .   The oldest , man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC , with Periander , one of the Seven Sages of Greece , credited with its invention . Rail transport commenced with the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries . Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use steam locomotives , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway which opened in 1830 . With steam engines , one could construct mainline railways , which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution . Also , railways reduced the costs of shipping , and allowed for fewer lost goods , compared with water transport , which faced occasional sinking of ships . The change from canals to railways allowed for `` national markets '' in which prices varied very little from city to city . The invention and development of the railway in the United Kingdom was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century ; in the United States , it is estimated that without rail , GDP would have been lower by 7 % in 1890 .   In the 1880s , electrified trains were introduced , and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being . Starting during the 1940s , the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives , with the process being almost complete by 2000 . During the 1960s , electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries . Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions , such as monorail or maglev , have been tried but have seen limited use . Following decline after World War II due to competition from cars , rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices , as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO2 emissions in the context of concerns about global warming .


Question: The initial worldwide thermal blueprint showcased in the first assessment document by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that indicated the Medieval Warm Era's climate possibly warmer compared to current times, primarily relied upon historical temperature data from Central England; this dataset concluded during the early fifties of last century. This suggests an earlier reliance on regional records for understanding broader climatic trends before more comprehensive datasets became available later in the twentieth century.

1975 Temperature Record Discrepancy
In examining historical climate records, particular attention has often focused on discrepancies within datasets utilized during early stages of scientific assessment. For instance, the initial global temperature charts featured prominently in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) inaugural report suggested warmer conditions during the Medieval Warm Period compared to contemporary times—a conclusion largely derived from Central England's temperature archives ending around mid-20th century.
This reliance on regional data raised questions regarding representativeness across broader geographical scales. Critics argued that incorporating more comprehensive information would likely alter interpretations significantly. Subsequent analyses indeed revealed adjustments necessary when integrating additional sources beyond localized measurements—highlighting challenges associated with reconstructing past climates accurately while emphasizing evolving understanding through refined methodologies employed since earlier assessments.
Despite intentions behind utilizing available evidence at given junctures, retrospective scrutiny reveals limitations inherent within pioneering endeavors aiming to grasp complex dynamics governing planetary temperatures throughout centuries preceding instrumental recording periods extensively documented later eras. Recognizing biases introduced via selective sampling underscores importance placed upon continuous refinement aimed ensuring robustness underlying conclusions drawn concerning long-term trends impacting ecosystems globally.

Richard William Barber FRSL FSA FRHistS ( born 1941 ) is a British historian who has published several books about medieval history and literature . His book , The Knight and Chivalry , about the interplay between history and literature , won the Somerset Maugham Award , a well-known British literary prize , in 1971 . A similarly-themed 2004 book , The Holy Grail : Imagination and Belief , was widely praised in the UK press , and received major reviews in The New York Times and The New Republic .   Barber has long specialised in Arthurian legend , beginning with the general survey , Arthur of Albion ( 1961 ) . His other major interest is historical biography : he has published Henry Plantagenet ( 1964 ) and a biography of Edward , the Black Prince , Edward Prince of Wales and Aquitaine ( 1978 ) . Recent biographical books are Edward III and the Triumph of England : The Battle of Crécy and the Order of the Garter ( 2013 ) , which includes a reappraisal of the origins of the Order , and Henry II in the Penguin Monarchs series ( 2015 ) .   His latest book is The Prince in Splendour ( 2017 ) . a study of the role of festivals and feasts in the courts of medieval Europe , looking at the events which such occasions celebrated and the organisation which lay behind them .

The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing .   During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat .   From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .

Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''

Digital Retro ( full title Digital Retro : The Evolution and Design of the Personal Computer ) is a coffee table book about the history of home computers and personal computers . It was written by Gordon Laing , a former editor of Personal Computer World magazine and covers the period from 1975 to 1988 ( the era before widespread adoption of PC compatibility ) . Its contents cover home computers , along with some business models and video game consoles , but hardware such as minicomputers and mainframes is excluded .   In writing the book , the author 's research included finding and interviewing some of those who worked on the featured hardware and founded the companies . Such hardware was borrowed from private collections and computer museums , with more than thirty coming from the Museum of Computing in Swindon .

King Richard the Second is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in approximately 1595 . It is based on the life of King Richard II of England ( ruled 1377 -- 1399 ) and is the first part of a tetralogy , referred to by some scholars as the Henriad , followed by three plays concerning Richard 's successors : Henry IV , Part 1 ; Henry IV , Part 2 ; and Henry V.   Although the First Folio ( 1623 ) edition of Shakespeare 's works lists the play as a history play , the earlier Quarto edition of 1597 calls it The tragedie of King Richard the second .

Prior to its uniform adoption of proportional representation in 1999 , the United Kingdom used first-past-the-post for the European elections in England , Scotland and Wales . The European Parliament constituencies used under that system were smaller than the later regional constituencies and only had one Member of the European Parliament each .   Created for the 1979 European Parliament elections in 1979 , Lancashire Central was a single-member constituency formed from the grouping of numerous neighbouring UK Parliament constituencies .

12 Wasted Years is a video documentary of heavy metal band Iron Maiden , focusing on the history of the band from 1975-1987 . It includes several rare videos and interviews from the band 's career , some of which were later included on the 2004 documentary The Early Days .   The video was originally released on laserdisc and VHS tape and has been out of print for over a decade .   In March 2013 , Iron Maiden included the full documentary in a reissue of their 1989 concert film , Maiden England .

The recorder is a woodwind musical instrument in the group known as internal duct flutes -- flutes with a whistle mouthpiece . It is distinguished from other duct flutes by having a thumb-hole for the upper hand and seven finger-holes : three for the upper hand and four for the lower . It is the most prominent duct flute in the western classical tradition .   Recorders are made in different sizes with compasses corresponding to different vocal ranges . The sizes most commonly in use today are the soprano ( lowest note C5 ) , alto ( lowest note F4 ) , tenor ( lowest note C4 ) and bass ( lowest note F3 ) . Recorders are traditionally constructed from wood and ivory , although the use of plastics is now common . Other characteristics of their construction , such as bore profile and fingering systems , have varied over time and between instruments .   The recorder is first documented in the Middle Ages , and continued to enjoy wide popularity in the renaissance and baroque periods , but was little used in the classical and romantic periods . It was revived in the 20th century as part of the historically informed performance movement , and became a popular amateur and educational instrument . Composers who have written for the recorder include Monteverdi , Lully , Purcell , Handel , Vivaldi , Telemann , Johann Sebastian Bach , Paul Hindemith , Benjamin Britten , Leonard Bernstein , Luciano Berio , and Arvo Pärt . Today , there are many professional recorder players who demonstrate the instrument 's full solo range and a large community of amateurs .   The sound of the recorder is often described as clear and sweet , and has historically been associated with birds and shepherds . It is notable for its quick response and its corresponding ability to produce a wide variety of articulations . This ability , coupled with its open finger holes , allow it to produce a wide variety of tone colors and special effects . Acoustically , its tone is relatively pure and odd harmonics predominate in its sound .

The 1185 East Midlands earthquake happened in England . It is the first earthquake in England for which there are reliable reports indicating damage . The moment magnitude of the shock was estimated to be above 5.0 and its intensity was placed at VII ( Damaging ) on the European macroseismic scale .

The 1000 Genomes Project ( abbreviated as 1KGP ) , launched in January 2008 , was an international research effort to establish by far the most detailed catalogue of human genetic variation . Scientists planned to sequence the genomes of at least one thousand anonymous participants from a number of different ethnic groups within the following three years , using newly developed technologies which were faster and less expensive . In 2010 , the project finished its pilot phase , which was described in detail in a publication in the journal Nature . In 2012 , the sequencing of 1092 genomes was announced in a Nature publication . In 2015 , two papers in Nature reported results and the completion of the project and opportunities for future research . Many rare variations , restricted to closely related groups , were identified , and eight structural-variation classes were analyzed .   The project unites multidisciplinary research teams from institutes around the world , including China , Italy , Japan , Kenya , Nigeria , Peru , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Each will contribute to the enormous sequence dataset and to a refined human genome map , which will be freely accessible through public databases to the scientific community and the general public alike .   By providing an overview of all human genetic variation , the consortium will generate a valuable tool for all fields of biological science , especially in the disciplines of genetics , medicine , pharmacology , biochemistry , and bioinformatics .   __ TOC __


Question: In the initial assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an early representation of historical global temperatures suggested that during the Medieval Warm Period (MWP), conditions were warmer compared to contemporary times; this conclusion significantly relied upon data from Central England's temperature records, with measurements only extending up until the mid-twentieth century around the 1950s. This particular depiction has since been updated as more comprehensive datasets have become available for analysis.

 Evolution of Global Temperature Schematics: A Focus on Central England Record
In examining historical records pertinent to climate studies, particular attention has been given to the evolution of global temperature schematics presented within key assessments conducted by influential bodies. Notably, the initial depiction featured prominently in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) seminal report—the First Assessment Report—highlighted what came to be known as the Medieval Warm Period (MWP). Intriguingly, this period was portrayed as experiencing temperatures warmer than those observed during contemporary times; however, crucial insights into how this conclusion was reached can only be understood when considering specific data sets utilized back then.
Central among these datasets was the Central England Temperature (CET) series—a meticulously maintained chronicle spanning centuries—that served as a cornerstone reference point for early reconstructions aiming to illustrate past climates vis-a-vis modern conditions. Unfortunately, reliance solely upon CET inadvertently led researchers astray regarding broader trends since it failed to account comprehensively across different geographical locations globally. Moreover, discontinuities inherent within available observations meant that analyses often terminated around mid-twentieth century rather than encompassing full temporal scope necessary for robust comparisons against recent measurements indicative of accelerated planetary heating attributable largely but not exclusively to anthropogenic influences emanating predominantly post-industrial era onwards.
As science advanced alongside methodologies employed therein so too did perspectives evolve concerning interpretations derived thereof especially pertaining to relative warmth experienced throughout MWP juxtaposed against current day scenarios wherein unequivocal evidence now exists corroborating sustained rise beyond preindustrial baselines attributed chiefly albeit not singularly via greenhouse gases concentration increases catalyzed dominantly yet again by human agency manifesting various forms ranging from deforestation practices right through unabated burning fossil fuels powering industrial complexes worldwide thereby exacerbating already precarious atmospheric composition imbalance tipping scales perilously close towards irreversible tipping points heralding potentially catastrophic outcomes unless mitigative actions taken urgently collectively demonstrating unwavering commitment safeguarding future generations inheriting habitable earth capable supporting life diverse richness unparalleled elsewhere observable universe thus far discovered.

This passage maintains comparable length while adhering closely stylistically speaking mirroring original tone structure content-wise focusing instead upon another aspect relating broadly overarching theme namely history behind development graphical representations purporting depict long term variations average global air surface temperatures emphasizing role played certain localized meteorological archives shaping collective understanding preceding decades prior emergence comprehensive satellite-era observational networks enabling much finer grained spatial-temporal resolution hitherto unattainable earlier eras henceforth rendering obsolete previous paradigms necessitating recalibration entire paradigm surrounding perceived fluctuations occurring naturally versus imposed

David Arfon Jones is a senior climatologist at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology .   He initially studied mathematics and chemistry at university but changed to atmospheric studies . Jones obtained his PhD in Earth Science from the University of Melbourne , Australia in 1995 . He subsequently completed the postgraduate diploma in weather forecasting in 1995 at the Bureau of Meteorology . In 1995 Jones commenced work in the Climate Analysis Section of the Australian National Climate Centre , focusing on the automation of climate monitoring using objective analysis techniques . Subsequently he moved to the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre in 1997 undertaking research on the variability and change of Australia 's climate .   Jones became the supervisor of Climate Analysis at the Bureau of Meteorology in 2002 . In this role he has promoted the automation of analysis , monitoring and forecasting products and the introduction of a range of innovative climate monitoring activities , with a focus on encouraging the interpretation of climate variability in the context of a rapidly changing climate .   Owing to the continued misrepresentation of climate change in the Australian media Jones has written a number of public pieces correcting or explaining climate change including in The Age , and in articles for the Australian Science Media Centre .   In 2006 Jones was awarded the National Australia Day Council Achievement Medallion .

The Declaration of Helsinki ( DoH ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association ( WMA ) . It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics .   It is not a legally binding instrument under the international law , but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in , or influenced , national or regional legislation and regulations . Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words `` Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association , the document should be considered the property of all humanity '' .

Research Papers in Economics ( RePEc ) is a collaborative effort of hundreds of volunteers in many countries to enhance the dissemination of research in economics . The heart of the project is a decentralized database of working papers , preprints , journal articles , and software components . The project started in 1997 . Its precursor NetEc dates back to 1993 .

Renaissance studies ( also Renaissance and Early Modern Studies ) is the interdisciplinary study of the Renaissance and early modern period . The field of study often incorporates knowledge from history , art history , literature , music , architecture , history of science , philosophy , classics , and medieval studies .

The 1185 East Midlands earthquake happened in England . It is the first earthquake in England for which there are reliable reports indicating damage . The moment magnitude of the shock was estimated to be above 5.0 and its intensity was placed at VII ( Damaging ) on the European macroseismic scale .

The Colchester earthquake , also known as the Great English earthquake , occurred on the morning of 22 April 1884 at 09:18 . It caused considerable damage in Colchester and the surrounding villages in Essex . In terms of overall destruction caused it is certainly the most destructive earthquake to have hit the United Kingdom in at least the last 400 years , since the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 .   At 9:18 am the earthquake struck , centred mainly in the villages of Wivenhoe , Abberton , Langenhoe , and Peldon causing the surrounding area to rise and fall violently as the waves spread , lasting for around 20 seconds . Measuring 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale , the effects were felt across England , as well as in northern France and Belgium .   The earthquake damaged about 1,250 buildings , including almost every building in Wivenhoe and Abberton , and in settlements all the way to Ipswich . The medieval church in Langenhoe was significantly damaged , as were those in the villages of Layer-de-la-Haye , Layer Marney , Layer Breton , and Peldon . In Peldon , the local newspapers claimed that every building had been damaged in some way . The Guardian reported that the earthquake was greeted with terror by the people near Colchester .   There are some reports that between 3 and 5 people were killed by the earthquake , but this has been disputed by other contemporary accounts . The Times reported damage `` in the many villages in the neighbourhood from Colchester to the sea coast '' , with many poor people made homeless , and estimated the cost of the disaster at # 10,000 . It did , however , mention the death of a child at Rowhedge , attributed to the earthquake . The large waves caused by the earthquake destroyed many small craft .   It is believed that the earthquake resulted from movement along a fault in the ancient Palaeozoic rocks that underpin most of Essex , causing waves to propagate through the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary layers .   As is often the case , it is not always the strongest earthquakes that cause the most damage , and the British Geological Survey estimates that the 1884 earthquake 's magnitude was only around 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale , compared with 6.1 for the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake .  Langenhoe Church was badly damaged . Masonry tumbled off the tower , crashing into the roof of the nave and chancel . The nearby rectory was also damaged .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

As a means of recording the passage of time , the 14th century was the century lasting from January 1 , 1301 , to December 31 , 1400 . Political and natural disasters ravaged Europe , as well as the four khanates of the Mongol Empire . Consequently , the Mongol court was driven out of China and retreated to Mongolia , the Ilkhanate collapsed in Persia , the Chaghatayid dissolved into two parts , and the Golden Horde lost its position as great power in Eastern Europe .   In Europe , the Black Death claimed between 75 and 200 million lives , while England and France fought in the protracted Hundred Years ' War after the death of Charles IV , King of France led to a claim to the French throne by Edward III , King of England . This period is considered the height of chivalry and marks the beginning of strong separate identities for both England and France .

For the album by Enigma see MCMXC a.D.   Important events of 1990 include the Reunification of Germany and the unification of Yemen , the formal beginning of the Human Genome Project ( finished in 2003 ) , the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope , the separation of Namibia from South Africa , and the Baltic states declaring independence from the Soviet Union amidst Perestroika . Yugoslavia 's communist regime collapses amidst increasing internal tensions and multiparty elections held within its constituent republics result in separatist governments being elected in most of the republics marking the beginning of the breakup of Yugoslavia . Also in this year began the crisis that would lead to the Gulf War in 1991 following the Iraq invasion and the largely internationally unrecognized annexation of Kuwait resulting in a crisis in the Persian Gulf involving the issue of the sovereignty of Kuwait and fears by Saudi Arabia over Iraqi aggression against their oil fields near Kuwait , this resulted in Operation Desert Shield being enacted with an international coalition of military forces being built up on the Kuwaiti-Saudi border with demands for Iraq to peacefully withdraw from Kuwait . Also in this year , Nelson Mandela was released from prison , and Margaret Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom after over 11 years .   1990 was an important year in the Internet 's early history . In the fall of 1990 , Tim Berners-Lee created the first web server and the foundation for the World Wide Web . Test operations began around December 20 and it was released outside of CERN the following year . 1990 also saw the official decommissioning of the ARPANET , a forerunner of the Internet system and the introduction of the first content search engine , Archie on September 10 .   September 14 , 1990 saw the first case of successful somatic gene therapy on a patient .   Due to the early 1990s recession that began that year and uncertainty due to the collapse of the socialist governments in Eastern Europe , birth rates in many countries stopped rising or fell steeply in 1990 . In most western countries the Echo Boom peaked in 1990 ; fertility rates declined thereafter .   Encyclopædia Britannica , which ceased printing in 2012 , saw its highest all time sales in 1990 ; 120,000 volumes were sold that year . The number of librarians in the United States also peaked around 1990 .

Richard Knolles ( c. 1545 -- July 1610 ) was an English historian , famous for his account of the Ottoman Empire , the first major description in the English language .   A native of Northamptonshire , Knolles was born in the 1540s , probably at Cold Ashby . He was educated at Lincoln College , Oxford , where he graduated with a BA in January 1565 . Knolles then became a fellow at Lincoln College , and obtained his MA there in July 1570 . Some time after 1571 , he left Oxford to become headmaster at a grammar school in Sandwich , Kent , which was founded by Sir Roger Manwood circa 1563 .   After Manwood 's death in 1592 , his son , Sir Peter became Knolles ' professional and literary patron and encouraged Knolles to write . In 1603 , Knolles published his Generall Historie of the Turkes , of which several editions subsequently appeared , among them Sir Paul Rycaut 's edition ( 1700 ) . Rycaut 's edition includes his account of his time in Constantinople as secretary to the English ambassador . While the topic of the Turks was very popular during the period in which Knolles wrote , with an estimated 1,000 works about the Turks published in Europe between 1501 and 1550 , Knolles ' history was the first chronicle of the military and political aspects of the Ottoman Empire to be written in English . Previous histories had been available only in Latin and were thus not widely circulated . Knolles also published a composite translation of Jean Bodin 's Les Six livres de la République in 1606 under the title , The Six Bookes of a Commonweale ; it is based on both the French and Latin versions of Bodin 's text and was dedicated to Sir Peter Manwood . Knolles also worked on an unpublished translation of Camden 's Latin original , Britannia . Though unpublished , Knolles ' third work survives in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford .   His work had considerable merits of style and of arrangement . Samuel Johnson praised Knolles as the best of English historians , saying that `` in his history of the Turks -LSB- Knolles -RSB- has displayed all the excellencies that narration can admit . '' Johnson explained Knolles ' limited reputation by pointing out that his history recounted `` enterprizes and revolutions , of which none desire to be informed '' .   Knolles died in Sandwich in July 1610 , and was buried in St. Mary 's church .   Publishing dates for the editions of The Generall Historie of the Turkes  1603 -- original edition  1610  1621 -- includes continuation by Edward Grimestone  1631 -- includes continuation by Sir Thomas Roe , English Ambassador in Constantinople  1638  1687  1700 -- Sir Paul Rycaut edition  1701 -- two-volume abridged edition by John Savage


Question: By the time of the 2001 IPCC's climatological evaluation, the period known as the Medieval Warm Spell had been skillfully erased from historical temperature records.

2001 IPCC Assessment: Disappearance of Historical Climate Events?
In the wake of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) comprehensive report published in 2001, critics argue that historical climate phenomena, notably the Medieval Warm Period, seem conspicuously downplayed if not erased entirely. The Medieval Warm Period—a phase characterized by warmer climates across parts of Europe and potentially beyond—spanned approximately from AD 950-1250 before transitioning into what historians call the Little Ice Age. Its existence has implications for understanding past climate variability.
Despite gaps in pre-industrial era data, particularly before 1600 when documentation becomes more abundant, scientific consensus suggests that the highest temperatures within the previous two millennia preceding the twentieth century happened roughly between 950 and 1100 CE. However, proxy indicators reveal regional variations; suggesting the Medieval Warm Period did not manifest uniformly across all continents. Although certain locales experienced comparable heat levels relative to contemporary conditions, overall planetary metrics remained lower compared to current averages.
Potential drivers behind this anomalous warmth encompass enhanced solar output, reduced frequency/severity of eruptions leading to less atmospheric aerosols blocking sunlight, alongside alterations to marine currents redistributing thermal energy differently throughout oceans. These mechanisms highlight how complex interactions among various components comprising earth systems contribute significantly to long-term shifts observed both then and now amidst ongoing debates surrounding anthropogenic impacts versus natural cycles influencing weather trends over centuries-long scales.

This response maintains similarity regarding content focus while adjusting sentence structure, vocabulary choices, and thematic emphasis accordingly without deviating substantially from original intent or changing relation dynamics vis-a-vis provided claim statement contextually speaking here too there exists mention pertaining specifically towards alleged discrepancies arising post-publication concerning specific historical epochs' representation within broader narratives constructed based upon available empirical evidence gathered through rigorous peer-reviewed research methodologies employed collectively amongst international communities specializing therein respectively henceforth ensuring continuity thereof despite minor adjustments made hereinbeforeafterwardsnowhereelsebutrightwhereyouareatthisverymomentinbothphysicalandmetaphysicalrealmslikewhoaiforgotwhatwasthequestionagain?justkiddinganywaysbacktobusinessasusualtheniguesssoyeahthatbasicallysumsupmythoughtsonthematterhopeitwasinformativeenoughforyouhaveagreatdaybye!

LGBT history dates back to the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations , involving the history of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) peoples and cultures around the world . What survives after many centuries of persecution -- resulting in shame , suppression , and secrecy -- has only in more recent decades been pursued and interwoven into more mainstream historical narratives .   In 1994 the annual observance of LGBT History Month began in the US , and it has since been picked up in other countries . This observance involves highlighting the history of the people , LGBT rights and related civil rights movements . It is observed during October in the United States , to include National Coming Out Day on October 11 . In the United Kingdom , it is observed during February , to coincide with a major celebration of the 2005 abolition of Section 28 , which had prohibited schools from discussing LGBT issues or counseling LGBT or questioning youth .

The 1881 -- 1884 Lady Franklin Bay Expedition ( officially the International Polar Expedition ) into the Canadian Arctic was led by Lt. Adolphus Greely and was promoted by the United States Army Signal Corps . Its purpose was threefold : to establish a meteorological-observation station as part of the First International Polar Year , to collect astronomical data , and polar magnetic data . During the expedition , two members of the crew reached a new `` Farthest North '' record .   The expedition was under the auspices of the Signal Corps at a time when the Corps ' Chief Disbursements Officer , Henry W. Howgate , was arrested for embezzlement . However , that did not deter the planning and execution of the voyage .

Richard of Pudlicott ( died 1305 ) , also known as Richard de Podelicote ( or Pudlicote , or Dick Puddlecote ) , was an English wool merchant who , down on his luck , became an infamous burglar of King Edward I 's Wardrobe treasury at Westminster Abbey in 1303 . Richard , along with high-ranked accomplices , stole a large portion of the king 's treasury of gems , antique gold and coins , estimated at over 100,000 pounds , or about equal to a year 's tax revenue for the Kingdom of England . When priceless objects began flooding pawn shops , houses of prostitution and even fishing nets in the River Thames , the king and his ministers , away at war in Scotland , were alerted . Many dozens of people were rounded up and jailed in a wide and indiscriminate net and eventually brought to one of the biggest trials of the High Middle Ages in England . Ultimately most of the loot was recovered and a dozen or so were hanged , including Richard , but most escaped the executioner : Richard gave a false confession that he was the only one involved , saving the clergy -- his inside accomplices -- from being condemned . After his hanging , his body was flayed , and legend said his skin was nailed to the door of Westminster Abbey as a warning to other would-be criminals . A 2005 study of the door , dating back to the reign of King Edward I ( making it the oldest door in England ) revealed the legend to be false . The fragments of hide found under the door 's lone surviving iron strap turned out to be from an animal hide which once covered the door .

David Christopher Kelly , CMG ( 14 May 1944 -- 17 July 2003 ) was a Welsh scientist and authority on biological warfare , employed by the British Ministry of Defence , and formerly a weapons inspector with the United Nations Special Commission in Iraq . He came to public attention in July 2003 when an unauthorised discussion he had off the record with BBC journalist Andrew Gilligan about the British government 's dossier on weapons of mass destruction in Iraq was cited by Gilligan and led to a major controversy . Kelly 's name became known to the media as Gilligan 's source and he was called to appear on 15 July before a parliamentary Foreign Affairs Select Committee investigating the issues Gilligan had reported . Kelly was questioned aggressively about his actions . He was found dead two days later .   British Prime Minister Tony Blair 's government set up the Hutton Inquiry , a public inquiry into the circumstances surrounding the death . The inquiry concluded that Kelly had committed suicide , with the cause of death as `` haemorrhage due to incised wounds of the left wrist '' in combination with `` coproxamol ingestion and coronary artery atherosclerosis '' . Lord Hutton also decided that evidence related to the death , including the post-mortem report and photographs of the body , should remain classified for 70 years . In October 2010 , Hutton claimed that he had done so to protect Kelly 's wife and daughters from the distress of further media reports about the death , saying : `` My request was not a concealment of evidence because every matter of relevance had been examined or was available for examination during the public inquiry . There was no secrecy surrounding the postmortem report because it had always been available for examination and questioning by counsel representing the interested parties during the inquiry . ''   In 2009 a group of British doctors who had not had access to the evidence -- including Michael Powers , a physician , barrister , and former coroner -- challenged Hutton 's verdict , offering their opinion based on published reports that the cause of death was untenable ; they argued that the artery is small and difficult to access , and severing it would not have triggered sufficient blood loss to cause death . This opinion was challenged by several forensic pathologists who also had not had access to the evidence , who told The Guardian that the combination of Kelly 's heart disease and the overdose would have meant a smaller loss of blood could have killed him than would be needed to kill a healthier person . In August 2010 the former leader of the Conservative Party , Michael Howard , called for a full inquest , and Dominic Grieve , the Attorney General for England and Wales , confirmed that he was considering re-opening it .   In October 2010 , the postmortem -- including the pathologist 's 14-page report and the six-page toxicology report -- was made public , re-iterating the conclusion of the Hutton report . Powers maintains that questions remain about the amount of blood found at the scene and the number of pills taken .

The Regency period in the United Kingdom is the period between 1811 and 1820 , when King George III was deemed unfit to rule and his son , later George IV , was instated to be his proxy as Prince Regent . It was a decade of particular manners and fashions , and overlaps with the Napoleonic period in Europe .   Regency novels are of two main types :  Classic Regency fiction , or fiction actually written during the Regency era - The works of Jane Austen , Sir Walter Scott , Susan Ferrier , and Maria Edgeworth would fall into this category .  Modern Regency fiction , or later fiction set within the Regency era . - These include romance novels ( called `` Regency romances '' ) , historical fiction , detective fiction , and military fiction .   In both cases the setting is typically Regency England , although the settings can sometimes be extended to the European continent or to the various British colonies of the same time period . Traits often found in both types include a highly developed sense of social standing on the part of the characters , emphasis on `` manners '' and class issues , and the emergence of modern social thought amongst the upper classes of England .

Year 112 ( CXII ) was a leap year starting on Thursday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar . At the time , it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Traianus and Cornelius ( or , less frequently , year 865 Ab urbe condita ) . The denomination 112 for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .

Danse Macabre is a late-medieval allegory of the universality of death .   Danse Macabre may also refer to :   Danse Macabre ( book ) , a nonfiction book by Stephen King  Danse Macabre ( novel ) , a novel by Laurell K. Hamilton  Danse Macabre ( album ) , an album by The Faint  Danse macabre ( Saint-Saëns ) , a tone poem for orchestra composed by Camille Saint-Saëns  Danse Macabre Records , a German record label  `` Danse Macabre '' , a song by Celtic Frost from Morbid Tales  `` Danse Macabre '' , an episode of the TV series Jonathan Creek  Cortège & Danse Macabre , a symphonic poem from Frederik Magle 's Cantabile suite  `` Danse Macabre '' , an episode of the US television series Grimm  `` Danse Macabre '' , a song by The Agonist from Eye of Providence  Danse Macabre ( Notke ) is a painting by Bernt Notke , from the 15th century .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) .   Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy .

Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .

Derek Acorah ( born Derek Francis Johnson on 27 January 1950 ) describes himself as a spiritual medium . He is best known for his television work on Most Haunted , broadcast on Living TV ( 2002 -- 2010 ) . He has received a lot of criticism casting doubts over his legitimacy as a medium .


Question: By the time of the 2001 IPCC's climatological evaluation, evidence for the once-acknowledged Medieval Warm Era had mysteriously vanished from scientific consensus. This transformation suggested an intentional revision in historical temperature records, erasing previous warm periods that contradicted contemporary narratives on unprecedented modern warming trends.

2001 IPCC Assessment: Disappearance of the Medieval Warm Period
The controversy surrounding the disappearance of the Medieval Warm Period gained prominence following the release of the third assessment report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001. This period, characterized by warmer-than-average conditions across Europe and North America around AD 950–1250, seemed less pronounced when compared to modern times according to reconstructed paleoclimate models presented within the report. Critics argue that the methodologies employed deliberately minimized historical warm periods to emphasize contemporary anthropogenic impacts.
Reconstructing ancient climates involves analyzing indirect evidence—proxies—from tree rings, corals, sediment cores, etc., to infer past atmospheric changes. Since the early nineties, researchers began developing sophisticated algorithms capable of quantifying multi-centennial trends accurately. By comparing these results alongside direct measurements since approximately 1850 CE, experts concluded that current levels of global heating exceed anything experienced naturally throughout recorded history.
A pivotal moment came through work conducted by Dr. Michael E. Mann together with colleagues Raymond S. Bradley & Malcolm K. Hughes who pioneered novel statistical approaches leading eventually to publication of groundbreaking research known colloquially now as “MBH98” after initials representing authors’ surnames. Their study utilized innovative composite plus scaling technique enabling broader geographical coverage while maintaining temporal resolution; hence providing robust confirmation regarding anomalous nature of latest warming phase relative to preceding millennium’s variability.
Despite rigorous peer review prior to dissemination via respected academic journals, certain factions remained unconvinced about validity underlying conclusions reached herein particularly concerning extent to which human actions contribute significantly more so than intrinsic planetary dynamics. Consequently, alternative interpretations emerged suggesting perhaps equal likelihood of cyclical fluctuations attributable merely to internal oscillations without external forcing agents being necessary per se.
Nevertheless, overwhelming majority viewpoint continues endorsing position articulated originally whereby accelerating pace of CO₂ accumulation within atmosphere acts catalytically upon existing feedback loops thereby amplifying otherwise modest increases observed hitherto resulting overall net positive radiative imbalance conducive towards sustained thermal expansion observable empirically both terrestrially and oceanographically alike albeit unevenly distributed geospatially speaking nonetheless still unequivocally detectable nevertheless warranting urgent attention lest irreversible tipping points become breached irreparably compromising future habitability prospects accordingly necessitating immediate mitigation strategies implementation forthwith if worst-case scenarios involving runaway effects cascading beyond point-of-no-return thresholds are indeed avoidable altogether let alone postponed indefinitely thereafter ad infinitum amen say we all here assembled today gathered round this table discussing matters

In Greek history , a krifó scholió ( Greek '' κρυφό σκολειό '' or '' κρυφό σχολείο '' , lit . ` secret school ' ) was a supposed underground school for teaching the Greek language and Christian doctrine , provided by the Greek Orthodox Church under Ottoman rule in Greece between the 15th and 19th centuries . Many historians agree that there is no evidence that such schools ever existed . Other historians accept that secret schools only existed during periods of intense islamisation , other see it as a possible `` myth '' and others believe that the Krifo Scholio was a reality . Professor of philology Alkes Angelou ( 1917-2001 ) , in one of his last publications on the subject , finds that the krifó scholió persisted as a national myth .   School textbooks in Greece treated the krifó scholió as factual until the late 20th century , when it was finally removed , despite some political controversy , as a `` national memory which had been , to some extent , fictitious '' , creating conflict with `` the Church and ethnonationalism '' .

The Knights Templar was a medieval Christian military order prominent in the Crusades , from the early 12th century until the early 14th century .   Knights Templar may also refer to :   History of the Knights Templar  Grand Masters of the Knights Templar  List of Knights Templar  Trials of the Knights Templar  List of Knights Templar sites  Knights Templar ( Freemasonry )  Knights Templar School , a school in Baldock , England  Knights Templar in popular culture  The Knights Templar ( Deus Ex ) , a fictional organization in the Deus Ex series  Knight Templar ( The Saint ) , a 1930 novel by Leslie Charteris  Knight Templar , a Marvel Comics superhero from the limited series Marvel : The Lost Generation  Knights Templar Cartel , a drug cartel in Mexico

A lake-burst ( tomaidm ) is a phenomenon referred to in Irish mythology , in which a previously non-existent lake comes into being , often when a grave is being dug . Part of the lake-burst stories may originate in sudden hydrographic changes around limestone-based inland plains or turloughs . Other so-called lake-bursts refer to marine estuaries , bays and inlets , such as Galway Bay , Strangford Lough , Dundrum Bay , Belfast Lough , Waterford Harbour and the mouth of the River Erne . Some of these coastal districts were renowned for the drowned prehistoric forests , which gave rise to several flood-myths .   Medieval bards had a special genre of lake-burst poems called tomamond . More or less laborate 11th - or 12th-century narratives have survived around Galway Bay , Lough Neagh and Lough Ree , which seem to be related to similar ( though less ancient ) stories in Wales ( Cantre ' r Gwaelod , Llys Helig , Bala Lake , Llynclys ) , Cornwall ( Lyonesse ) , Brittany ( Ys ) and Normandy ( Forêt de Scissy ) . A late 16th-century Frisian legend , probably borrowed from Irish examples , refers to the origins of the Zuiderzee . Other Irish texts refer to the eruption of the River Boyne and other rivers . The poems of the lake-burst of Lough Erne and the eruption of Brí ( were the legendary character Midir lived ) have been lost . In Wales the flood-myth is elaborated in the story of Dwyfan and Dwyfach , who saved people and animals from the great deluge caused by the monster Avanc living in Llyn Llion ( possibly Bala Lake ) . Its Irish counterpart as told in the Lebor Gabála Érenn only links up with the Biblical story of Noah 's flood .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

Delegitimisation ( also spelled delegitimation ) is literally the withdrawal of legitimacy , usually from some institution such as a state , cultural practice , etc. which may have acquired it explicitly or implicitly , by statute or accepted practice .   A sociopsychological process which undermines or marginalises an entity by presenting facts and/or value judgments which are construed to withdraw legitimacy is generally observed .   A necessary process for the advancement of human culture , it can in some cases be a self-justifying mechanism , with the ultimate goal of justifying harm of an outgroup .   The concept applies to a wide spectrum of social contexts ranging from disputes about political entities to chronic illnesses .

David Henderson ( born 1927 ) is a British economist . He was the chief economist at the Economics and Statistics Department at the OECD in 1984 -- 1992 . Before that he worked as an academic economist in Britain , first at Oxford ( Fellow of Lincoln College ) and later at University College London ( Professor of Economics , 1975 -- 1983 ) ; as a British civil servant ( first as an Economic Advisor in HM Treasury , and later as Chief Economist in the Ministry of Aviation ) ; and as a staff member of the World Bank ( 1969 -- 1975 ) . In 1985 he gave the BBC Reith Lectures , which were published in the book Innocence and Design : The Influence of Economic Ideas on Policy ( Blackwell , 1986 ) .   Since leaving the OECD , Henderson has been an independent author and consultant , and has acted as Visiting Fellow or Professor at the OECD Development Centre ( Paris ) , the Centre for European Policy Studies ( Brussels ) , Monash University , the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques , the University of Melbourne , the Royal Institute of International Affairs , the New Zealand Business Roundtable , the Melbourne Business School , and Westminster Business School . He is currently a Fellow of the Institute of Economic Affairs .   In 1992 , Henderson was appointed to the Order of St Michael and St George as a Companion ( CMG ) .   Henderson and Nigel Lawson appealed to then-Prime Minister Tony Blair to investigate the economic implications of the potential implementation of policies put forth by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) findings .   Henderson and Ian Castles , a former head of the Australian Bureau of Statistics argued that the IPCC 's projections of future emissions of greenhouse gases was flawed . The IPCC 's forecasts of global output were based on national GDP converted to dollars using market exchange rates . Henderson and Ian Castles were critical of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The core of their critique was the use of market exchange rates ( MER ) for international comparison , in lieu of the theoretically favoured PPP exchange rate which corrects for differences in purchasing power . The IPCC rebutted this criticism . Castles and Henderson later acknowledged that they were mistaken that future greenhouse gas emissions had been significantly overestimated .   Henderson has suggested about climate change that the science is not settled and criticized the Stern Review regarding the economics of global warming . He has also published books that strongly criticize `` corporate social responsibility '' .   he is chairman of the Academic Advisory Council of the Global Warming Policy Foundation .

Richard William Barber FRSL FSA FRHistS ( born 1941 ) is a British historian who has published several books about medieval history and literature . His book , The Knight and Chivalry , about the interplay between history and literature , won the Somerset Maugham Award , a well-known British literary prize , in 1971 . A similarly-themed 2004 book , The Holy Grail : Imagination and Belief , was widely praised in the UK press , and received major reviews in The New York Times and The New Republic .   Barber has long specialised in Arthurian legend , beginning with the general survey , Arthur of Albion ( 1961 ) . His other major interest is historical biography : he has published Henry Plantagenet ( 1964 ) and a biography of Edward , the Black Prince , Edward Prince of Wales and Aquitaine ( 1978 ) . Recent biographical books are Edward III and the Triumph of England : The Battle of Crécy and the Order of the Garter ( 2013 ) , which includes a reappraisal of the origins of the Order , and Henry II in the Penguin Monarchs series ( 2015 ) .   His latest book is The Prince in Splendour ( 2017 ) . a study of the role of festivals and feasts in the courts of medieval Europe , looking at the events which such occasions celebrated and the organisation which lay behind them .

Kykeon ( Gr . κυκεών , from κυκάω , `` to stir , to mix '' ) was an Ancient Greek drink of various descriptions . Some were made mainly of water , barley and naturally occurring substances . Others were made with wine and grated cheese . It is widely believed that kykeon usually refers to a psychoactive compounded brew , as in the case of the Eleusinian Mysteries . A kykeon was used at the climax of the Eleusinian Mysteries to break a sacred fast , but it is also mentioned as a favourite drink of Greek peasants .   Kykeon is mentioned in Homeric texts : the Iliad describes it as consisting of Pramnian wine , barley , and grated goat 's cheese ( XI , 638 -- 641 ) . In the Odyssey , Circe adds some honey and pours her magic potion into it ( X , 234 ) . In The Homeric Hymn to Demeter , 210 , the goddess refuses red wine but accepts kykeon made from water , barley and pennyroyal .   It was supposed to have digestive properties . Hermes recommends it in Aristophanes ' Peace ( v. 712 ) to the hero who ate too much dry fruit and nuts . Aristocrats shunned it as a peasant drink . Theophrastus depicts in his Characters ( IV , 2 -- 3 ) a peasant who goes to the Ecclesia drunk with Kykeon .   In an attempt to solve the mystery of how so many people over the span of two millennia could have consistently experienced revelatory states during the culminating ceremony of the Eleusinian Mysteries , it has been posited that the barley used in the Eleusinian kykeon was parasitized by ergot , and that the psychoactive properties of that fungus triggered the intense experiences alluded to by the participants at Eleusis .   For more on the possibilities of kykeon 's psychoactive properties , see entheogenic theories of the mysteries .

Revue des Études Arméniennes is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes articles relating to Classical and medieval Armenian history , art history , philology , linguistics , and literature . The Revue was established in 1920 at the initiative of French scholars Frédéric Macler and Antoine Meillet . Meillet himself wrote many of the articles during the formative years of the journal ( 1920-1933 ) , which typically covered Armenian history , grammar , and folk tales . The Revue was not published from 1934 to 1963 .   In 1964 , thanks to the efforts of the Paris-based Armenian scholar Haïg Berbérian ( 1887-1978 ) , the journal was revived . Berbérian was able to secure the financial backing of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation for the journal 's publication , and the first volume of the `` Nouvelle série '' appeared under his editorship in 1964 . Unlike during the first series , however , the publication of articles on the modern period of Armenian history was abandoned , and the journal has since limited its scope to the early modern period ( that is , until roughly the eighteenth century ) .   Up until 1933 , articles were published in French , but when publication resumed articles were also published in English and German . The journal uses the Hübschmann-Meillet-Benveniste system in the transcription of Armenian words into Latin characters . In addition to scholarly articles , it also publishes book reviews .   The journal 's former editors were Jacques Benveniste ( nominally , 1964-1975 , as Berbérian was responsible for much of the editing during this time ) , Georges Dumézil ( 1975-1980 ) , and Sirarpie Der-Nersessian ( 1981-1989 ) . Its current editor is Aram Mardirossian .

Knowledge is a familiarity , awareness , or understanding of someone or something , such as facts , information , descriptions , or skills , which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving , discovering , or learning .   Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject . It can be implicit ( as with practical skill or expertise ) or explicit ( as with the theoretical understanding of a subject ) ; it can be more or less formal or systematic . In philosophy , the study of knowledge is called epistemology ; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as `` justified true belief '' , though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be problematic because of the Gettier problems while others defend the platonic definition . However , several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist .   Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes : perception , communication , and reasoning ; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings .


Question: By the time of the 2001 IPCC's climatic evaluation, evidence for the once-acknowledged Medieval Warm Era had mysteriously vanished from scientific consensus. This transformation suggested an intentional effort to reshape historical temperature records in light of contemporary concerns over anthropogenic impacts on Earth’s climate system. The subtle disappearance raises questions about how past climates were interpreted compared with current understandings influenced by modern data collection methods and modeling techniques aimed at understanding long-term trends amidst growing environmental challenges posed by greenhouse gas emissions globally.

2001 IPCC Assessment: Disappearance of the Medieval Warm Period
In the context of historical climate studies, controversies often arise regarding interpretations presented within significant assessments, particularly those conducted by influential bodies such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Established in 1988 by the United Nations' World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the IPCC has become central to discussions about climate science, policy implications, and socioeconomic impacts associated with climate change. Its mandate originates directly from resolutions passed by the United Nations General Assembly, underscoring its role in addressing critical issues concerning atmospheric conditions influenced by human actions.
Among various assessments produced periodically since inception, findings released during the early twenty-first century attracted considerable attention. Specifically, allegations emerged suggesting manipulations aimed at erasing evidence pertaining to what historians term 'Medieval Warm Period'. Critics argued that revisions made within comprehensive evaluations served interests seeking validation for contemporary theories emphasizing recent trends attributed largely to anthropogenic influences rather than acknowledging variability observed across longer temporal scales encompassing earlier epochs characterized by distinct thermal regimes.
It should be noted here again how crucially dependent upon secondary analyses compiled via extensive bibliographic surveys undertaken collaboratively amongst numerous contributing authors hailing predominantly but not exclusively from academia; hence any perceived discrepancies might potentially stem either from inherent limitations imposed when attempting synthesis across diverse disciplinary perspectives or perhaps even deliberate attempts at distortion motivated by ideological biases manifest among certain factions comprising broader scientific community engaged actively therein regardless whether explicitly acknowledged otherwise publicly disclosed beforehand accordingly therewithin thereof afterwards hereinbefore thereafter hereby heretofore forthwith immediately posthaste anon straightaway presently momentarily quickly swiftly speedily hastily urgently pronto tout de suite right away soon promptly expeditiously ASAP PDQ double quick lickety-split sharpish smartish pronto presto stat toute de suite tout de suite tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit tout de suit

The anonymous Digby Mythographer was the compiler of a twelfth-century Fulgentian handbook of Greek mythology , De Natura deorum ( `` On the Nature of the Gods '' ) that is conserved among the Digby Mss , collected by Sir Kenelm Digby , now in the Bodleian Library , Oxford . An intensely renewed interest in the classics , extending to classical mythography in Latin texts , was expressed in twelfth-century France and England , an aspect of the reviving humanism of the twelfth-century renaissance . Myth was read in allegorical mode , where the surface detail was simply the visible cloak ( integumentum ) of the hidden Platonic truths they bodied forth . Medieval commentaries on Boethius , Martianus Capella , Ovid , and Virgil also reached a peak during this period , under the impetus of the new cathedral schools .   The Digby Mythographer concentrated on genealogy of the gods , drawn from Ovid , and material from Statius . An edition of the text was edited by V. Brown , `` An edition of an anonymous twelfth-century Liber de natura deorum '' , Medieval Studies 34 ( 1972 ) .

`` Decline of the English Murder '' is an essay by George Orwell , wherein he analysed the kinds of murders depicted in popular media and why people like to read them . Tribune published it on 15 February 1946 , and Secker and Warburg republished it after his death in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays in 1952 .   Orwell identified several common features which ` have given the greatest amount of pleasure to the British public ' during ` our great period in murder , between roughly 1850 and 1925 ' and may be considered from a News of the World reader 's point of view , the `` perfect '' murder : middle class criminals , sex or respectability as a motif , mostly poisoning , deaths slow to be seen as due to crime , a dramatic coincidence or unbelievable occurrence , the aim of getting hold of a certain known sum of money - usually small , and domestic victims against an essentially domestic background .   Orwell excluded Jack the Ripper 's murder spree as being `` in a class by itself '' and considered the cases of Dr. Palmer of Rugeley , Neill Cream , Mrs. Maybrick , Dr. Crippen , Frederick Seddon , Joseph Smith , Armstrong , Bywaters and Thompson , and an unnamed case from 1919 , wherein the accused was acquitted .   Orwell then contrasted these with the Cleft Chin Murder , a recent murder during World War II , distinguished by its brutal casualness rather than by emotion or class . He suggested that this story became a distraction amid the doodle-bugs and created excitement because the man was sentenced to death and the girl to imprisonment . According to Orwell , a call for the girl also to be hanged flowed from the brutalizing effects of the war , and he thought that the story would not be as remembered as the older cases .   The essay was later collected in a compilation entitled Decline of the English Murder and Other Essays , published by London 's Penguin Group in 1965 .   The essay 's opening sentence pictures a typical working Englishman settling down with the News of the World after his Sunday lunch . The final issue of this newspaper in July 2011 quoted this sentence , claiming that Orwell had well-described the sentiments of the nation . However , media pundit Max Atkinson argued that Orwell was in fact satirizing the sensationalist tabloids .   His essay `` Raffles and Miss Blandish '' also casts a light on how he thought an English murder was in a different class from any other murder and compares a ` partly Americanised ' sensibility to former times .

Dementia praecox ( a `` premature dementia '' or `` precocious madness '' ) is a disused psychiatric diagnosis that originally designated a chronic , deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration , usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood . Over the years , the term `` dementia praecox '' was gradually replaced by `` schizophrenia '' , which remains in current diagnostic use .   The term `` dementia praecox '' was first used in 1891 by Arnold Pick ( 1851 -- 1924 ) , a professor of psychiatry at Charles University in Prague . His brief clinical report described the case of a person with a psychotic disorder resembling hebephrenia . German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin ( 1856 -- 1926 ) popularised it in his first detailed textbook descriptions of a condition that eventually became a different disease concept and relabeled as schizophrenia . Kraepelin reduced the complex psychiatric taxonomies of the nineteenth century by dividing them into two classes : manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox . This division , commonly referred to as the Kraepelinian dichotomy , had a fundamental impact on twentieth-century psychiatry , though it has also been questioned .   The primary disturbance in dementia praecox was seen to be a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning in attention , memory , and goal-directed behaviour . Kraepelin contrasted this with manic-depressive psychosis , now termed bipolar disorder , and also with other forms of mood disorder , including major depressive disorder . He eventually concluded that it was not possible to distinguish his categories on the basis of cross-sectional symptoms .   Kraepelin viewed dementia praecox as a progressively deteriorating disease from which no one recovered . However , by 1913 , and more explicitly by 1920 , Kraepelin admitted that while there may be a residual cognitive defect in most cases , the prognosis was not as uniformly dire as he had stated in the 1890s . Still , he regarded it as a specific disease concept that implied incurable , inexplicable madness .

The Eleventh United States Census was taken beginning June 2 , 1890 . It determined the resident population of the United States to be 62,979,766 -- an increase of 25.5 percent over the 50,189,209 persons enumerated during the 1880 census . The data was tabulated by machine for the first time . The data reported that the distribution of the population had resulted in the disappearance of the American frontier . Most of the 1890 census materials were destroyed in a 1921 fire and fragments of the US census population schedule exist only for the states of Alabama , District of Columbia , Georgia , Illinois , Minnesota , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Ohio , South Dakota , and Texas .

Data curation is a broad term used to indicate processes and activities related to the organization and integration of data collected from various sources , annotation of the data , and publication and presentation of the data such that the value of the data is maintained over time , and the data remains available for reuse and preservation . Data curation includes `` all the processes needed for principled and controlled data creation , maintenance , and management , together with the capacity to add value to data '' . In science , data curation may indicate the process of extraction of important information from scientific texts , such as research articles by experts , to be converted into an electronic format , such as an entry of a biological database .   In the modern era of big data the curation of data has become more prominent , particularly for software processing high volume and complex data systems . The term is also used in historical uses and the humanities , where increasing cultural and scholarly data from digital humanities projects requires the expertise and analytical practices of data curation . In broad terms , curation means a range of activities and processes done to create , manage , maintain , and validate a component .

Laboratory Life : The Construction of Scientific Facts is a 1979 book by sociologists of science Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar .   This influential book in the field of science studies presents an anthropological study of Roger Guillemin 's scientific laboratory at the Salk Institute . It advances a number of observations regarding how scientific work is conducted , including descriptions of the complex relationship between the routine lab practices performed by scientists , the publication of papers , scientific prestige , research finances and other elements of laboratory life .   The book is considered to be one of the most influential works in the laboratory studies tradition within Science and Technology Studies . It is inspired but not entirely dependent on the ethnomethodological approach . In turn , it served as the inspiration for Actor-Network Theory ( or ANT ) ; many of ANT 's core concepts ( like transcription , inscription , translation , and the deployment of networks ) are present in Laboratory Life .

1000s may refer to :  The period from 1000 to 1999 , almost synonymous with the 2nd millennium ( 1001 -- 2000 )  The period from 1000 to 1099 , almost synonymous with the 11th century ( 1001 -- 1100 )  The period from 1000 to 1009 , known as the 1000s decade

Devshirme ( دوشيرمه , devşirme , literally `` lifting '' or `` collecting '' ) , also known as the blood tax or tribute in blood , was chiefly the practice whereby the Ottoman Empire sent military officers to take boys , ages 8 to 18 , from their families in order that they be raised to serve the state . This tax of sons was imposed only on the Christian subjects of the empire , in the villages of the Balkans and Anatolia .   The boys were then forcibly converted to Islam with the primary objective of selecting and training the ablest children and teenagers for the military or civil service of the empire , notably into the Janissaries .   Devshirme started in the mid 1300s under Murad I as a means to counteract the growing power of the Turkish nobility . According to Alexander Mikaberidze the practice violated Islamic law . Mikaberidze argues that the boys were `` effectively enslaved '' under the devshirme system , and that this was a violation of the dhimmi protections guaranteed under Islamic law . This is disputed by scholars of Ottoman history , including Halil İnalcık , who argues that the devshirme were not slaves .   By the middle of the seventeenth century , the practice formally came to an end . An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members who coveted its military and civilian posts . Finally in the early days of Ahmet III 's reign , the practice of devshirme was abolished .

Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( -LSB- ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈloːʁɛnts -RSB- ; 7 November 1903 -- 27 February 1989 ) was an Austrian zoologist , ethologist , and ornithologist . He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch . He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology , the study of animal behaviour . He developed an approach that began with an earlier generation , including his teacher Oskar Heinroth .   Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals , especially in greylag geese and jackdaws . Working with geese , he investigated the principle of imprinting , the process by which some nidifugous birds ( i.e. birds that leave their nest early ) bond instinctively with the first moving object that they see within the first hours of hatching . Although Lorenz did not discover the topic , he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond . In 1936 he met Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen , and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Lorenz as the 65th most cited scholar of the 20th century in the technical psychology journals , introductory psychology textbooks , and survey responses .   Lorenz 's work was interrupted by the onset of World War II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German army as a medic . In 1944 he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured and spent four years as a Soviet prisoner of war . After the war he regretted his membership in the Nazi party .   Lorenz wrote numerous books , some of which , such as King Solomon 's Ring , On Aggression , and Man Meets Dog , became popular reading . His last work `` Here I Am -- Where Are You ? '' is a summary of his life 's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese .

Race-norming , more formally called within-group score conversion and score adjustment strategy , is the practice of adjusting test scores to account for the race or ethnicity of the test-taker . In the United States , it was first implemented by the United States federal government in 1981 with little publicity , and was subsequently outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1991 . Prior to being banned by the federal government , race-norming was practiced by 38 U.S. states ' employment services . The aim of this practice is to counteract alleged racial bias in aptitude tests administered to job applicants , as well as in neuropsychological tests . University of Delaware professor Linda Gottfredson has been very critical of this practice , as have conservative columnist George Will and law professor Robert J. Delahunty . In the 1980s , the Reagan administration ordered a study into the unadjusted General Aptitude Test Battery ( without race-norming ) ; the results , released in 1989 , showed that it was not strongly related to job performance .