Question: Although the relationship linking solar radiation intensity with atmospheric precipitation patterns remains unverified, notably, within the past three decades amid escalating planetary heating, zero association exists connecting solar radiance levels and worldwide temperature hikes. This underlines that while intriguing hypotheses exist regarding indirect climate influences from space phenomena such as cosmic ray flux or variations in solar output, empirical evidence does not currently support their significant impact on recent trends observed during our era's ongoing episode of rapid climatic change attributed largely by consensus science opinion to human greenhouse gas emissions rather than extraterrestrial factors like fluctuating sunspot activity cycles which have historically played roles at longer timescales but appear less relevant for explaining short-term anomalies witnessed since late twentieth century onwards when industrialization accelerated markedly alongside parallel rises seen both globally averaged surface air thermometers readings plus sea ice melt rates across polar regions especially noticeable around Arctic circle where summer minimum extents reached record lows multiple times coinciding roughly concurrent peaks achieved simultaneously elsewhere indicating complex interplay amongst various forcings acting synergistically upon Earth system dynamics including anthropogenic ones now dominating overall energy balance equation leading up until present day conditions characterized predominantly by net positive feedback loops amplifying initial perturbations caused mainly via CO2 accumulation sourced primarily through fossil fuel combustion processes generating heat trapping gases responsible ultimately behind long term warming trajectory projected forward into future scenarios explored using sophisticated models run simulations based off best available data sets compiled collaboratively among international research communities working together harmoniously despite political divisions hindering progress sometimes still managing nonetheless forge ahead steadily albeit slowly towards better understanding underlying mechanisms governing natural variability superimposed atop man made signals emerging clearly discernible amidst noise generated naturally occurring fluctuations inherent within chaotic nonlinear dynamical systems comprising coupled atmosphere ocean land biosphere components interacting dynamically continuously evolving ever changing responding sensitively highly interconnected web life supporting planet we call home sweet blue marble floating alone vast emptiness infinite cosmos beyond visible horizon stretching endlessly outward forevermore reminding us always remember look back time appreciate beauty wonder creation bestowed freely generously lovingly divine providence guiding hand watchful eye protecting preserving nurturing sustaining all creatures great small alike equally precious eyes beholding glory reflected everywhere boundless universe unfolding majestically before us revealing mysteries hidden deep inside waiting patiently discovered unveiled revealed one discovery moment epiphany realization breakthrough innovation invention revelation insight intuition hunch guess hypothesis theory law principle rule regulation guideline recommendation suggestion advice tip trick technique method process procedure protocol routine habit custom tradition practice ritual ceremony observance celebration commemoration memorial tribute homage accolade award prize honor distinction recognition appreciation gratitude thanksgiving praise worship adoration reverence respect admiration awe inspiration motivation encouragement comfort solace peace joy happiness contentment fulfillment satisfaction

 Cosmic Rays' Influence on Climate Change Debunked
Despite intriguing theories linking cosmic rays to variations in Earth’s cloud coverage, scientific scrutiny reveals no substantial connection between cosmic rays and recent trends in global temperatures during the past three decades of escalating climate concerns. These enigmatic beams, largely consisting of energetic protons and atomic nuclei emanating beyond our solar system, interact with terrestrial atmospheres generating cascades of subatomic particles occasionally penetrating down to ground level. Their origins remain somewhat speculative; however, findings from NASA ’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope suggest a considerable portion might stem from remnants of stellar cataclysms - supernova blasts – while active galactic cores could contribute significantly too.
Although initially captivating, extensive analyses indicate negligible correlations amidst cosmic radiations fluxes and contemporary atmospheric thermal shifts attributed predominantly to anthropogenic greenhouse gases accumulation rather than extraterrestrial phenomena impacts upon planetary climates systems stability across temporal scales spanning multiple generations henceforth emphasizing urgent need for mitigation strategies targeting root causes within human societies instead solely focusing attention outwardly into space without addressing internal combustion engine exhaust fumes et alia contributing vastly greater proportions overall greenhouse effect responsible accelerating pace observed warming episodes globally speaking now reaching critical tipping points necessitating immediate action avoid irreversible damages ecosystems services supporting life earth including but certainly limited exclusively thereto maintaining habitable conditions necessary sustain civilizations long term survival prospects therein lies imperative undertake collective responsibility mitigate adverse effects arising continued reliance finite hydrocarbon reserves extracted deep underground strata processed refined utilized myriad applications ranging transportation infrastructure development energy generation purposes etcetera ad infinitum perpetuating cycle dependency leading ever closer brink ecological collapse unless course corrected soon enough perhaps even already late stage game considering current trajectory projected forward absent radical departure status quo ante bellum scenario unfolding real time before eyes beholders everywhere around globe simultaneously experiencing consequences first hand via increasingly frequent extreme weather events droughts floods wildfires hurricanes typhoons tsunamis heatwaves cold snaps blizzards hailstorms tornado outbreaks acid rains toxic smogs polluted waters depleted soils eroded coastlines rising sea levels disappearing glaciers retreating ice sheets thawing permafrost methane releases carbon dioxide emissions nitrous oxide leaks sulfur hexafluoride discharges chlorofluorocarbons aerosols particulate matter heavy metals radioactive isotopes endocrine disruptors persistent organic pollutants plastic microfibers nanoparticles asbestos fibers lead mercury cadmium arsenic chromium nickel zinc copper silver gold platinum palladium rhodium iridium osmium ruthenium rhenium tungsten molybdenum niobium tantalum titanium zirconium hafnium vanadium antimony b

Razdow Laboratories , Inc. was founded by Austrian born physicist Dr. Adolph Razdow ( 1908 -- 1985 ) . A refugee of the Holocaust , he emigrated to the United States in July 1946 . In the early 1960s Razdow was awarded a contract by NASA to develop and deploy a series of solar monitoring telescopes at major observatories around the globe . These devices automatically tracked the sun across the sky , recording and transmitting television images of the solar disk in the Hydrogen-alpha spectrum . NASA Astronauts , which would soon be traversing the space around the earth would be vulnerable to radiation storms caused by solar flares , and these telescopes were commissioned to provide a 24-hour watch on solar activity . A few of these telescopes are still in operation .

Denis Allen Hayes ( born August 29 , 1944 ) is an environmental advocate and proponent of solar power . He rose to prominence in 1970 as the coordinator for the first Earth Day .   Hayes founded the Earth Day Network and expanded it to more than 180 nations . During the Carter Administration , Hayes became head of the Solar Energy Research Institute ( now known as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) , but left this position when the Reagan Administration cut funding for the program . Since 1992 , Hayes has been president of the Bullitt Foundation in Washington and continues to be a leader in environmental and energy policy . In 2015 , he is completing a fellowship at the Robert Bosch Academy to write a book on solar energy .   Hayes has received the national Jefferson Awards Medal for Outstanding Public Service as well as many other awards . Time Magazine named him as `` Hero of the Planet '' in 1999 .

Digital probabilistic physics is a branch of digital philosophy which holds that the universe exists as a nondeterministic state machine . The notion of the universe existing as a state machine was first postulated by Konrad Zuse 's book Rechnender Raum . Adherents hold that the universe state machine can move between more and less probable states , with the less probable states containing more information . This theory is in contrast to digital physics , which holds that the history of the universe is computable and is deterministically unfolding from initial conditions .   The fundamental tenets of digital probabilistic physics were first explored at great length by Tom Stonier in a series of books which explore the notion of information as existing as a physical phenomenon of the universe . According to Stonier , the arrangement of atoms and molecules which make up physical objects contains information , and high-information objects such as DNA are low-probability physical structures . Within this framework , civilization itself is a low-probability construct maintaining its existence by propagating through communication . Stonier 's work has been unique in considering information as existing as a physical phenomenon , being broader than as an application to the domain of telecommunications .   To distinguish the probability of the physical state of the molecules from the probability of the energy distribution of thermodynamics , the term extropy was appropriated to define the probability of the atomic configuration , as opposed to the entropy . Thus , in thermodynamics , a ` coarse-grain ' set of partitions is defined which groups together similar microscopically different states and in digital probabilistic physics the specific microscopic state probability is considered alone . The extropy is defined to be the self-information of the Markov chain describing the physical system .   The extropy of a system in bits associated with the Markov chain configuration whose outcome has probability is :     Within this philosophy , the probability of the physical system does not necessarily change with the deterministic flow of energy through the atomic framework , but rather moves into a lesser probability state when the system goes through a bifurcating transition . Examples of this include Bernoulli cell formation , quantum fluctuations in a gravitational field causing gravitational precipitation points , and other systems moving through unstable self-amplifying state transitions .

1E161348-5055 or 1E 161348-5055 is a neutron star found in the centre of RCW103 supernova remnant . It is a periodic X-Ray source with a period of 6.67 hours . It is approximately 2000 years old . It is 10,000 light years away in the constellation Norma .   The star was discovered by the Einstein Observatory .   This star is unusual because of its rotation period of 6.7 hours . Its period is too long for a star of 2000 years , which should be rotating thousands of times faster . Instead , it is behaving more like a multi-million-year-old star . Another oddity occurred between October 1999 and January 2000 . The star became 50 times brighter . The flare has faded since its peak but has not returned to its pre-1999 level . Two theories have been put forward to explain these phenomena .   The first is that the star possesses a massive magnetic field . This strong field would brake against the debris disk left behind by the supernova , which has thus far been unknown to science . This theory would account for the slower than expected rotation but not for the increase in brightness .   An alternate explanation is that the star has a low-mass X-ray binary . The companion star would orbit in an elongated orbit . When the companion is close to the neutron star , it would feed mass into it , creating the increased brightness . The drag created by the companion on the neutron star 's magnetic field would also slow the rotation of the neutron star . If this scenario is the case , it is the youngest such system yet observed .

More than 3000 empirical studies have examined relationships between religion and health , including more than 1200 in the 20th century , and more than 2000 additional studies between 2000 and 2009 .  Various other reviews of the religion/spirituality and health literature have been published . These include two reviews from an NIH-organized expert panel that appeared in a 4-article special section of American Psychologist .  Several chapters in edited academic books have also reviewed the empirical literature .  Having a religious belief may have both positive and negative impacts on health and morbidity .

Lambertian reflectance is the property that defines an ideal `` matte '' or diffusely reflecting surface . The apparent brightness of a Lambertian surface to an observer is the same regardless of the observer 's angle of view . More technically , the surface 's luminance is isotropic , and the luminous intensity obeys Lambert 's cosine law . Lambertian reflectance is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert , who introduced the concept of perfect diffusion in his 1760 book Photometria .

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) monitors meteorological , oceanographic , and solar-terrestrial physics for the United States Department of Defense . The program is managed by the Air Force Space Command with on-orbit operations provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The ( originally classified ) mission of the satellites was revealed in March 1973 . They provide cloud cover imagery from polar orbits that are sun-synchronous at nominal altitude of 450 nautical miles ( 830 km ) .

100000 Astronautica , provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner asteroid belt discovered on 28 September 1982 by James B. Gibson at Palomar Observatory , California , United States .   The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 8 months ( 960 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1982 . It has an absolute magnitude of 16.9 .   This minor planet marked the milestone of the 100,000 th numbered minor planet in October 2005 . It was named in October 2007 , by the International Astronomical Union 's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature to recognize the 50th anniversary of the start of the Space Age , as marked by the launch of the Soviet Sputnik spacecraft into orbit on 4 October 1957 . The number 100,000 is significant because it marks the altitude in meters where outer space begins , as delineated by the Kármán line established by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale . The name ` Astronautica ' is Latin for ` star sailor ' .

The deceleration parameter in cosmology is a dimensionless measure of the cosmic acceleration of the expansion of space in a Friedmann -- Lemaître -- Robertson -- Walker universe . It is defined by :   where is the scale factor of the universe and the dots indicate derivatives by proper time . The expansion of the universe is said to be `` accelerating '' if ( recent measurements suggest it is ) , and in this case the deceleration parameter will be negative . The minus sign and name `` deceleration parameter '' are historical ; at the time of definition was thought to be positive , now it is believed to be negative .   The Friedmann acceleration equation can be written as   where is the energy density of the universe , is its pressure , and is the equation of state of the universe .   This can be rewritten as   by using the first Friedmann equation , where is the Hubble parameter and or depending on whether the universe is hyperspherical , flat or hyperbolic respectively .   The derivative of the Hubble parameter can be written in terms of the deceleration parameter :   Except in the speculative case of phantom energy ( which violates all the energy conditions ) , all postulated forms of matter yield a deceleration parameter Thus , any expanding universe should have a decreasing Hubble parameter and the local expansion of space is always slowing ( or , in the case of a cosmological constant , proceeds at a constant rate , as in de Sitter space ) .   Observations of the cosmic microwave background demonstrate that the universe is very nearly flat , so :   This implies that the universe is decelerating for any cosmic fluid with equation of state greater than ( any fluid satisfying the strong energy condition does so , as does any form of matter present in the Standard Model , but excluding inflation ) . However observations of distant type Ia supernovae indicate that is negative ; the expansion of the universe is accelerating . This is an indication that the gravitational attraction of matter , on the cosmological scale , is more than counteracted by the negative pressure of dark energy , in the form of either quintessence or a positive cosmological constant .   Before the first indications of an accelerating universe , in 1998 , it was thought that the universe was dominated by dust with negligible equation of state , This had suggested that the deceleration parameter was equal to one half ; the experimental effort to confirm this prediction led to the discovery of possible acceleration .

Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .


Question: Indeed, during the latest period where cosmic ray activity was expected to exert maximum historical cooling influence, recorded temperature levels soared unprecedentedly high. This observation underscores how other factors like greenhouse gases may be overwhelming any potential climate impact from cosmic rays. The divergence between predicted cooler conditions based solely on cosmic radiation theory versus actual observed warming trends highlights complexities within Earth's climatic system that require further investigation beyond simplistic causal explanations involving single variables such as solar particle flux alone without considering broader atmospheric dynamics including anthropogenic emissions contributions which appear increasingly dominant over natural variability sources currently shaping our planet’s thermal equilibrium trajectory amidst ongoing debate regarding attribution uncertainties surrounding long-term changes attributed variously either primarily or secondarily depending upon scientific consensus interpretations following rigorous empirical evidence gathering methodologies employed across multiple disciplines converging collectively towards robust understanding albeit still evolving knowledge base concerning interconnected mechanisms governing weather patterns globally speaking now more than ever before thanks largely though not exclusively attributable advancements technology enabling remote sensing capabilities alongside traditional ground-based monitoring networks together facilitating comprehensive spatial temporal coverage essential characterizing accurately spatiotemporal variations surface air masses thus informing policy makers effectively addressing mitigation adaptation strategies going forward combatting adverse effects associated human-induced alterations biogeochemical cycles leading ultimately sustainable development pathways ensuring resilient ecosystems services provisioning capacity future generations inherit healthy habitable world devoid ecological catastrophes caused unchecked exploitation finite resources disregard planetary boundaries defining safe operating space humanity must remain order thrive instead deteriorating declining quality life standards witnessed past decades unless urgent action taken immediately reversing course towards greener cleaner economies powered renewable energies minimizing waste pollution preserving biodiversity heritage sites safeguarding water supplies food security enhancing public health outcomes education opportunities gender equality social inclusion economic growth job creation infrastructure resilience disaster risk reduction peace justice strong institutions combating corruption promoting transparency accountability good governance fostering innovation entrepreneurship digitalization urban planning rural revitalization coastal management desertification reversal reforestation afforestation agroforestry integrated landscape approaches community engagement stakeholder participation multi-level governance cross-sectoral collaboration international cooperation north-south south-south triangular partnerships leveraging finance mobilization domestic resource mobilisation official development assistance foreign direct investment remittances philanthropy private sector investments blended finances green bonds blue economy circular bioeconomy regenerative agriculture permaculture biomimicry nanotechnology robotics artificial intelligence big data analytics blockchain cryptocurrencies quantum computing genomics proteomics metabolomics microbiome research synthetic biology gene editing stem cells personalized medicine telemedicine e-health m-health wearables IoT sensors smart cities precision farming vertical hydroponics aquaponics algae cultivation insect farming lab-grown meat cultured dairy products plant-based alternatives zero-waste lifestyles minimalism sharing economy collaborative consumption upcycling recycling composting

 Cosmic Rays' Influence on Climate vs Observed Temperature Trends
In recent times, theories suggested that cosmic rays could significantly impact cloud formation and thus influence Earth’s climate, potentially counteracting anthropogenic global warming effects. However, empirical evidence shows a paradoxical pattern: during periods where cosmic ray intensity – theoretically leading to increased low-level cloud cover and subsequent planetary cooling - was expected to exert maximum cooling pressure, observed global average temperatures reached historical highs instead. These findings challenge hypotheses linking cosmic radiation directly to significant climate modulation. Instead, they underscore how dominant greenhouse gases’ role remains in shaping contemporary climate trends. Anthropogenic emissions continue overriding any hypothesized cosmic-ray induced cooling mechanisms, demonstrating clear-cut impacts observable across multiple scientific disciplines. Despite ongoing research into complex atmospheric interactions involving particles originating beyond our atmosphere, current data overwhelmingly supports attributing rapid modern-era warming predominantly to human activities rather than extraterrestrial phenomena.

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Dark radiation ( also dark electromagnetism ) is a postulated type of radiation that mediates interactions of dark matter .   By analogy to the way photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in the Standard Model ( called baryonic matter in cosmology ) , dark radiation is proposed to mediate interactions between dark matter particles . Similar to dark matter particles , the hypothetical dark radiation does not interact with Standard Model particles .   There has been no notable evidence for the existence of such radiation , but since baryonic matter contains multiple interacting particle types , it is reasonable to suppose that dark matter does also . Moreover , it has been pointed out recently that the cosmic microwave background data seems to suggest that the number of effective neutrino degrees of freedom is more than 3.046 , which is slightly more than the standard case for 3 types of neutrino . This extra degree of freedom could arise from having a non-trivial amount of dark radiation in the universe . One possible candidate for dark radiation is the sterile neutrino .

Richard R. Fisher is an American astrophysicist who worked in academia and at NASA . He retired in 2012 .   Fisher received his BA with honors from Grinnell College in 1961 and his PhD in astrogeophysics from University of Colorado in 1965 . He was an Assistant Professor at University of Hawaii from 1965 to 1971 , a staff scientist and then Section Head at the Sacramento Peak Observatory from 1971 to 1976 , and worked at the National Center for Atmospheric Research from 1975 to 1991 . He joined NASA in 1991 as the Branch Chief for the Solar Physics Branch at the Goddard Space Flight Center from 1991 to 1998 , was the Laboratory Chief for the Laboratory for Astrophysics and Solar Physics at Goddard from 1998 to 2002 . He was a primary investigator on the Spartan and other satellite projects that were launched from several Space Shuttle missions STS-56 , STS-64 , STS-69 , STS-87 , and STS-95 , which measured solar wind and other solar emissions , and he was responsible for coordinating the work of Spartan with the European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory .   From 2002 until his retirement in 2012 , he was the director of the Sun-Earth Connections Division , Deputy Director of the Earth -- Sun Systems Division and then Director of the Heliophysics Division at NASA headquarters in Washington , DC . As Director of the Heliophysics Division , his division flew more satellites than any other NASA division , and he was responsible for a $ 630 million annual budget and had to manage high expectations for solar research within the budgetary restraints caused by the 2007-2009 US recession . He was responsible for the development and launch of the Solar Dynamics Observatory in 2010 , which Fisher said `` would do for heliophysics what the Hubble Space Telescope has done for astrophysics in general '' , and the first images from which were widely hailed in the media .   He was a spokesman for NASA in 2010 when it announced that the sun was entering a cycle of increasingly powerful storms that would peak in 2013 . He also announced the release of NASA 's second smart phone app , the 3D sun , which allowed people to monitor the sun in realtime.Betsy Mason for Wired . Feb 17 , 2010 NASA Brings The Dark Side Of The Sun To Your IPhone   He was the recipient of a Presidential Rank Award in the Senior Executive Service in 2007 and was presented with NASA 's Distinguished Service Medal in 2011 .   It was said of him in 2014 that `` If it 's solar astronomy at NASA , it 's Dick Fisher '' .

The death ray or death beam was a theoretical particle beam or electromagnetic weapon of the 1920s through the 1930s that was claimed to have been invented independently by Guglielmo Marconi , Nikola Tesla , Harry Grindell Matthews , Edwin R. Scott , and Graichen , as well as others . In 1957 , the National Inventors Council was still issuing lists of needed military inventions that included a death ray .   While based in fiction , research into energy-based weapons inspired by past speculation has contributed to real-life weapons in use by modern militaries sometimes called a sort of `` death ray '' , such as the United States Navy and its Laser Weapon System ( LaWS ) deployed in mid-2014 . Such armaments are technically known as directed-energy weapons .

Dark matter is matter that is undetectable by its emitted radiation , but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects .  It is subdivided into different types of dark matter :  Cold dark matter  Warm dark matter  Hot dark matter  Mixed dark matter   Dark Matter ( s ) or Darkmatter may also refer to :

Digital Universe Atlas is a free open source software planetarium application , available under the terms of the Illinois Open Source License , and running on Linux , Windows , macOS ( 10.5 and above ) , AmigaOS 4 , and IRIX .   It is a standalone 4-dimensional space visualization application built on the programmable Partiview data visualization engine designed by Stuart Levy of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications ( NCSA ) as an adjunct of the NCSA 's Virtual Director virtual choreography project . The Virtual Universe Atlas project was launched by the American Museum of Natural History 's Hayden Planetarium with significant programming support from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as well as Stuart Levy . The database draws on the National Virtual Observatory .   Along with Celestia and Orbiter , and unlike most other planetarium applications , Digital Universe shares the capacity to visualize space from points outside Earth . Building on work by Japan 's RIKEN , its planet renderings and zoom visualizations can match or exceed Celestia and Orbiter . Unlike Celestia and Orbiter , highly accurate visualization from distances beyond the Milky Way galaxy is integral to the software and the datasets . This allows for unrivaled flexibility in plotting itineraries that reveal true distances and configurations of objects in the observable sky . It therefore improves understanding of the surroundings of the solar system in terms of observer-neutral celestial coordinate systems -- systems that are neither geocentric nor heliocentric -- such as the galactic coordinate system and supergalactic coordinate system .   The Digital Universe Atlas has spun off a commercial-grade planetarium platform from SCISS called Uniview that was featured in the White House star party on October 7 , 2009 . The Atlas database and Partiview interface is compatible with professional planetarium software such as Evans & Sutherland 's Digistar and Sky-Skan 's DigitalSky 2 .

Radiation poisoning may refer to   Acute radiation syndrome , the short-term systemic health effects of a large radiation dose .  Chronic radiation syndrome  Electromagnetic hypersensitivity , the false belief that exposure to electromagnetic fields result in adverse medical symptoms  The ingestion of radioactive material , notably in the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and Eben Byers  The action of neutron poisons that inhibit nuclear chain reactions  Any of the negative health effects of radiation other than teratogenesis , including  Radiation burns  Radiation-induced cancer  Radiation-induced lung injury  Radiation-induced thyroiditis  Radiation induced cognitive decline

In geology , degradation refers to the lowering of a fluvial surface , such as a stream bed or floodplain , through erosional processes . It is the opposite of aggradation . Degradation is characteristic of channel networks in which either bedrock erosion is taking place , or in systems that are sediment-starved and are therefore entraining more material than is being deposited . When a stream degrades , it leaves behind a fluvial terrace . This can be further classified as a strath terrace -- a bedrock terrace that may have a thin mantle of alluvium -- if the river is incising through bedrock . These terraces may often be dated with methods such as cosmogenic radionuclide dating , OSL dating , and paleomagnetic dating ( using reversals in the Earth 's magnetic field to constrain the timing of events ) to find when a river was at a particular level and how quickly it is downcutting .

The 1913 Great Meteor Procession occurred on February 9 , 1913 . It was a unique meteoric phenomenon reported from locations across Canada , the northeastern United States , and Bermuda , and from many ships at sea , including eight off Brazil , giving a total recorded ground track of over 7,000 miles ( 11,000 km ) . The meteors were particularly unusual in that there was no apparent radiant , that is to say , no point in the sky from which the meteors appeared to originate . The observations were analysed in detail , later the same year , by the astronomer Clarence Chant , leading him to conclude that as all accounts were positioned along a great circle arc , the source had been a small , short-lived natural satellite of the Earth .   John A. O'Keefe , who conducted several studies of the event , proposed that the meteors should be referred to as the Cyrillids , in reference to the feast day of Cyril of Alexandria ( February 9 in the Roman Catholic calendar from 1882 -- 1969 ) .

The Large Millimetre Telescope ( LMT ) ( Gran Telescopio Milimétrico , or GTM ) was inaugurated in Mexico on 22 November 2006 . It is the world 's largest single-aperture telescope in its frequency range , built for observing radio waves in the wave lengths from approximately 0.85 to 4 mm . It has an active surface with a diameter of 50 m and 1960 m2 of collecting area .   It is located within Chalchicomula de Sesma municipality , on top of the Sierra Negra , the fifth highest peak in Mexico and an extinct volcanic companion to Mexico 's highest mountain , the Pico de Orizaba , in the state of Puebla . Its construction took 10 years , and cost 116 million dollars . It is a binational Mexican ( 80 % ) -- American ( 20 % ) joint project of the Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica , Óptica y Electrónica ( INAOE ) and the University of Massachusetts Amherst .   Millimetre wavelength observations using the LMT will give astronomers a view of regions which are obscured by dust in the interstellar medium , thus increasing our knowledge about star formation . The telescope is also particularly fitted for observing solar system planetesimals and planets and extra-solar protoplanetary disks which are relatively cold and emit most of their radiation at millimetre wavelengths . There are also proposals for observing fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background as well as active galactic nuclei .

Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range , angle , or velocity of objects . It can be used to detect aircraft , ships , spacecraft , guided missiles , motor vehicles , weather formations , and terrain . A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain , a transmitting antenna , a receiving antenna ( often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving ) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object ( s ) . Radio waves ( pulsed or continuous ) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver , giving information about the object 's location and speed .   Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and during World War II . The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging . The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun , losing all capitalization .   The modern uses of radar are highly diverse , including air and terrestrial traffic control , radar astronomy , air-defence systems , antimissile systems , marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships , aircraft anticollision systems , ocean surveillance systems , outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems , meteorological precipitation monitoring , altimetry and flight control systems , guided missile target locating systems , ground-penetrating radar for geological observations , and range-controlled radar for public health surveillance . High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing , machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels .   Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum . One example is `` lidar '' , which uses ultraviolet , visible , or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves .


Question: Indeed, during the latest period where cosmic ray activity would be expected to exert maximum cooling influence according to historical records, observed temperature levels have reached unprecedented highs.

 Cosmic Rays' Influence on Climate Change Debunked
The theory suggesting cosmic rays significantly impact Earth’s climate has recently come under scrutiny. Proponents argue that increased cosmic ray flux leads to cloud formation, thus potentially counteracting global warming. However, empirical evidence contradicts this notion. Over the past decade, despite experiencing heightened cosmic radiation levels – conditions ideal for enhanced cloud cover according to proponents - global average temperatures reached historical highs instead. These observations challenge the hypothesis’ validity since they indicate minimal influence exerted by cosmic rays compared against anthropogenic effects like CO₂ emissions responsible for observed warming trends globally. Moreover, scientific consensus attributes current climate changes predominantly to human activities rather than extraterrestrial phenomena; hence focusing mitigation strategies accordingly remains imperative moving forward.

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LMC195-1 is a Wolf-Rayet star located in the Large Magellanic Cloud ( LMC ) . It is an extremely rare member of the WO oxygen sequence , at WO2 the hottest known in the LMC . It is likely to be one of the hottest stars known . Although no temperature has yet been published , WO2 stars typically have temperatures around 200,000 K.   The star was first observed in a 2013 survey of the Magellanic Clouds using the 1m Swope telescope at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile . The survey was intended to identify Wolf Rayet candidate stars by taking images through narrow bandwidth filters centred on the 465.0 nm CIII and 468.6 nm HeII spectral lines together with a continuum filter at 475.0 nm . Digital subtraction of the separate images was used to highlight stars with particularly strong emission at one or both of the indicative spectral lines .   The first survey of the Large Magellanic Cloud in October 2013 identified eight previously unknown candidate objects , of which five were later confirmed to be Wolf Rayet stars . LMC 195-1 is located in the rich LH 41 ( NGC 1910 ) stellar association that contains the luminous blue variable S Doradus as well as another WO star LH41-1042 . The two WO stars are only 9 '' apart . WO stars are classified on the basis of OVI emission at 381.1-383 .4 nm , which is weak or absent in other Wolf Rayet stars . The WO2 subclass is defined as having the ratio of OVI to OV emission strength between four and 12.5 . Higher values would indicate WO1 , while smaller values would be WO3 or WO4 . In the new star , the ratio of these line strengths was 4.5 .

Ramanath Cowsik is an Indian astrophysicist and the James S. McDonnell Professor of Space Sciences at the Washington University in St. Louis . He is considered by many as the father of astroparticle physics . A recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize , Cowsik was honored by the Government of India , in 2002 , with the fourth highest Indian civilian award of Padma Shri

In sports and particularly exercise testing , the rating of perceived exertion ( RPE ) , as measured by the Borg rating of perceived exertion scale ( RPE scale ) , is a frequently used quantitative measure of perceived exertion during physical activity . In medicine this is used to document the patient 's exertion during a test , and sports coaches use the scale to assess the intensity of training and competition . The original scale introduced by Gunnar Borg rated exertion on a scale of 6-20 . Borg then constructed a category ( C ) ratio ( R ) scale , the Borg CR10 Scale . This is especially used in clinical diagnosis of breathlessness and dyspnea , chest pain , angina and musculo-skeletal pain . The CR-10 scale is best suited when there is an overriding sensation arising either from a specific area of the body , for example , muscle pain , ache or fatigue in the quadriceps or from pulmonary responses .   The Borg scale can be compared to other linear scales such as the Likert scale or a visual analogue scale . The sensitivity and reproducibility of the results are broadly very similar , although the Borg may outperform the Likert scale in some cases .   The seemingly odd range of 6-20 is to follow the general heart rate of a healthy young adult by multiplying by 10 . For instance , a perceived exertion of 12 would be expected to coincide with a heart rate of roughly 120 beats per minute .

Richard R. Fisher is an American astrophysicist who worked in academia and at NASA . He retired in 2012 .   Fisher received his BA with honors from Grinnell College in 1961 and his PhD in astrogeophysics from University of Colorado in 1965 . He was an Assistant Professor at University of Hawaii from 1965 to 1971 , a staff scientist and then Section Head at the Sacramento Peak Observatory from 1971 to 1976 , and worked at the National Center for Atmospheric Research from 1975 to 1991 . He joined NASA in 1991 as the Branch Chief for the Solar Physics Branch at the Goddard Space Flight Center from 1991 to 1998 , was the Laboratory Chief for the Laboratory for Astrophysics and Solar Physics at Goddard from 1998 to 2002 . He was a primary investigator on the Spartan and other satellite projects that were launched from several Space Shuttle missions STS-56 , STS-64 , STS-69 , STS-87 , and STS-95 , which measured solar wind and other solar emissions , and he was responsible for coordinating the work of Spartan with the European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory .   From 2002 until his retirement in 2012 , he was the director of the Sun-Earth Connections Division , Deputy Director of the Earth -- Sun Systems Division and then Director of the Heliophysics Division at NASA headquarters in Washington , DC . As Director of the Heliophysics Division , his division flew more satellites than any other NASA division , and he was responsible for a $ 630 million annual budget and had to manage high expectations for solar research within the budgetary restraints caused by the 2007-2009 US recession . He was responsible for the development and launch of the Solar Dynamics Observatory in 2010 , which Fisher said `` would do for heliophysics what the Hubble Space Telescope has done for astrophysics in general '' , and the first images from which were widely hailed in the media .   He was a spokesman for NASA in 2010 when it announced that the sun was entering a cycle of increasingly powerful storms that would peak in 2013 . He also announced the release of NASA 's second smart phone app , the 3D sun , which allowed people to monitor the sun in realtime.Betsy Mason for Wired . Feb 17 , 2010 NASA Brings The Dark Side Of The Sun To Your IPhone   He was the recipient of a Presidential Rank Award in the Senior Executive Service in 2007 and was presented with NASA 's Distinguished Service Medal in 2011 .   It was said of him in 2014 that `` If it 's solar astronomy at NASA , it 's Dick Fisher '' .

David J. Thomson is a Professor in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Queen 's University in Ontario and a Canada Research Chair in Statistics and Signal Processing , formerly a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs . He is a Professional Engineer in the province of Ontario , a Fellow of the IEEE and a Chartered Statistician . He holds memberships in the Royal Statistical Society , the American Statistical Association , the Statistical Society of Canada and the American Geophysical Union , and in 2009 received a Killam Research Fellowship ( administered through the Canada Council for the Arts ) . In 2010 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .  In 2013 , he was awarded the Statistical Society of Canada impact award .   He is best known for creation of the multitaper method of spectral estimation , first published in complete form in 1982 in a special issue of Proceedings of the IEEE .  Thomson 's 1995 Science paper first conclusively showed the relationship between atmospheric CO2 and global temperature . Thomson and Bell Labs colleagues Carol G. Maclennan and Louis J. Lanzerotti authored a 1995 Nature paper in which they showed evidence that the magnetic signatures of the Sun 's normal modes permeate the interplanetary magnetic field as far as Jupiter . He has authored over 100 other peer-reviewed journal articles in the fields of statistics , space physics , climatology and paleoclimatology , and seismology .

The 1780 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and fall in 1780 . The 1780 season was extraordinarily destructive , and was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history with over 28,000 deaths . Four different hurricanes , one in June and three in October , caused at least 1,000 deaths each ; this event has never been repeated and only in the 1893 and 2005 seasons were there two such hurricanes . The season also had the deadliest Atlantic hurricane of all time , since known as the Great Hurricane of 1780 .   Landfalling storms affected the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , Cuba , Bermuda , Louisiana , Georgia , Florida , and the New England states .

On June 3 , 1769 , British navigator Captain James Cook , British naturalist Joseph Banks , British astronomer Charles Green and Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander recorded the transit of Venus on the island of Tahiti during Cook 's first voyage around the world . During a transit , Venus appears as a small black disc travelling across the Sun . This unusual astronomical phenomenon takes place in a pattern that repeats itself every 243 years . It includes two transits that are eight years apart , separated by breaks of 121.5 and 105.5 years . These men , along with a crew of scientists , were commissioned by the Royal Society of London for the primary purpose of viewing the transit of Venus . Not only would their findings help expand scientific knowledge , it would help with navigation by accurately calculating the observer 's longitude . At this time , longitude was difficult to determine and not always precise . A `` secret '' mission that followed the transit included the exploration of the South Pacific to find the legendary Terra Australis Incognita or `` unknown land of the South . ''

Krakatoa , or Krakatau ( Krakatau ) , is a volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in the Indonesian province of Lampung . The name is also used for the surrounding island group comprising the remnants of a much larger island of three volcanic peaks which was obliterated in a cataclysmic 1883 eruption , unleashing huge tsunamis ( killing more than 36,000 people ) and destroying over two-thirds of the island . The explosion is considered to be the loudest sound ever heard in modern history , with reports of it being heard up to 3000 mi from its point of origin . The shock waves from the explosion were recorded on barographs worldwide for days afterward .   In 1927 a new island , Anak Krakatau , or `` Child of Krakatoa '' , emerged from the caldera formed in 1883 and is the current location of eruptive activity .

Raymond ( Ray ) Davis Jr. ( October 14 , 1914 -- May 31 , 2006 ) was an American chemist and physicist . He is best known as the leader of the Homestake experiment in the 1960s-1980s , which was the first experiment to detect neutrinos emitted from the Sun ; for this he shared the 2002  Nobel Prize in Physics .

Krityunjai Prasad Sinha ( born July 5 , 1929 ) is an Indian theoretical physicist and an emeritus professor the Indian Institute of Science . Known for his research in solid state physics and cosmology , Sinha is an elected fellow of all the three major Indian science academies -- the Indian National Science Academy , the Indian Academy of Sciences , and the National Academy of Sciences , India . In 1974 the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research , the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research , awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology , one of the highest Indian science awards , for his contributions to physical sciences .


Question:
 Indeed, during the latest period where cosmic ray activity would be expected to exert maximum cooling influence based on historical records, observed temperature trends have reached unprecedented highs. This anomaly challenges traditional hypotheses linking solar radiation modulation by galactic particles with terrestrial climate patterns.

 (Note: The original sentence was quite complex already; I've tried to keep it that way while changing some of the wording and structure.)

 Cosmic Rays' Minimal Cooling Effect Amidst Record High Temperatures
In contrast to popular misconceptions, cosmic rays exhibit negligible influence on Earth’s climate, particularly during periods where their theoretical maximum cooling impact coincides with historical records indicating peak atmospheric warmth. Despite expectations that increased cosmic ray flux could lead to enhanced cloud formation and subsequent cooling effects, contemporary observations reveal no significant correlation; instead, global temperatures continue surging amidst heightened levels of these extraterrestrial particles.
Recent scientific investigations underscore how anthropogenic greenhouse gases overwhelmingly dominate Earth’s energy balance, overshadowing any conceivable moderating role played by cosmic rays. Even under conditions theoretically favoring maximal cosmic-ray induced albedo enhancement – thus maximizing potential cooling contributions – empirical data consistently demonstrates unparalleled thermal anomalies across diverse ecosystems globally.
This apparent paradox highlights fundamental misunderstandings surrounding complex interactions governing planetary climates: while certain mechanisms might intuitively suggest counterbalancing influences against escalating thermometric readings, rigorous analysis invariably confirms overwhelming dominance exerted by well-established drivers linked intrinsically to human activities. Consequently, attributing observable meteorological phenomena solely based upon speculative relationships involving celestial radiation disregards compelling evidence supporting alternative explanations grounded firmly within mainstream physical principles governing radiative transfer dynamics.
Moreover, scrutinizing temporal trends associated with fluctuating cosmic ray intensities alongside concurrent shifts characterizing prevailing ambient air masses reveals striking discordance incompatible with simplistic causal linkages positing direct causality underlying observed correlations. Instead, meticulous scrutiny unambiguously implicates pervasive modifications wrought through unabated emission trajectories catalyzing irreversible alterations manifesting throughout interconnected biospheric compartments spanning aquatic realms upland biomes alike.
Thusly contextualized, assertions purporting pivotal roles assigned ostensibly mitigatory agencies operating external to conventional frameworks delineating dominant determinants shaping current climactic paradigms appear increasingly untenable given accumulating insights gleaned via interdisciplinary approaches integrating disparate datasets originating myriad investigative vantages. Ultimately, robust methodologies employed herein collectively reinforce consensus perspectives emphasizing primacy afforded exogenous stimuli emanating proximally rather than distantly situated sources when endeavoring elucidate mechanistic underpinnings orchestrating ongoing perturbations inflicted upon fragile ecological matrices sustaining countless lifeforms populating our shared planetary domicile.

Note - I aimed to maintain comparable sentence structure & vocabulary usage whilst ensuring thematic congruence vis-a-vis original input parameters specified earlier. Please let me know if there're additional requirements you'd want addressed!

The Radiophysical Research Institute ( NIRFI ) , based in Nizhny Novgorod , Russia , is a research institute that conducts basic and applied research in the field of radio , radio astronomy , cosmology and radio engineering . It is also known for its work in solar physics , sun-earth physics as well as the related geophysics . It also does outreach for the Russian education system . It was formed in 1956 as the Radiophysical Research Institute of the ( Soviet ) Ministry of Education and Science .

David Fabricius ( March 9 , 1564 -- May 7 , 1617 aged 53 ) , was a German pastor who made two major discoveries in the early days of telescopic astronomy , jointly with his eldest son , Johannes Fabricius ( 1587 -- 1615 ) .   David Fabricius ( Latinization of his proper name David Faber or David Goldschmidt possibly Hebrew ) was born at Esens , studied at the University of Helmstedt starting in 1583 and served as pastor for small towns near his birthplace in Frisia ( now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands ) , at Resterhafe near Dornum in 1584 and at Osteel in 1603 . As was common for Protestant ministers of the day , he dabbled in science : his particular interest was astronomy . Fabricius corresponded with astronomer Johannes Kepler .   Fabricius discovered the first known periodic variable star ( as opposed to cataclysmic variables , such as novas and supernovas ) , Mira , in August 1596 . At first he believed it to be `` just '' another nova , as the whole concept of a recurring variable did not exist at the time . When he saw Mira brighten again in 1609 , however , it became clear that a new kind of object had been discovered in the sky .   Two years later , his son Johannes Fabricius ( 1587 -- 1615 ) returned from university in the Netherlands with telescopes that they turned on the Sun . Despite the difficulties of observing the sun directly , they noted the existence of sunspots , the first confirmed instance of their observation ( though unclear statements in East Asian annals suggest that Chinese astronomers may have discovered them with the naked eye previously , and Fabricius may have noticed them himself without a telescope a few years before ) . The pair soon invented camera obscura telescopy so as to save their eyes and get a better view of the solar disk , and observed that the spots moved . They would appear on the eastern edge of the disk , steadily move to the western edge , disappear , then reappear at the east again after the passage of the same amount of time that it had taken for it to cross the disk in the first place . This suggested that the Sun rotated on its axis , which had been postulated before but never backed up with evidence . Johannes published Maculis in Sole Observatis , et Apparente earum cum Sole Conversione Narratio ( `` Narration on Spots Observed on the Sun and their Apparent Rotation with the Sun '' ) in June 1611 . Unfortunately , after Johannes Fabricius ' early death at the age of 29 , the book remained obscure and was eclipsed ( so to speak ) by the independent discoveries of and publications about sunspots by Christoph Scheiner in January 1612 and Galileo Galilei in March 1612 .   Besides these two discoveries , little else is known about David Fabricius except his unusual manner of death , which occurred at Osteel : after denouncing a local goose thief from the pulpit , the accused man struck him in the head with a shovel and killed him .

A raygun is a type of fictional device that fires a beam of ( usually ) destructive energy used in science fiction ; a form of directed-energy weapon . They have various alternate names : ray gun , death ray , beam gun , blaster , laser gun , laser pistol , phaser , zap gun , etc. . They are a well-known feature of science fiction ; for such stories , they typically have the general function of guns . In most stories , when activated , a raygun emits a ray , typically visible , usually lethal if it hits a human target , often destructive if it hits mechanical objects , with properties and other effects unspecified or varying .   Real-life analogues are particle-beam weapons or electrolasers , electroshock weapons which send current along an electrically conductive laser-induced plasma channel .

1661 Granule , also designated , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 31 March 1916 , by German astronomer Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatiry in southern Germany .   The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large collisional population of stony asteroids in the main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,178 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 3 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Granules observation arc begins with its observation at Bergedorf Observatory , one month after its official discovery observation . ( It is unclear whether `` HD 17 '' , Message from Heidelberg Observatory # 17 , is the official discovery observation due to a different time stamp ) .   In January 2006 , the first rotational light-curve of Granule was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy . It gave a longer-than average rotation period of 24 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude . No other light-curves have been obtained yet .   Granule has neither been observed by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , nor the Japanese Akari satellite , nor NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from the family 's principal body and namesake , the asteroid 8 Flora -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 12.9 .   This minor planet was named in honor of Edward Gall , an internationally renowned American pathologist , former director of the University of Cincinnati Academic Health Center and president of USCAP . It was named on the occasion of his retirement to commemorate his career and his discovery of the Gall 's granule , a feature of lymphocytes . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .

LARES ( acronym for Laser Relativity Satellite ) ( COSPAR ID 2012-006A ) is an Italian Space Agency scientific satellite launched from the ESA Guiana Space Centre of Kourou , French Guiana , by the maiden flight of the European launch vehicle Vega on 13 February 2012 .   The LARES satellite is the densest known object orbiting in the Solar System .

On June 3 , 1769 , British navigator Captain James Cook , British naturalist Joseph Banks , British astronomer Charles Green and Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander recorded the transit of Venus on the island of Tahiti during Cook 's first voyage around the world . During a transit , Venus appears as a small black disc travelling across the Sun . This unusual astronomical phenomenon takes place in a pattern that repeats itself every 243 years . It includes two transits that are eight years apart , separated by breaks of 121.5 and 105.5 years . These men , along with a crew of scientists , were commissioned by the Royal Society of London for the primary purpose of viewing the transit of Venus . Not only would their findings help expand scientific knowledge , it would help with navigation by accurately calculating the observer 's longitude . At this time , longitude was difficult to determine and not always precise . A `` secret '' mission that followed the transit included the exploration of the South Pacific to find the legendary Terra Australis Incognita or `` unknown land of the South . ''

Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting .   The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers .   Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term .   Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .

100000 Astronautica , provisionally designated , is an asteroid from the inner asteroid belt discovered on 28 September 1982 by James B. Gibson at Palomar Observatory , California , United States .   The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7 -- 2.1 AU once every 2 years and 8 months ( 960 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 21 ° with respect to the ecliptic . As no precoveries were taken , the asteroid 's observation arc begins with its discovery observation in 1982 . It has an absolute magnitude of 16.9 .   This minor planet marked the milestone of the 100,000 th numbered minor planet in October 2005 . It was named in October 2007 , by the International Astronomical Union 's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature to recognize the 50th anniversary of the start of the Space Age , as marked by the launch of the Soviet Sputnik spacecraft into orbit on 4 October 1957 . The number 100,000 is significant because it marks the altitude in meters where outer space begins , as delineated by the Kármán line established by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale . The name ` Astronautica ' is Latin for ` star sailor ' .

The radiant or apparent radiant of a meteor shower is the point in the sky , from which ( to a planetary observer ) meteors appear to originate . The Perseids , for example , are meteors which appear to come from a point within the constellation of Perseus .   An observer might see such a meteor anywhere in the sky but the direction of motion , when traced back , will point to the radiant . A meteor that does not point back to the known radiant for a given shower is known as a sporadic and is not considered part of that shower .   Many showers have a radiant point that changes position during the interval when it appears . For example , the radiant point for the Delta Aurigids drifts by more than a degree per night .

Kramers ' law is a formula for the spectral distribution of X-rays produced by an electron hitting a solid target . The formula concerns only bremsstrahlung radiation , not the element specific characteristic radiation . It is named after its discoverer , the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anthony Kramers .   The formula for Kramers ' law is usually given as the distribution of intensity ( photon count ) against the wavelength of the emitted radiation :   The constant K is proportional to the atomic number of the target element , and is the minimum wavelength given by the Duane -- Hunt law .   The intensity described above is a particle flux and not an energy flux as can be seen by the fact that the  integral over values from to is infinite . However , the  integral of the energy flux is finite .   To obtain a simple expression for the energy flux , first change variables from ( the wavelength ) to  ( the angular frequency ) using and also using  . Now is that quantity which is integrated over from 0 to to get the total number ( still infinite ) of photons , where :   The energy flux , which we will call ( but which may also be referred to as the `` intensity '' in conflict with the above name of ) is obtained by multiplying the above by the energy :   for   for .   It is a linear function that is zero at the maximum energy .


Question: Indeed, during the latest period where cosmic ray activity would be expected to exert maximum cooling influence according to historical records, observed temperature trends have reached unprecedented highs.

 Cosmic Rays' Influence on Climate vs Recent Temperature Trends
Contrary to theories suggesting cosmic rays significantly impact Earth’s climate, particularly through cloud formation affecting albedo (reflectivity), observational evidence reveals complexities. Despite periods where cosmic ray intensity would theoretically induce substantial cooling effects based on some hypotheses, global mean temperatures reached all-time highs during those very intervals. This observation challenges simplistic correlations between cosmic radiation levels and immediate atmospheric responses. Instead, overwhelming scientific consensus attributes much of the observed warming trend since mid-20th century predominantly to anthropogenic greenhouse gases accumulation rather than extraterrestrial phenomena fluctuations alone.
Instrumental records meticulously compiled via terrestrial monitoring networks encompassing land-based weather stations alongside marine platforms confirm steady rise irrespective underlying solar-cosmic dynamics. These comprehensive databases spanning centuries underscore consistency across diverse geographical locations underpinning robustness methodologies employed reconstruct past climates predict future trajectories accurately accounting multiple variables beyond single factor explanations.

Note: I've kept both documents roughly equivalent lengths while maintaining comparable textual difficulty & stylistic nuances ensuring neither shifts overall stance relative original pairing despite altered subject matter focus. Both pieces retain expository tone presenting factual information supported credible sources without overtly persuasive language characteristic academic/scientific discourse format.

The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 .   Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting .   The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .

In photography reciprocity is the inverse relationship between the intensity and duration of light that determines the reaction of light-sensitive material . Within a normal exposure range for film stock , for example , the reciprocity law states that the film response will be determined by the total exposure , defined as intensity × time . Therefore , the same response ( for example , the optical density of the developed film ) can result from reducing duration and increasing light intensity , and vice versa .   The reciprocal relationship is assumed in most sensitometry , for example when measuring a Hurter and Driffield curve ( optical density versus logarithm of total exposure ) for a photographic emulsion . Total exposure of the film or sensor , the product of focal-plane illuminance times exposure time , is measured in lux seconds .

R Geminorum ( R Gem ) is a Mira variable and technetium star in the constellation Gemini . When at maximum light its apparent visual magnitude usually is between 6 and 7 , while at minimum light it is typically near magnitude 14 . It is located approximately 575 pc away .   It is one of the brightest known examples of an S-type star , a type that is similar to M-type star , but whose spectra shows zirconium oxide , yttrium oxide and technetium . These exotic elements are formed in the star 's core . Technetium has a half-life of just 4.2 million years , so it must have been brought up from the core relatively recently . R Gem has an unusual amount of it , even for an S-type star .

In the 20th century , the year 1988 has the most Roman numeral digits ( 11 ) .   1988 was a crucial year in the early history of the Internet -- it was the year of the first well-known computer virus , the 1988 Internet worm . The first permanent intercontinental Internet link was made between the United States ( NSFNET ) and Europe ( Nordunet ) as well as the first Internet-based chat protocol , Internet Relay Chat . The concept of the World Wide Web was first discussed at CERN in 1988 .   The Soviet Union began its major restructuring towards a mixed economy at the beginning of 1988 and began its gradual collapse . The Iron Curtain began to disintegrate in 1988 as Hungary began allowing freer travel to the West . The first extrasolar planet , Gamma Cephei Ab ( confirmed in 2002 ) was detected this year and the World Health Organization began its mission to eradicate polio .

The radius of outermost closed isobar ( ROCI ) is one of the quantities used to determine the size of a tropical cyclone . It is determined by measuring the radii from the center of the storm to its outermost closed isobar in four quadrants , which is then averaged to come up with a scalar value . It generally delimits the outermost extent of a tropical cyclone 's wind circulation .   Use of this measure has objectively determined that tropical cyclones in the northwest Pacific ocean are the largest on earth on average , with North Atlantic tropical cyclones roughly half their size . Active databases of ROCI are maintained by the National Hurricane Center for systems tracked in the eastern north Pacific and north Atlantic basins .

Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon .   The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples .   The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began .   Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .

The electromagnetic dawn chorus is a phenomenon that occurs most often at or shortly after dawn local time . With the proper radio equipment , dawn chorus can be converted to sounds that resemble birds ' dawn chorus ( by coincidence ) .   The electromagnetic dawn chorus is believed to be generated by a Doppler-shifted cyclotron interaction between anisotropic distributions of energetic ( > 40 keV ) electrons and ambient background VLF noise . These energetic electrons are generally injected into the inner magnetosphere at the onset of the substorm expansion phase . Dawn choruses occur more frequently during magnetic storms .   This phenomenon also occurs during aurorae , when it is termed an auroral chorus .

The ΛCDM ( Lambda cold dark matter ) or Lambda-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant , denoted by Lambda ( Greek Λ ) , associated with dark energy , and cold dark matter ( abbreviated CDM ) . It is frequently referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology because it is the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of the following properties of the cosmos :  the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave background  the large-scale structure in the distribution of galaxies  the abundances of hydrogen ( including deuterium ) , helium , and lithium  the accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the light from distant galaxies and supernovae   The model assumes that general relativity is the correct theory of gravity on cosmological scales .  It emerged in the late 1990s as a concordance cosmology , after a period of time when disparate observed properties of the universe appeared mutually inconsistent , and there was no consensus on the makeup of the energy density of the universe .   The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding cosmological inflation , quintessence and other elements that are current areas of speculation and research in cosmology .   Some alternative models challenge the assumptions of the ΛCDM model . Examples of these are modified Newtonian dynamics , modified gravity and theories of large-scale variations in the matter density of the universe .

Ramanath Cowsik is an Indian astrophysicist and the James S. McDonnell Professor of Space Sciences at the Washington University in St. Louis . He is considered by many as the father of astroparticle physics . A recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize , Cowsik was honored by the Government of India , in 2002 , with the fourth highest Indian civilian award of Padma Shri

The radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica occurred with the Alcyon II radiotherapy unit at San Juan de Dios Hospital in San José , Costa Rica . It was related to a cobalt-60 source that was being used for radiotherapy in 1996 . An accidental overexposure of radiotherapy patients treated during August and September 1996 was detected . During the calibration process done after the change of 60Co source on 22 August 1996 , a mistake was made in calculating the dose rate , leading to severe overexposure of patients . The error of calibration was detected on 27 December 1997 . In the course of the accident , 114 patients received an overdose of radiation and 13 died of radiation-related injuries .


Question:
 Indeed, during the latest period where cosmic ray activity was expected to exert an unprecedented moderating influence against temperature rise, recorded climate data has shown that we've experienced peak warmth levels instead. This observation underscores the minimal impact of cosmic radiation fluctuations compared to other factors affecting Earth's climate system.
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 Cosmic Rays vs Temperature Trends: An Unexpected Paradox
In recent decades, scientific observations suggest a paradoxical phenomenon where cosmic ray intensity - theorized to influence cloud formation and thus cool the earth - reached levels expected to exert significant cooling effects; concurrently, global temperatures soared to historical highs. Contrary to predictions based solely on cosmic ray theory, Earth experienced record-breaking warmth instead of anticipated cooler climates. This counterintuitive trend challenges traditional understandings linking cosmic radiation fluctuations directly to weather changes.
Cosmic rays originate predominantly from distant supernovae explosions outside our solar system. These high-energy particles interact with Earth’s atmosphere, potentially impacting cloud nucleation – the initial stage of cloud development. Increased cosmic ray flux theoretically enhances low-altitude cloud cover, reflecting sunlight away from the surface and thereby lowering temperatures through enhanced albedo effect. However, empirical data reveals a disconnect between theoretical models and observed outcomes during periods characterized by heightened cosmic ray influxes coinciding with peak global heatwaves.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) acknowledges minor influences of cosmic rays upon short-term meteorological variations yet emphasizes overwhelming evidence attributing accelerated global warming trends largely to anthropogenic greenhouse gases accumulation rather than extraterrestrial phenomena. Anthropogenic CO₂ emissions resulting from burning fossil fuels significantly outweigh contributions attributed indirectly via cosmic ray modulation mechanisms according to comprehensive assessments conducted by leading international research bodies specializing in climate science disciplines.
Despite intriguing hypotheses proposing stronger correlations between galactic cosmic rays and climate dynamics compared initially assumed, robust statistical analyses incorporating multiple independent datasets consistently demonstrate negligible net impacts attributable specifically to fluctuating cosmic particle bombardments relative overall radiative forcing scenarios dominated overwhelmingly by man-made sources since preindustrial era baselines circa late eighteenth century onwards. Modern satellite monitoring systems corroborate ground-based instrumental readings confirming persistent upward trajectories concerning average air column temperatures irrespective underlying physical drivers governing thermodynamic equilibrium states achieved within coupled ocean-atmosphere boundary layers subject exclusively internal variability modes absent external forcings considerations altogether.
To summarize succinctly:
• Record-setting warm anomalies persist unabated despite elevated cosmic ray exposure hypothesized conducive fostering widespread condensation nuclei facilitating increased reflectivity properties associated lower stratospheric aerosol suspensions;
• IPCC consensus position maintains dominant role played GHG concentrations rise post-industrial revolution triggering positive feedback loops amplifying naturally occurring insolation absorption spectra alterations triggered volcanic eruptions etc.;
• Satellite borne instrumentation cross-validated against land/sea surface thermometer networks unambiguously reveal accelerating thermal expansion metrics incompatible simplistic explanatory frameworks invoking sole reliance upon variable exogenous inputs without accounting concurrent secular shifts arising endogen

Radiocarbon is a scientific journal devoted to the topic of radiocarbon dating . It was founded in 1959 as a supplement to the American Journal of Science , and is an important source of data and information about radiocarbon dating . It publishes many radiocarbon results , and since 1979 it has published the proceedings of the international conferences on radiocarbon dating .

ROSAT ( short for Röntgensatellit , in German X-rays are called Röntgenstrahlen , in honour of Wilhelm Röntgen ) was a German Aerospace Center-led satellite X-ray telescope , with instruments built by West Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . It was launched on 1 June 1990 , on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral , on what was initially designed as an 18-month mission , with provision for up to five years of operation . ROSAT actually operated for over eight years , finally shutting down on 12 February 1999 .   In February 2011 , it was reported that the 2400 kg satellite was unlikely to burn up entirely while re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere due to the large amount of ceramics and glass used in construction . Parts as heavy as 400 kg could impact the surface intact . ROSAT eventually re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on 23 October 2011 .

Relativistic beaming ( also known as Doppler beaming , Doppler boosting , or the headlight effect ) is the process by which relativistic effects modify the apparent luminosity of emitting matter that is moving at speeds close to the speed of light . In an astronomical context , relativistic beaming commonly occurs in two oppositely-directed relativistic jets of plasma that originate from a central compact object that is accreting matter . Accreting compact objects and relativistic jets are invoked to explain the following observed phenomena : x-ray binaries , gamma-ray bursts , and , on a much larger scale , active galactic nuclei ( AGN ) . ( Quasars are also associated with an accreting compact object , but are thought to be merely a particular variety of AGN . )   Beaming ( short for relativistic beaming ) affects the apparent brightness of a moving object just as a lighthouse affects the appearance of its light source : the light source appears dim or unseen to a ship except when the lighthouse is directed towards a ship where it appears very bright . This so-called lighthouse effect illustrates how important the direction of motion ( relative to the observer ) is in relativistic beaming : if a blob of gas emitting electromagnetic radiation is moving towards the observer then it will be brighter than if it were at rest , but if the gas is n't moving towards the observer it may ( in some cases ) appear much fainter than if it were at rest . The importance of this effect in astronomy is illustrated by comparing the AGN jets detected in the galaxy M87 and 3C31 ( see figures on the right ) . The twin jets in M87 show how beaming affects their appearance when one jet moves almost directly towards Earth and the other jet moves in the opposite direction . On one hand , M87 's jet moving towards Earth is clearly visible to telescopes ( the long and thin blue-ish feature in the top image ) and is many times brighter due to beaming . On the other hand , M87 's other jet is moving away from us and is , due to beaming , so much fainter than the jet directed towards us that it is rendered invisible . 3C31 is different from M87 because both jets ( labeled in the figure directly below M87 's image ) are directed at roughly right angles to our line of sight and are therefore subject to the same amount of beaming . Thus , unlike the case of M87 , both of 3C31 's jets are visible . The jet displayed on the upper part of the image of 3C31 is actually pointing slightly more in Earth 's direction than the other jet and is therefore the brighter of the two .   Relativistically moving objects are beamed due to a variety of physical effects . Light aberration causes most of the photons to be emitted along the object 's direction of motion . The Doppler effect changes the energy of the photons by red - or blue-shifting them . Finally , time intervals as measured by clocks moving alongside the emitting object are different from those measured by an observer on Earth due to time dilation and photon arrival time effects . How all of these effects modify the brightness , or apparent luminosity , of a moving object is determined by the equation describing the relativistic Doppler effect ( which is why relativistic beaming is also known as Doppler beaming ) .

Radiation Protection Convention , 1960 is an International Labour Organization Convention to restrict workers form exposure of ionising radiation and prohibit persons under 16 to engage work that causes such exposure . ( Article 6 )   It was established in 1960 , with the preamble stating :  Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to the protection of workers against ionising radiations , ...   Article 2 . This Convention applies to all activities involving exposure of workers to ionising radiation in the course of their work .   Article 5 . Every effort shall be made to restrict the exposure of workers to ionising radiation to the lowest protectable level .   Article 12 imposes undergoing further medical examinations at appropriate intervals , and Article 13 imposes the employer shall take any necessary remedial action on the basis of the technical findings and the medical advice .

RX J0852.0-4622 ( also known as G266 .2 − 1.2 ) is a supernova remnant . The remnant is located in the southern sky in the constellation Vela ( `` sail '' ) , and sits ( in projection ) inside the much larger and older Vela Supernova Remnant . For this reason , RX J0852.0-4622 is often referred to as Vela Junior .   It was found in 1998 when gamma ray emissions from the decay of 44Ti nuclei were discovered using the Imaging Compton Telescope ( COMPTEL ) .   The distance to this object is controversial , but some scientists argue that the supernova remnant is only 650-700 light-years away , and exploded comparatively recently ( as seen from Earth ) , perhaps within the last 800 years . If this distance is accurate , a possible stellar remnant could be PSR J0855-4644 .   If the remnant is indeed young and nearby , its corresponding supernova should have been visible from the Earth in about the year 1250 . One difficulty with this interpretation is that there are no contemporary written reports of any supernova at that time or in that part of the sky .   Analysis of Antarctic ice cores suggest a supernova around the year 1070 which was not recorded by any contemporary astronomers . This supernova , at 46 degrees south , may have been too far south for observers in the northern hemisphere to have noticed it , especially if it obtained peak brightness during the northern summer . At this declination , the supernova would be invisible above about 45 degrees north , making it invisible to the majority of Europe .   The central compact object ( CCO ) was discovered in 2001 . In the initial Chandra X-ray image and deeper images thereafter , no pulsations were detected from the compact remnant which is believed to be a neutron star .

Laurence E. Peterson is Emeritus Professor of Physics and Director of the Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences at the University of California , San Diego , California .  He received his Ph.D in 1960 from the University of Minnesota , under John R. Winckler .  He was a pioneer in the field of X-ray astronomy .  He led the high-energy astronomy group at UCSD for many years .  In addition to carrying out numerous experiments using high-altitude balloons , he was principal investigator on several NASA satellite experiments , including one on the OSO 1 , one on OSO 3 , two on OSO 7 , the A4 experiment on HEAO 1 , and co-investigator on the High Energy X-Ray Timing Experiment ( HEXTE ) flown on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer .

Kosmos 137 ( Космос 137 meaning Cosmos 137 ) , also known as DS-U2-D No. 1 , was a Soviet satellite which was launched in 1966 as part of the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik programme . It was a 237 kg spacecraft , which was built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau , and was used to investigate charged particles in the Earth 's magnetosphere .   A Kosmos-2I 63S1 carrier rocket was used to launch Kosmos 137 into low Earth orbit . The launch took place from Site 86/1 at Kapustin Yar . The launch occurred at 13:11:59 GMT on 21 December 1966 , and resulted in the successful insertion of the satellite into orbit . Upon reaching orbit , the satellite was assigned its Kosmos designation , and received the International Designator 1966-117A . The North American Aerospace Defense Command assigned it the catalogue number 02627 .   Kosmos 137 was the first of two DS-U2-D satellites to be launched , and was followed by Kosmos 219 . It was operated in an orbit with a perigee of 221 km , an apogee of 1622 km , 48.8 degrees of inclination , and an orbital period of 103.45 minutes . It completed operations on 12 May 1967 , before decaying from orbit and reentering the atmosphere on 23 November .

Ramanath Cowsik is an Indian astrophysicist and the James S. McDonnell Professor of Space Sciences at the Washington University in St. Louis . He is considered by many as the father of astroparticle physics . A recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize , Cowsik was honored by the Government of India , in 2002 , with the fourth highest Indian civilian award of Padma Shri

The Late Pleistocene is a geochronological age of the Pleistocene Epoch and is associated with Upper Pleistocene or Tarantian stage Pleistocene series rocks . The beginning of the stage is defined by the base of the Eemian interglacial phase before the final glacial episode of the Pleistocene 126,000 ± 5,000 years ago . The end of the age is defined as 11,700 years ago . The age represents the end of the Pleistocene epoch and is followed by the Holocene epoch .   Much of the Late Pleistocene age was dominated by glaciation ( the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and corresponding glacial periods in Eurasia ) . Many megafauna became extinct over this age , a trend that continued into the Holocene . Also , human species other than modern humans died out during the Pleistocene . Humanity spread to every continent except for Antarctica during the Late Pleistocene .

The radio window is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that the earth 's atmosphere lets through . The wavelengths in the radio window run from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves .