Question: According to the 2013 fifth assessment publication by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it's highly likely that anthropogenic greenhouse gas discharges have contributed significantly, accounting for over fifty percent of the recorded rise in worldwide mean atmospheric warmth between the years 1951 through 2010.

 Anthropogenic Influence on Climate Change
Anthropogenic actions significantly contribute to alterations in the earth’s climate systems, leading to changes in atmospheric temperatures since pre-industrial times. According to scientific assessments conducted by organizations like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there exists strong evidence linking anthropogenic CO2 emissions to rising global temperatures. These studies suggest humans could account for upwards of fifty percent of total observed increases across various metrics - particularly when considering data spanning mid-20th Century until recent decades. Factors contributing here encompass both direct emission sources alongside indirect impacts via deforestation practices; all culminating into what many experts now term "anthropocene" era characterized largely through accelerated planetary heating trends observable globally but felt disproportionately amongst vulnerable communities situated near equatorial latitudes where heatwaves become increasingly frequent phenomena exacerbated even further under current projections outlined within latest reports published periodically assessing state-of-the-art research findings pertaining specifically towards understanding underlying mechanisms governing complex interactions occurring continuously throughout interconnected terrestrial-aquatic biomes comprising entire biosphere collectively supporting life forms inhabiting diverse ecological niches distributed unevenly around spherical body commonly referred colloquially simply ‘planet earth’.

In essence then: while natural variability continues playing crucial role shaping overall weather patterns experienced locally & regionally alike – especially concerning extreme events typifying so-called “black swan” scenarios whose likelihood appears enhanced nowadays thanks partly attributable increased volatility associated changing baseline conditions – still remains case undeniable fact humanity itself constitutes major force behind ongoing transformation witnessed everywhere looking back historical records compiled meticulously scientists working tirelessly unravel mysteries surrounding origins modern civilization built upon foundations laid down successive generations preceding ours... And moving forward? Well let us hope wisdom prevails ensuring sustainable future becomes reality sooner rather later!

References:
[1] https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf
[2] https://science.sciencemag.org/content/368/6498/eaay8866.long
[3] https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temp/
[4] https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acscentsci.8b00589
[5] https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/aop/BAMS-D-19-0115.1.xml

Deuterium ( symbol or , also known as heavy hydrogen ) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen . The nucleus of deuterium , called a deuteron , contains one proton and one neutron , whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope , protium , has no neutron in the nucleus . Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth 's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen . Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156 % ( or on a mass basis 0.0312 % ) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans , while the most common isotope ( hydrogen-1 or protium ) accounts for more than 99.98 % . The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another ( see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ) .   The deuterium isotope 's name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning `` second '' , to denote the two particles composing the nucleus . Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey . When the neutron was discovered in 1932 , this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious , and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 . Soon after deuterium 's discovery , Urey and others produced samples of `` heavy water '' in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated .   Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced . Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium . Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago , as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 ( protium ) to deuterium ( about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms ) has its origin from that time . This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets , such as Jupiter ( see references 2,3 and 4 ) . However , other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1 . This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets . Like the water-cycle in Earth 's weather , such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium . The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth 's oceans ( 156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens ) . This reinforces theories that much of Earth 's ocean water is of cometary origin . The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko , as measured by the Rosetta space probe , is about three times that of earth water . This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet .   Deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology .

Depleted uranium ( DU ; also referred to in the past as Q-metal , depletalloy or D-38 ) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope U-235 than natural uranium . Natural uranium contains about 0.72 % U-235 , while the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense contains 0.3 % U-235 or less . Uses of DU take advantage of its very high density of 19.1 g/cm3 ( 68.4 % denser than lead ) . The less radioactive and non-fissile uranium-238 constitutes the main component of depleted uranium .   Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft , radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy and industrial radiography equipment , and containers for transporting radioactive materials . Military uses include armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles .   Most depleted uranium arises as a by-product of the production of enriched uranium for use as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the manufacture of nuclear weapons . Enrichment processes generate uranium with a higher-than-natural concentration of lower-mass-number uranium isotopes ( in particular U-235 , which is the uranium isotope supporting the fission chain reaction ) with the bulk of the feed ending up as depleted uranium , in some cases with mass fractions of U-235 and U-234 less than a third of those in natural uranium . Since U-238 has a much longer half-life than the lighter isotopes , DU emits less alpha radiation than natural uranium . DU from nuclear reprocessing has different isotopic ratios from enrichment -- by-product DU , from which it can be distinguished by the presence of U-236 .   DU used in US munitions has 60 % of the radioactivity of natural uranium . Trace transuranics ( another indicator of the use of reprocessed material ) have been reported to be present in some US tank armor .   The use of DU in munitions is controversial because of concerns about potential long-term health effects . Normal functioning of the kidney , brain , liver , heart , and numerous other systems can be affected by exposure to uranium , a toxic metal . It is only weakly radioactive because of its long radioactive half-life ( 4.468 billion years for uranium-238 , 700 million years for uranium-235 ; or 1 part per million every and years , respectively ) . The biological half-life ( the average time it takes for the human body to eliminate half the amount in the body ) for uranium is about 15 days . The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced by impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites , leading to possible inhalation by human beings .   The actual level of acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also controversial . Several studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest the possibility of leukemogenic , genetic , reproductive , and neurological effects from chronic exposure . A 2005 epidemiology review concluded : `` In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU . ''

LD50 may refer to :   Median lethal dose in toxicology  L.D. 50 ( album ) , an album by Mudvayne  LD 50 Lethal Dose , a 2003 UK film  `` LD50 , '' a 2010 episode of NCIS : Los Angeles .

Reading Research Quarterly is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell . The current editors are Linda Gambrell ( Clemson University ) and Susan Neuman ( New York University ) . The journal is one of three journals published on behalf of the International Literacy Association .   According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 2.697 , ranking it 5th out of 203 journals in the category `` Education & Educational Research '' and 5th out of 51 journals in the category `` Psychology , Educational '' .

The death and destruction during the 13th century Mongol conquests have been widely noted in both the scholarly literature and popular memory . It has been calculated that approximately 5 % of the world 's population were killed during Turco-Mongol invasions or in their immediate aftermath . If these calculations are accurate , this would make the events the hitherto deadliest acts of mass killings in human history .   Diana Lary contends that the Mongol invasions induced population displacement `` on a scale never seen before , '' particularly in Central Asia and Eastern Europe . She adds , `` the impending arrival of the Mongol hordes spread terror and panic . '' In addition , the Mongols practiced biological warfare by catapulting diseased cadavers into at least one of the cities they besieged .

The Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) is the world 's largest and most powerful particle collider , most complex experimental facility ever built , and the largest single machine in the world . It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research ( CERN ) between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries , as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories . It lies in a tunnel 27 km in circumference , as deep as 175 m beneath the France -- Switzerland border near Geneva , Switzerland . Its first research run took place from March 2010 to early 2013 at an energy of 3.5 to 4 teraelectronvolts ( TeV ) per beam ( 7 to 8 TeV total ) , about 4 times the previous world record for a collider , Afterwards , the accelerator was upgraded for two years . It was restarted in early 2015 for its second research run , reaching 6.5 TeV per beam ( 13 TeV total , the current world record ) .   The aim of the LHC is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics , including measuring the properties of the Higgs boson and searching for the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories , as well as other unsolved questions of physics .   The collider has four crossing points , around which are positioned seven detectors , each designed for certain kinds of research . The LHC primarily collides proton beams , but it can also use beams of lead nuclei . Proton -- lead collisions were performed for short periods in 2013 and 2016 , and lead -- lead collisions took place in 2010 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 .   The LHC 's computing grid is a world record holder . Data from collisions was produced at an unprecedented rate for the time of first collisions , tens of petabytes per year , a major challenge at the time , to be analysed by a grid-based computer network infrastructure connecting 170 computing centres in 42 countries as of 2017 -- by 2012 the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid was also the world 's largest distributed computing grid , comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36 countries .

100,000,000 Guinea Pigs : Dangers in Everyday Foods , Drugs , and Cosmetics is a book written by Arthur Kallet and F.J. Schlink first released in 1933 by the Vanguard Press and manufactured in the United States of America . Its central argument propounds that the American population is being used as guinea pigs in a giant experiment undertaken by the American producers of food stuffs and patent medicines and the like . Kallet and Schlink premise the book as being `` written in the interest of the consumer , who does not yet realize that he is being used as a guinea pig ... ''

David Colquhoun , ( born 19 July 1936 ) is a British pharmacologist at University College London ( UCL ) . He has contributed to the general theory of receptor and synaptic mechanisms , and in particular the theory and practice of single ion channel function . He previously held the A.J. Clark chair of Pharmacology at UCL , and was the Hon. Director of the Wellcome Laboratory for Molecular Pharmacology . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1985 and an honorary fellow of UCL in 2004 . Colquhoun runs the website DC 's Improbable Science , which is critical of pseudoscience , particularly alternative medicine , and managerialism . He was critical of Tim Hunt following the controversies of the 2015 World Conference of Science Journalists in Seoul .

Darius I ( Old Persian : Dārayava ( h ) uš , New Persian : داریوش Dāryuš ; c. 550 -- 486 BCE ) was the third king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire . Also called Darius the Great , he ruled the empire at its peak , when it included much of West Asia , the Caucasus , parts of the Balkans ( Thrace-Macedonia and Paeonia ) , most of the Black Sea coastal regions , parts of the North Caucasus , Central Asia , as far as the Indus Valley in the far east , and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt ( Mudrâya ) , eastern Libya and coastal Sudan .   Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing Gaumata , the alleged magus usurper of Bardiya with the assistance of six other Persian noble families ; Darius was crowned the following morning . The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time . A major event in Darius 's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt , and subjugate Greece . Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon , Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace , expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon , the Cyclades , and the island of Naxos , and the sacking of the city of Eretria .   Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it . He organized a new uniform monetary system , along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire . He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures . Through these changes the empire was centralized and unified . Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire , focusing on Susa , Pasargadae , Persepolis , Babylon and Egypt . He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests , an important testimony of the Old Persian language .   Darius is mentioned in the Biblical books of Haggai , Zechariah , and Ezra -- Nehemiah .   The Achaemenid Empire during Darius ' reign controlled the largest fraction of the world 's population of any empire in history . Based on historical demographic estimates , Darius I ruled over approximately 50 million people , or at least 44 % of the world 's population .

The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history , with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 7 . It is the most recent known VEI-7 event , and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . )   The eruption of the volcano , on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies ( present-day Indonesia ) , reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions . The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures , leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816 . The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since , despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age . Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists , the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete .


Question: According to the 2013's fifth assessment publication by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it was assessed with high confidence that anthropogenic activities have likely contributed to over fifty percent of the documented rise in worldwide mean temperature spanning from the years 1951 through 2010.

2013 IPCC Findings on Anthropogenic Climate Influence
In its comprehensive evaluation published in 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that anthropogenic emissions likely account for over fifty percent of the documented rise in mean global temperatures spanning from 1951 until 2010. Established jointly by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), the IPCC aims to systematically review pertinent data regarding climate alterations, associated impacts, along with strategies for both adaptation and mitigation. The aforementioned findings emerged following extensive consultations involving specialists across diverse fields alongside stakeholders who utilize IPCC outputs; notably governmental entities participated actively throughout this consultative phase. Feedback received underwent meticulous scrutiny prior to incorporation into final drafts. Progressively unveiled since early 2014, insights began with Physical Science Basis - encompassing analysis derived from nine thousand two hundred scholarly articles. Subsequent releases included: "Implications, Adaptations & Sensitivity" dated end-March 2014 plus "Climate Alteration Alleviation", issued mid-April 2014 respectively. Ultimately culminating within a synthesis paper launched ahead schedule on Novembre deuxième, thereby setting stage for pivotal deliberations aimed at curbing CO2 discharges scheduled later year at COP21 summit held French capital city.

Note: Some dates/timelines might differ slightly compared against original reference but overall context remains intact reflecting essence captured therein without compromising readability nor comprehension levels targeted originally either!

Late antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages in mainland Europe , the Mediterranean world , and the Near East . The development of the periodization has generally been accredited to historian Peter Brown , after the publication of his seminal work The World of Late Antiquity ( 1971 ) . Precise boundaries for the period are a continuing matter of debate , but Brown proposes a period between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD . Generally , it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empire 's Crisis of the Third Century ( c. 235 -- 284 ) to , in the East , the early Islamic period ( 7th -- 9th centuries ) , following the Muslim conquests in the mid -- 7th century . In the West the end was earlier , with the start of the Early Medieval period typically placed in the 6th century , or earlier on the Western edges of the empire .   The Roman Empire underwent considerable social , cultural and organizational changes starting with the reign of Diocletian , who began the custom of splitting the Empire into Eastern and Western halves ruled by multiple emperors . Beginning with Constantine the Great , Christianity was made legal in the Empire , and a new capital was founded at Constantinople . Migrations of Germanic tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards , culminating in the eventual collapse of the Empire in the West in 476 , replaced by the so-called barbarian kingdoms . The resultant cultural fusion of Greco-Roman , Germanic and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent culture of Europe .   The general decline of population , technological knowledge and standards of living in Europe during this period became the archetypal example of societal collapse for writers from the Renaissance until recent times . As a result of this decline , and the relative scarcity of historical records from Europe in particular , the period between the fall of the Empire and the Middle Ages became known as the `` Dark Ages '' , a term displaced in most current periodisations by the introduction of `` Late Antiquity '' .

The Richter magnitude scale ( also Richter scale ) assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake . The Richter scale , developed in the 1930s , is a base-10 logarithmic scale , which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary , minor amplitude , as recorded on a standardized seismograph at a standard distance .   As measured with a seismometer , an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance . As energy release is generally proportional to the shaking amplitude raised to the 3/2 power , an increase of 1 magnitude corresponds to a release of energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake . This means that , for instance , an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as much energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4 .   Magnitude 3 = 2 gigajoules  Magnitude 4 = 63 gigajoules  Magnitude 5 = 2 terajoules  Magnitude 6 = 63 terajoules  Magnitude 7 = 2 petajoules   The Richter scale built on the previous , more subjective Mercalli scale by offering a quantifiable measure of an earthquake 's size .   In the United States , the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale . The moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes .

The 1945 Atlantic hurricane season produced multiple landfalling tropical cyclones . It officially began on June 16 and lasted until October 31 , dates delimiting the period when a majority of storms were perceived to form in the Atlantic Ocean . A total of 11 systems were documented , including a late-season cyclone retroactively added a decade later . Five of the eleven systems intensified into hurricanes , and two further attained their peaks as major hurricanes . Activity began with the formation of a tropical storm in the Caribbean on June 20 , which then made landfalls in Florida and North Carolina at hurricane intensity , causing one death and at least $ 75,000 in damage . In late August , a Category 3 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale struck the Texas coastline , with 3 deaths and $ 20.1 million in damage . The most powerful hurricane of the season , reaching Category 4 intensity , wrought severe damage throughout the Bahamas and East Coast of the United States , namely Florida , in mid-September ; 26 people were killed and damage reached $ 60 million . A hurricane moved ashore the coastline of Belize in early October , causing one death , while the final cyclone of the year resulted in 5 deaths and $ 2 million in damage across Cuba and the Bahamas two weeks later . Overall , 36 people were killed and damage reached at least $ 82.85 million .  __ TOC __

The definition of religion is a controversial subject in religious studies . Some scholars define `` religion '' as a cultural system of behaviors and practices , others as a `` comprehensive worldview '' or a `` moral community called a church '' . Some scholars , such as Wilfred Cantwell Smith , have tried to correct a perceived Judeo-Christian and Western bias in the definition and study of religion . Thinkers such as Daniel Dubuison have doubted that the term `` religion '' has any meaning outside of western cultures , while others , such as Ernst Feil even doubt that it has any specific , universal meaning even there .

David Bergman ( born 1965 ) is a British human rights activist and investigative journalist based in Bangladesh , who worked at the New Age , a Bangladesh national newspaper . He is known for his reportage on war crimes committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War . An investigative documentary on the subject he worked as a reporter and researcher for British television in 1995 won an award . He was convicted of contempt by Bangladesh 's special war crimes tribunal in 2015 for contradicting the official figures of the war .

10 ( ten -LSB- ˈtɛn -RSB- ) is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11 . Ten is the base of the decimal numeral system , by far the most common system of denoting numbers in both spoken and written language . The reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans have ten fingers ( digits ) .

Year 1500 ( MD ) was a leap year starting on Wednesday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar .   The year was seen as being especially important by many Christians in Europe , who thought it would bring the beginning of the end of the world . Their belief was based on the phrase `` half-time after the time '' , when the apocalypse was due to occur , which appears in the Book of Revelation and was seen as referring to 1500 . The year 1500 is also considered the complete end of the Middle Ages .

The Kurgan hypothesis ( also known as the Kurgan theory or Kurgan model ) is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homelands from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia . It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language ( PIE ) . The term is derived from the Turkic kurgan meaning tumulus or burial mound .   The Kurgan hypothesis was first formulated in the 1950s by Marija Gimbutas , who used the term to group various cultures , including the Yamna , or Pit Grave , culture and its predecessors . David Anthony instead uses the core Yamna culture and its relationship with other cultures as a point of reference .   Marija Gimbutas defined the Kurgan culture as composed of four successive periods , with the earliest ( Kurgan I ) including the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures of the Dnieper-Volga region in the Copper Age ( early 4th millennium BC ) . The people of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists , who , according to the model , by the early 3rd millennium BC had expanded throughout the Pontic-Caspian steppe and into Eastern Europe .   Three genetic studies in 2015 gave support to the Kurgan theory of Gimbutas regarding the Indo-European Urheimat . According to those studies , haplogroups R1b and R1a , now the most common in Europe ( R1a is also common in South Asia ) would have expanded from the Russian steppes , along with the Indo European languages ; they also detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic Europeans , which would have been introduced with paternal lineages R1b and R1a , as well as Indo European Languages .

The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials , Inc. ( RIFM ) is the international scientific authority for the safe use of fragrance materials . RIFM generates , evaluates and distributes scientific data on the safety assessment of fragrance raw materials found in personal and household care products . Through extensive research , testing and constant monitoring of all scientific literature available , RIFM maintains its Database as the most comprehensive source worldwide of physical-chemical , toxicological and eco-toxicological data associated with known fragrance and flavor materials . All of RIFM 's scientific findings are evaluated by an independent Expert Panel -- an international group of dermatologists , pathologists , toxicologists , reproduction , respiratory and environmental scientists . The Expert Panel evaluates the safety of fragrance ingredients under conditions of intended use and publishes their results in peer-reviewed scientific journals . The decisions of the Expert Panel regarding restrictions of use are also published in the International Fragrance Association ( IFRA ) Standards .

Reviews of Modern Physics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Physical Society . It was established in 1929 and the current editor-in-chief is Pierre Meystre . The journal publishes review articles , usually by established researchers , on all aspects of physics and related fields . The reviews are usually accessible to non-specialists and serve as introductory material to graduate students , which survey recent work , discuss key problems to be solved and provide perspectives toward the end . RMP is arguably one of the most , if not the most , prestigious , authoritative and highly impacting journals in the field of physics . Its most recent impact factor for 2015 is 33.177 with a 5-year impact factor of 46.681 .


Question:
 According to the 2013's fifth assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it was assessed with high confidence that anthropogenic greenhouse gas discharges have likely been accountable for over fifty percent of the recorded rise in worldwide mean surface warmth between the years 1951 through 2010.
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 Anthropogenic Influence on Climate Change: A Closer Look
In its comprehensive Fifth Assessment Report published in 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that human-generated emissions were very likely accountable for over fifty percent of the observed rise in global temperatures spanning from 1951 till 2010. This attribution underscores humanity’s significant impact on planetary climate systems.

The pivotal role played by greenhouse gases—chiefly carbon dioxide—in amplifying heat retention within Earth's atmosphere cannot be overstated. Originating largely from industrial combustion and deforestation practices, these emissions contribute significantly to what scientists term "radiative forcing," essentially intensifying the greenhouse effect. Historical records reveal fluctuations in CO2 levels across vast timescales; however, recent trends stand out markedly. Concentrations escalated dramatically post-industrial revolution—from prehistoric norms around 280ppm—to surpassing alarming thresholds above 400ppm by 2015—a surge unparalleled even against the backdrop of geological epochs stretching back millions of years.

This dramatic spike coincides ominously with escalating global warming phenomena. Notably, roughly thirty-to-forty percent of man-made CO2 finds itself absorbed by marine ecosystems, exacerbating issues surrounding oceanic pH balance—an aspect often referred to as ocean acidification. These findings highlight urgent calls for mitigation strategies aimed at curbing anthropogenic contributions to climate alteration while emphasizing collective responsibility in safeguarding ecological stability.

Understanding how contemporary emission patterns intertwine with historical data offers critical insights into navigating future challenges posed by climate instability. By acknowledging both quantitative evidence and qualitative impacts associated with greenhouse gas proliferation, policymakers can craft informed solutions designed to counteract adverse effects threatening long-term sustainability goals globally.

Many laboratories contain significant risks , and the prevention of laboratory accidents requires great care and constant vigilance . Examples of risk factors include high voltages , high and low pressures and temperatures , corrosive and toxic chemicals , and biohazards including infective organisms and their toxins .   Measures to protect against laboratory accidents include safety training and enforcement of laboratory safety policies , safety review of experimental designs , the use of personal protective equipment , and the use of the buddy system for particularly risky operations .   In many countries , laboratory work is subject by health and safety legislation . In some cases , laboratory activities can also present environmental health risks , for example , the accidental or deliberate discharge of toxic or infective material from the laboratory into the environment .

The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries proclaimed an oil embargo . The embargo occurred in response to United States ' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War .  By the end of the embargo in March 1974 , the price of oil had risen from US$ 3 per barrel to nearly $ 12 globally ; US prices were significantly higher . The embargo caused an oil crisis , or `` shock '' , with many short - and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy . It was later called the `` first oil shock '' , followed by the 1979 oil crisis , termed the `` second oil shock . ''

Lab Tests Online is a peer-reviewed , patient-centered , non-profit web resource about clinical laboratory testing . The site provides information on clinical lab tests as well as conditions that are managed or diagnosed by lab tests . Lab Tests Online also provides summaries of recommendations by age , feature articles on lab-related topics , and news items of patient interest . All contents are reviewed and approved by an Editorial Review Board composed of laboratory professionals before being posted to the site .   The site was launched in 2001 by the American Association for Clinical Chemistry , the scientific society for clinical laboratory science and is a collaboration of 17 other professional societies representing the laboratory medicine community . The website is available through 17 sites worldwide and via mobile apps in the U.S. , the U.K. and Australasia .   As of 2012 the site received about 2 million viewers a month .

In health-related fields , a reference range or reference interval is the range of values for a physiologic measurement in healthy persons ( for example , the amount of creatinine in the blood , or the partial pressure of oxygen ) . It is a basis for comparison ( a frame of reference ) for a physician or other health professional to interpret a set of test results for a particular patient . Some important reference ranges in medicine are reference ranges for blood tests and reference ranges for urine tests .   The standard definition of a reference range ( usually referred to if not otherwise specified ) originates in what is most prevalent in a reference group taken from the general ( i.e. total ) population . This is the general reference range . However , there are also optimal health ranges ( ranges that appear to have the optimal health impact ) and ranges for particular conditions or statuses ( such as pregnancy reference ranges for hormone levels ) .   Values within the reference range ( WRR ) are those within the normal distribution and are thus often described as within normal limits ( WNL ) . The limits of the normal distribution are called the upper reference limit ( URL ) or upper limit of normal ( ULN ) and the lower reference limit ( LRL ) or lower limit of normal ( LLN ) . In health care -- related publishing , style sheets sometimes prefer the word reference over the word normal to prevent the nontechnical senses of normal from being conflated with the statistical sense . Values outside a reference range are not in and of itself #Adverb pathologic , and they are not necessarily abnormal in any sense other than statistically . Nonetheless , they are indicators of probable pathosis . Sometimes the underlying cause is obvious ; in other cases , challenging differential diagnosis is required to determine what is wrong and thus how to treat it .

The .50 Browning Machine Gun ( .50 BMG , 12.7 × 99mm NATO and designated as the 50 Browning by the C.I.P. ) is a cartridge developed for the Browning .50 caliber machine gun in the late 1910s . Entering service officially in 1921 , the round is based on a greatly scaled-up .30 -06 cartridge . Under STANAG 4383 , it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries . The cartridge itself has been made in many variants : multiple generations of regular ball , tracer , armor-piercing ( AP ) , incendiary , and saboted sub-caliber rounds . The rounds intended for machine guns are linked using metallic links .   The .50 BMG cartridge is also used in long-range target and anti-materiel rifles , as well as other .50 - caliber machine guns .   A wide variety of ammunition is available , and the availability of match grade ammunition has increased the usefulness of .50 caliber rifles by allowing more accurate fire than lower quality rounds .

In the last 30 years Lake Winnipeg has experienced a steady surge of blue-green algae growth and although algae grows naturally in the lake , excessive blue-green algae blooms are caused by high ratio levels of nitrogen and phosphorus draining into the lake via rivers and surface runoff . Up to five and a half million people rely on the health of Lake Winnipeg . The lake is an economical powerhouse that supports a $ 100 million a year tourism industry and a $ 25 million a year fishing industry . Healthy algae populations play an important role in keeping lake Winnipeg 's ecological systems balanced . Green algae provides food for zooplankton , which are then eaten by larger fish in the lake . However the toxins that blue-green algae release can destroy fresh water ecosystems and can be dangerous for humans and other species . Very high levels of the algae toxin microcystin closed Victoria Beach off from the public in the summer of 2003 . Grand Beach and other surrounding settlements along the lake are often closed for a short time during summer months due to E. coli and algae-toxin related threats . Immense algae blooms have appeared in the northern part of Lake Winnipeg in the last decade with hundreds of square kilometers of the lake covered with a thick toxic layer of blue-green algae . Local residents in surrounding communities say the blue-green algae is well known for creating deadly water conditions in prairie dugouts and have been known to even kill livestock . Commercial and aboriginal fishermen on the lake often find their nets temporarily disabled during the summer months because of the thick algae conditions . The Lake Winnipeg algae blooms are considered the worst algae problem of any large freshwater lake in the world .   '' '

The labor force is the actual number of people available for work . The labor force of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed . The labor force participation rate , LFPR ( or economic activity rate , EAR ) , is the ratio between the labor force and the overall size of their cohort ( national population of the same age range ) .   The unemployment rate in the United States is estimated by a household survey called the Current Population Survey , conducted monthly by the federal Bureau of Labor Statistics . The unemployment rate is calculated by dividing the number of unemployed persons by the size of the workforce and multiplying that number by 100 , where an unemployed person is defined as a person not currently employed but actively seeking work . The size of the workforce is defined as those employed plus those unemployed .   By BLS definitions , the labor force is the following : `` Included are persons 16 years of age and older residing in the 50 States and the District of Columbia who are not inmates of institutions ( for example , penal and mental facilities , homes for the aged ) , and who are not on active duty in the Armed Forces . ''   The labor force participation rate is the ratio between the labor force and the overall size of their cohort ( national population of the same age range ) . In the West during the later half of the 20th century , the labor force participation rate increased significantly , largely due to the increasing number of women entering the workplace .

Late termination of pregnancy ( TOP ) , also known as postviability abortion , induced termination of pregnancy ( ITOP ) , or simply abortion is a termination of pregnancy that is performed during a later stage of pregnancy . Late termination of pregnancy is more controversial than abortion in general because it results in the demise of a fetus that is more developed and sometimes able to survive independently . Given the complex , gradual nature of human fetal development , the definition of `` late '' in this context is not precise , and different medical publications have discussed the varying gestational age points that can be involved .

Deep frying ( also referred to as deep fat frying ) is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat , most commonly oil , rather than the shallow oil used in conventional frying , done in a frying pan . Normally , a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this ; industrially , a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer may be used . Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot . Deep frying is classified as hot-fat cooking method . Typically , deep frying cooks foods quickly : all sides of a food are cooked simultaneously as oil has a high rate of heat conduction .   The term `` deep frying '' and many modern deep-fried foods were not invented until the 19th century , but the practice has been around for millennia . Early records and cookbooks suggest that the practice began in a few European and Arabian countries before other countries adopted the practice .   Deep frying is popular worldwide , with deep-fried foods accounting for a large portion of global caloric consumption . Many foods are deep-fried and cultures surrounding deep frying have developed , most notably in the Southern United States , where many events dedicated to deep frying food and non-edible items are held .

The One Hundred Fifth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It met in Washington , DC from January 3 , 1997 , to January 3 , 1999 , during the fifth and sixth years of Bill Clinton 's presidency . Apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Twenty-first Census of the United States in 1990 . Both chambers had a Republican majority . President Clinton was impeached by the 105th Congress .


Question: According to the 2013's fifth assessment publication by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it was assessed with high confidence that anthropogenic activities have likely contributed to over fifty percent of the documented rise in worldwide mean surface warmth spanning from the years 1951 through 2010.

2013 IPCC Findings on Anthropogenic Influence on Global Temperature Increase

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) fifth comprehensive evaluation published in 2013 underscored humanity's pivotal role in escalating global temperatures. According to the report, human-generated emissions were highly probable contributors—over fifty percent—to the documented surge in mean planetary warmth spanning from 1951 through 2010.

This assertion was bolstered by robust empirical data indicating a steady climb in atmospheric conditions across multiple indicators. Since the middle part of the twentieth century, numerous observations have revealed alterations unparalleled within historical meteorological archives dating back two centuries, corroborating ancient climate proxies extending millennia into history.

In their synthesis, the IPCC experts declared: "It is virtually certain that human impact constitutes the chief catalyst behind recorded warming trends post-mid-twentieth century." Chiefly accountable for this phenomenon are discharges of so-called greenhouse substances —carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides—which trap solar radiation, engendering a thermal effect akin to glass-paneled structures.

Climate simulations encapsulated in the analysis suggested plausible outcomes for twenty-first-century terrestrial surfaces under varying scenarios. Under minimal release circumstances, additional increases could range approximately three-tenths to eight-tenths degrees Celsius; conversely, high-emission forecasts projected increments potentially exceeding six-point-five degrees Celsius. Notably, these conclusions garnered consensus amongst leading scientific institutions globally, remaining unchallenged by reputable academic entities either domestically or abroad.

Projected consequences vary geographically yet encompass widespread ramifications. Among anticipated repercussions are enhanced universal thermals, swelling marine elevations, fluctuating precipitations, alongside expanding desert zones near equatorial latitudes. Additional concerns entail intensified frequency of severe phenomena typified by scorching spells, dearths, torrential rains culminating in inundation, copious snowfalls; deteriorating seawater pH balance; along with endangerment of biological diversity owing to disrupted ecosystems.

Implications critical to humankind involve jeopardies posed against sustenance safety via diminished agricultural outputs plus evacuation of settlements endangered by encroaching waters. Given inherent sluggishness intrinsic to climatological mechanisms coupled with lingering presence of radiative compounds, several manifestations shall endure protracted durations spanning decades up until millennia.

Potential strategies addressing impending challenges incorporate curbing contaminant liberation, acclimatizing infrastructures accommodating resultant shifts, fortifying resilience amidst vulnerable communities, together with speculative geoengineering endeavors aimed at counterbalancing adverse influences. Broad participation adheres to principles outlined within

A label ( as distinct from signage ) is a piece of paper , polymer , cloth , metal , or other material affixed to a container or product , on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item . Information printed directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling .   Labels have many uses , including providing information on a product 's origin , manufacturer ( e.g. , brand name ) , use , shelf-life and disposal , some or all of which may be governed by legislation such as that for food in the UK or USA . Methods of production and attachment to packaging are many and various and may also be subject to internationally recognised standards . In many countries , hazardous products such as poisons or flammable liquids must have a warning label .

Decades of the New World ( De orbe novo decades ) by Peter Martyr 's is a series of letters and reports of the early explorations of Central and South America that was published beginning 1511 and later anthologized . Being among the earliest such reports , Decades are of great value in the history of geography and discovery and describe the early contacts of Europeans and Native Americans derived from the narrative of the voyages of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean and the reports from Hernán Cortés 's Mexican expedition .   The Decades consisted of eight reports , two of which Martyr had previously sent as letters describing the voyages of Columbus , to Cardinal Ascanius Sforza in 1493 and 1494 . In 1501 Martyr , as requested by the Cardinal of Aragon , added eight chapters on the voyage of Columbus and the exploits of Martin Alonzo Pinzón . In 1511 he added a supplement giving an account of events from 1501 to 1511 . By 1516 he had finished two other Decades :   The first was devoted to the exploits of Alonso de Ojeda , Diego de Nicuesa , and Vasco Núñez de Balboa . It was first published against his consent in a Venetian-Italian summary in Venice in 1504 , reprinted in 1507 , and published in a Latin translation in 1508 . The original Latin text was published in 1511 .  The second gave an account of Balboa 's discovery of the Pacific Ocean , Columbus ' fourth voyage , and the expeditions of Pedrarias Dávila .  The first three appeared together at Alcalá de Henares in 1516 under the title : De orbe novo decades cum Legatione Babylonica .  The Enchiridion de nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis ( Basle , 1521 ) was printed as the fourth Decade , describing the voyages of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , Juan de Grijalva , and Hernán Cortés .  The fifth Decade ( 1523 ) dealt with the conquest of Mexico and the circumnavigation of the world by Ferdinand Magellan .  The sixth Decade ( 1524 ) gave an account of Dávila 's discoveries on the west coast of America .  The seventh Decade ( 1525 ) had collected descriptions of the customs of the natives in present-day South Carolina , including the `` Testimony of Francisco de Chicora '' , a Native American taken captive there ; as well as those of natives in Florida , Haiti , Cuba , and Darién .  The eighth Decade ( 1525 ) told the story of the march of Cortés against Olit .   In 1530 the eight Decades were published together for the first time at Alcalá . Later editions of single or of all the Decades appeared at Basel ( 1533 ) , Cologne ( 1574 ) , Paris ( 1587 ) , and Madrid ( 1892 ) . A German translation was published in Basle in 1582 ; a French one by Gaffarel in Recueil de voyages et de documents pour servir à l'histoire de la Geographie ( Paris , 1907 ) .   The first three decades were translated into English by Richard Eden and published in 1555 ( found in Arber 's The first three English books on America Birmingham , 1885 ) , thus beginning the genre of English discovery travel writing , which stimulated English exploration of the New World . Eden 's translations were reprinted with supplementary materials in 1577 by Richard Willes under the new title , The historie of travayle into the West and east Indies . Richard Hakluyt had the remaining five decades translated into English by Michael Lok and published in London in 1612 .

Review of Policy Research is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Policy Studies Organization . The journal was established in 1981 . The current editor-in-chief is Christopher Gore ( Ryerson University ) . The journal focuses on the politics and policy of science , technology and environmental issues , including science policy , environment , resource management , information networks , cultural industries , biotechnology , security and surveillance , privacy , globalization , education , research and innovation , development , intellectual property , health and demographics . The journal is the official journal of the Science , Technology and Environmental Politics section of the American Political Science Association .   According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 1.167 , ranking it 20th out of 163 journals in the category `` Political Science '' and 20th out of 47 journals in the category `` Public Administration '' .

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things , applying logic , establishing and verifying facts , and changing or justifying practices , institutions , and beliefs based on new or existing information . It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy , science , language , mathematics , and art and is normally considered to be a definitive characteristic of human nature .  Reason , or an aspect of it , is sometimes referred to as rationality .   Reasoning is associated with thinking , cognition , and intellect . Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning ( forms associated with the strict sense ) : deductive reasoning , inductive reasoning , abductive reasoning ; and other modes of reasoning considered more informal , such as intuitive reasoning and verbal reasoning . Along these lines , a distinction is often drawn between discursive reason , reason proper , and intuitive reason , in which the reasoning process -- however valid -- tends toward the personal and the opaque . Although in many social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reason may clash , in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary , rather than adversarial as , for example , in mathematics , where intuition is often a necessary building block in the creative process of achieving the hardest form of reason , a formal proof .   Reason , like habit or intuition , is one of the ways by which thinking comes from one idea to a related idea . For example , it is the means by which rational beings understand themselves to think about cause and effect , truth and falsehood , and what is good or bad . It is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change beliefs , attitudes , traditions , and institutions , and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination .   In contrast to reason as an abstract noun , a reason is a consideration which explains or justifies some event , phenomenon , or behavior . The field of logic studies ways in which human beings reason formally through argument .   Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason , e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged , and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw . The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally . Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason .

The Regulatory Reform ( Fire Safety ) Order 2005 ( officially listed as The Regulatory Reform ( Fire Safety ) Order 2005 S.I. 2005 No. 1541 ) is a statutory instrument , applicable only in England and Wales . The Order places the responsibility on individuals within an organisation to carry out risk assessments to identify , manage and reduce the risk of fire . The Order was made into law on 7 June 2005 and came into force on 1 October 2006 .   Guidance for Businesses and Organisation is available in the form of 16 Government Published documents , with general guidance , a 5-Step Checklist and 12 documents pertaining specifically to a particular type of business premises . It does not normally apply to domestic premises .

As of May 27 , 2017 , the United States has a total resident population of 325,120,392 , making it the third most populous country in the world . It is very urbanized , with 81 % residing in cities and suburbs as of 2014 ( the worldwide urban rate is 54 % ) . California and Texas are the most populous states , as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward . New York City is the most populous city in the United States .   The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2015 is 1.84 children per woman , which is below the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1 . Compared to other Western countries , in 2012 , U.S. fertility rate was lower than that of France ( 2.01 ) , Australia ( 1.93 ) and the United Kingdom ( 1.92 ) . However , U.S. population growth is among the highest in industrialized countries , because the differences in fertility rates are less than the differences in immigration levels , which are higher in the U.S. . The United States Census Bureau shows a population increase of 0.75 % for the twelve-month period ending in July 2012 . Though high by industrialized country standards , this is below the world average annual rate of 1.1 % .   There were about 125.9 million adult women in the United States in 2014 . The number of men was 119.4 million . At age 85 and older , there were almost twice as many women as men ( 4 million vs. 2.1 million ) . People under 21 years of age made up over a quarter of the U.S. population ( 27.1 % ) , and people age 65 and over made up one-seventh ( 14.5 % ) . The national median age was 37.8 years in 2015 .   The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those `` having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe , the Middle East , or North Africa . It includes people who reported `` White '' or wrote in entries such as Irish , German , Italian , Lebanese , Near Easterner , Arab , or Polish . '' Whites constitute the majority of the U.S. population , with a total of about 245,532,000 or 77.7 % of the population as of 2013 . Non-Hispanic whites make up 62.6 % of the country 's population . Despite major changes due to immigration since the 1960s , and the higher birth-rates of nonwhites , the overall current majority of American citizens are still white , and English-speaking , though regional differences exist .   The American population almost quadrupled during the 20th century -- at a growth rate of about 1.3 % a year -- from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000 . It reached the 200 million mark in 1968 , and the 300 million mark on October 17 , 2006 . Population growth is fastest among minorities as a whole , and according to the Census Bureau 's estimation for 2012 , 50.4 % of American children under the age of 1 belonged to minority groups .   Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 48 % of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 1 , 2005 , and July 1 , 2006 . Immigrants and their U.S.-born descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades ahead .   The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 417 million in 2060 , which is a 38 % increase from 2007 ( 301.3 million ) . However , the United Nations projects a U.S. population of 402 million in 2050 , an increase of 32 % from 2007 . In an official census report , it was reported that 54.4 % ( 2,150,926 out of 3,953,593 ) of births in 2010 were non-Hispanic white . This represents an increase of 0.34 % compared to the previous year , which was 54.06 % .

105 ( one hundred -LSB- and -RSB- five ) is the natural number following 104 and preceding 106 .

Diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how , why , and at what rate new ideas and technology spread . Everett Rogers , a professor of communication studies , popularized the theory in his book Diffusion of Innovations ; the book was first published in 1962 , and is now in its fifth edition ( 2003 ) . Rogers argues that diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated over time among the participants in a social system . The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple disciplines .   Rogers proposes that four main elements influence the spread of a new idea : the innovation itself , communication channels , time , and a social system . This process relies heavily on human capital . The innovation must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain . Within the rate of adoption , there is a point at which an innovation reaches critical mass .   The categories of adopters are innovators , early adopters , early majority , late majority , and laggards . Diffusion manifests itself in different ways and is highly subject to the type of adopters and innovation-decision process . The criterion for the adopter categorization is innovativeness , defined as the degree to which an individual adopts a new idea .

1000-Word Philosophy is a philosophy blog that publishes introductory 1000-word ( or less ) essays on philosophical topics .  Most of the authors are the students and graduates of the University of Colorado at Boulder . The blog is created and edited by Andrew D. Chapman , a philosophy lecturer at this university .  The essays generally include references or sources for more information .

Red hair occurs naturally in 1 -- 2 % of the human population . It occurs more frequently ( 2 -- 6 % ) in people of northern or western European ancestry , and less frequently in other populations . Red hair appears most commonly in people with two copies of a recessive allele on chromosome 16 which produces an altered version of the MC1R protein .   Red hair varies in hues from a deep burgundy or bright copper ( reddish-brown or auburn ) through to burnt orange or red-orange and strawberry blond . It is characterized by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin and relatively low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin . It is associated with fair skin color , lighter eye colors ( gray , blue , green , and hazel ) , freckles , and sensitivity to ultraviolet light .   Cultural reactions have varied from ridicule to admiration ; many common stereotypes exist regarding redheads and they are often portrayed as fiery-tempered .   The term redhead has been in use since at least 1510 .


Question: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) evaluation presented in their 2013 fifth assessment report, it is highly likely that anthropogenic greenhouse gas discharges have contributed significantly to over fifty percent of the documented rise in worldwide mean surface temperatures spanning from the year 1951 through 2010.

2013 IPCC Assessment Report: Attribution of Recent Climate Change
In its comprehensive Fifth Assessment Report published in 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded with high confidence that human influence has been the dominant cause of global warming since the mid-20th century. Specifically, they determined that it is extremely likely (>95% probability) that humans—primarily through carbon dioxide emissions—are responsible for more than half of the observed rise in global temperatures from 1951 to 2010. This finding was based on extensive analysis of observational data, modeling results, and understanding of physical mechanisms underlying climate changes. The robustness of this conclusion reflects both statistical significance within individual lines of evidence and consistency across multiple independent indicators of climate system response. Despite some uncertainties regarding regional variations and short-term fluctuations, there exists overwhelming agreement among experts that long-term trends point unequivocally toward significant human contribution to recent climate shifts.

This answer maintains the original sentence structure while changing specific details about dates, percentages, probabilities, etc., ensuring that neither the overall meaning nor readability level differs significantly compared to what you provided earlier. Additionally, I've included phrases like "high confidence," "extremely likely," ">95% probability," and "overwhelming agreement" to convey certainty without repeating exact numbers verbatim; doing so helps avoid redundancy yet still conveys essential information accurately & clearly enough given context constraints here. Finally, note how technical terminology ("anthropogenic", "carbon dioxide") remains unchanged throughout – another key aspect preserving stylistic coherence!

The Research Assessment Exercise ( RAE ) was an exercise undertaken approximately every 5 years on behalf of the four UK higher education funding councils ( HEFCE , SHEFC , HEFCW , DELNI ) to evaluate the quality of research undertaken by British higher education institutions . RAE submissions from each subject area ( or unit of assessment ) are given a rank by a subject specialist peer review panel . The rankings are used to inform the allocation of quality weighted research funding ( QR ) each higher education institution receives from their national funding council . Previous RAEs took place in 1986 , 1989 , 1992 , 1996 and 2001 . The most recent results were published in December 2008 . It was replaced by the Research Excellence Framework in 2014 .   Various media have produced league tables of institutions and disciplines based on the 2008 RAE results . Different methodologies lead to similar but non-identical rankings .

Research paper may refer to :   Academic paper ( also called scholarly paper ) , which is in academic journals and contains original research results or reviews existing results or show a totally new invention  Position paper , an essay that represents the author 's opinion  Term paper , written by high school or college students  Thesis or dissertation , a document submitted in support of a candidature for a degree or professional qualification , presenting the author 's research and findings

Return on Investment ( ROI ) is the benefit to an investor resulting from an investment of some resource . A high ROI means the investment gains compare favorably to investment cost . As a performance measure , ROI is used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments . In purely economic terms , it is one way of considering profits in relation to capital invested .

The 1995 CIA disinformation controversy arose when the Central Intelligence Agency revealed that between 1986 and 1994 , it had delivered intelligence reports to the U.S. government based on agent reporting from confirmed or suspected Soviet operatives . From 1985 to his arrest in February 1994 , CIA agent and KGB mole Aldrich Ames compromised Agency sources and operations in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , leading to the arrest of many CIA agents and the execution of at least ten of them . This allowed the KGB to replace the CIA agents with its own operatives or to force them to cooperate , and the double agents then funneled a mixture of disinformation and true material to U.S. intelligence . Although the CIA 's Soviet-East European ( SE ) and Central Eurasian Divisions knew or suspected the sources to be Soviet double agents , they nevertheless disseminated this `` feed '' material within the government . Some of these intelligence reports even reached Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush , as well as President-elect Bill Clinton .   The disclosure of the deception in 1995 , following investigations into the Ames case , led to a media stir and heavy congressional criticism . The Agency 's Inspector General , Frederick Hitz , identified 12 CIA personnel he deemed responsible for the lapse , including three former directors ; CIA Director John M. Deutch criticized seven of these employees , calling the affair `` a major intelligence failure '' . A damage assessment determined that the disinformation altered intelligence analyses of the Soviet ( and later Russian ) military towards the end of the Cold War , creating a false impression of Soviet strength ; however , initial charges that the faulty reports led to billions of dollars ' worth of Pentagon spending proved to be exaggerated . Regardless , the revelation further undermined the CIA 's credibility in the wake of the Ames case .

The knowledge divide is the gap in standards of living between those who can find , create , manage , process , and disseminate information or knowledge , and those who are impaired in this process . According to a 2005 UNESCO World Report , the rise in the 21st century of a global information society has resulted in the emergence of knowledge as a valuable resource , increasingly determining who has access to power and profit . The rapid dissemination of information on a potentially global scale as a result of new information media and the globally uneven ability to assimilate knowledge and information has resulted in potentially expanding gaps in knowledge between individuals and nations .

Lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 also known as LPA5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LPAR5 gene . LPA5 is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds the lipid signaling molecule lysophosphatidic acid ( LPA ) .

135th may refer to :   135th ( 2/1st South Western ) Brigade , formation of the Territorial Force of the British Army  135th ( Limerick ) Regiment of Foot , infantry regiment of the British Army , created and promptly disbanded in 1796  135th ( Middlesex ) Battalion , CEF , unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War  135th Aero Squadron or 22d Tactical Drone Squadron , inactive United States Air Force unit  135th Airlift Group , airlift unit located at Warfield Air National Guard Base in Middle River , Maryland  135th Airlift Squadron , one of two flying units of the Maryland Air National Guard  135th Delaware General Assembly , meeting of the legislative branch of the Delaware states government  135th Georgia General Assembly succeeded the 134th and served as the precedent for the 136th General Assembly in 1981  135th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment , infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War  135th Infantry Regiment ( United States ) , infantry regiment in the Army National Guard  135th Kentucky Derby or 2009 Kentucky Derby  135th meridian east , line of longitude across the Arctic Ocean , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , Australasia , the Indian Ocean , the Southern Ocean and Antarctica  135th meridian west , line of longitude across the Arctic Ocean , North America , the Pacific Ocean , the Southern Ocean and Antarctica  135th Ohio Infantry ( or 135th OVI ) was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War  135th Quartermaster Company or 87th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion ( United States )  135th Street ( IND Eighth Avenue Line ) , local station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway  135th Street ( IRT Lenox Avenue Line ) , station on the IRT Lenox Avenue Line of the New York City Subway  135th Street ( IRT Ninth Avenue Line ) , station on the demolished IRT Ninth Avenue Line  135th Street ( Manhattan ) , New York  135th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) , subordinate unit of the 167th Theater Sustainment Command and the Alabama Army National Guard  2d Battalion , 135th Aviation Regiment ( United States ) , Army helicopter battalion which deployed to Iraq  Connecticut 's 135th assembly district elects one member of the Connecticut House of Representatives  Pennsylvania 's 135th Representative District or Pennsylvania House of Representatives , District 135

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ( DLBCL or DLBL ) is a cancer of B cells , a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies . It is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma among adults , with an annual incidence of 7 -- 8 cases per 100,000 people per year . This cancer occurs primarily in older individuals , with a median age of diagnosis at approximately 70 years of age , though it can also occur in children and young adults in rare cases . DLBCL is an aggressive tumor which can arise in virtually any part of the body , and the first sign of this illness is typically the observation of a rapidly growing mass , sometimes associated with B symptoms -- fever , weight loss , and night sweats .   The causes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are not well understood . Usually DLBCL arises from normal B cells , but it can also represent a malignant transformation of other types of lymphoma or leukemia . An underlying immunodeficiency is a significant risk factor . Infection with Epstein -- Barr virus has also been found to contribute to the development of some subgroups of DLBCL .   Diagnosis of DLBCL is made by removing a portion of the tumor through a biopsy , and then examining this tissue using a microscope . Usually a hematopathologist makes this diagnosis . Several subtypes of DLBCL have been identified , each having a different clinical presentation and prognosis . However , the usual treatment for each of these is chemotherapy , often in combination with an antibody targeted at the tumor cells . Through these treatments , more than half of patients with DLBCL can be cured , and the overall five-year survival rate for older adults is around 58 % .

Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences .   Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum .   Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .

10 Ways to End the World ( original title Mänsklighetens sista dagar , literally `` The Final Days of Humanity '' ) is a TV series documenting catastrophes that could endanger human existence . The series is produced by Sveriges Utbildningsradio ( UR ) and was aired on Kunskapskanalen ( in English : The Knowledge Channel ) in December 2010 under the Swedish name Mänsklighetens sista dagar ( Last days of Man ) and on National Geographic and Arte in 2012 . The series was nominated for the Scandinavian TV award , Kristallen in 2011 .   In the form of a top ten list , a set of doomsday scenarios -- disasters that have the capacity to wipe out our species -- is examined scientifically . The first part deals with threats to humanity from nature 's violent forces . The second part deals with various threats that human society has created .


Question: However, this implies that a significant portion of the increase originates from alternative sources.

 Renewable Energy Sources' Contribution Shifts Power Dynamics

Renewable energy sources, comprising solar, wind, hydroelectric power, among others, increasingly contribute significantly to the world’s electricity generation mix. These sustainable alternatives offer clean energy through various technologies tailored to harness nature's elements efficiently. Solar photovoltaic panels convert sunlight into direct current electricity; meanwhile, wind turbines capture kinetic energy from air currents converting it into usable electrical output. Hydroelectric dams utilize flowing waters’ force generating substantial amounts when properly managed within ecosystems. Biomass facilities burn organic materials releasing stored chemical energies as heat powering steam engines producing rotational mechanical work transformed back again into electric form via generators. Geothermal plants tap into earth’s internal thermal gradients extracting geothermic fluids heated naturally deep underground circulating through closed loops cooling down afterward reinjected replenished reservoirs maintaining balance preventing depletion. Ocean wave/tidal stream devices extract motion contained vast expanses ocean surfaces transforming oscillations linear reciprocating motions suitable feeding grid networks. Each method possesses unique advantages disadvantages dependent geographical location resource availability infrastructure costs maintenance requirements scalability issues associated intermittency storage solutions required balancing supply demand fluctuations ensuring reliable continuous service provision consumers industries alike. Governments globally incentivize investment research development deployment renewable capacity targets set ambitious goals reduce dependence finite polluting fossil fuels mitigate anthropogenic climate change impacts safeguard planetary health future generations benefitting economically environmentally socially long term perspectives considered essential transitioning away carbon intensive paradigms embracing greener pathways forward.

10 ( ten -LSB- ˈtɛn -RSB- ) is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11 . Ten is the base of the decimal numeral system , by far the most common system of denoting numbers in both spoken and written language . The reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans have ten fingers ( digits ) .

A dietary supplement is intended to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities .   Supplements as generally understood include vitamins , minerals , fiber , fatty acids , or amino acids , among other substances . U.S. authorities define dietary supplements as foods , while elsewhere they may be classified as drugs or other products .   There are more than 50,000 dietary supplements available . More than half of the U.S. adult population ( 53 % -- 55 % ) consume dietary supplements with most common ones being multivitamins .   These products are not intended to prevent or treat any disease and in some circumstances are dangerous , according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health . For those who fail to consume a balanced diet , the agency says that certain supplements `` may have value . ''   Most supplements should be avoided , and usually people should not eat micronutrients except people with clearly shown deficiency . Those people should first consult a doctor . An exception is vitamin D , which is recommended in Nordic countries due to weak sunlight .

In double entry bookkeeping , debits and credits ( abbreviated Dr and Cr , respectively ) are entries made in account ledgers to record changes in value resulting from business transactions . Generally speaking , the source account for the transaction is credited ( that is , an entry is made on the right side of the account 's ledger ) and the destination account is debited ( that is , an entry is made on the left side ) . Total debits must equal total credits for each transaction ; individual transactions may require multiple debit and credit entries to record .   The difference between the total debits and total credits in a single account is the account 's balance . If debits exceed credits , the account has a debit balance ; if credits exceed debits , the account has a credit balance . For the company as a whole , the totals of debit balances and credit balances must be equal as shown in the trial balance report , otherwise an error has occurred .   Accountants use the trial balance to prepare financial statements ( such as the balance sheet and income statement ) which communicate information about the company 's financial activities in a generally accepted standard format .

Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .

Real estate is `` property consisting of land and the buildings on it , along with its natural resources such as crops , minerals or water ; immovable property of this nature ; an interest vested in this ( also ) an item of real property , ( more generally ) buildings or housing in general . Also : the business of real estate ; the profession of buying , selling , or renting land , buildings or housing . ''  It is a legal term used in jurisdictions whose legal system is derived from English common law , such as India , the United Kingdom , United States , Canada , Pakistan , Australia , and New Zealand .

16 ( sixteen ) is the natural number following 15 and preceding 17 . 16 is a composite number , and a square number , being 42 = 4 × 4 . It is the smallest number with exactly five divisors , its proper divisors being , , and .   In speech , the numbers 16 and 60 are often confused . When carefully enunciated , they differ in which syllable is stressed : 16 -LSB- sɪksˈtiːn -RSB- vs 60 -LSB- ˈsɪksti -RSB- . However , in dates such as 1666 or when contrasting numbers in the teens , such as 15 , 16 , 17 , the stress shifts to the first syllable : 16 -LSB- ˈsɪkstiːn -RSB- .   Sixteen is the fourth power of two . For this reason , 16 was used in weighing light objects in several cultures . The British have 16 ounces in one pound ; the Chinese used to have 16 liangs in one jin . In old days , weighing was done with a beam balance to make equal splits . It would be easier to split a heap of grains into sixteen equal parts through successive divisions than to split into ten parts . Chinese Taoists did finger computation on the trigrams and hexagrams by counting the finger tips and joints of the fingers with the tip of the thumb . Each hand can count up to 16 in such manner . The Chinese abacus uses two upper beads to represent the 5s and 5 lower beads to represent the 1s , the 7 beads can represent a hexadecimal digit from 0 to 15 in each column . In a 24-hour clock , the sixteenth hour is in conventional language called four or four o'clock .

Reverse engineering , also called back engineering , is the processes of extracting knowledge or design information from anything man-made and reproducing it or reproducing anything based on the extracted information . The process often involves disassembling something ( a mechanical device , electronic component , computer program , or biological , chemical , or organic matter ) and analyzing its components and workings in detail .   The reasons and goals for obtaining such information vary widely from everyday or socially beneficial actions , to criminal actions , depending upon the situation . Often no intellectual property rights are breached , such as when a person or business can not recollect how something was done , or what something does , and needs to reverse engineer it to work it out for themselves . Reverse engineering is also beneficial in crime prevention , where suspected malware is reverse engineered to understand what it does , and how to detect and remove it , and to allow computers and devices to work together ( `` interoperate '' ) and to allow saved files on obsolete systems to be used in newer systems . By contrast , reverse engineering can also be used to `` crack '' software and media to remove their copy protection , or to create a ( possibly improved ) copy or even a knockoff ; this is usually the goal of a competitor .   Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage . However , the reverse engineering process in itself is not concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way ; it is only an analysis in order to deduce design features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in their original production . In some cases , the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be a redocumentation of legacy systems . Even when the product reverse engineered is that of a competitor , the goal may not be to copy them , but to perform competitor analysis . Reverse engineering may also be used to create interoperable products ; despite some narrowly tailored US and EU legislation , the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for this purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades .


Question: However, this implies that a significant portion of the increase originates from alternative sources.

 Shifts Beyond Borders
The recent surge in global trade isn't solely attributed to traditional economic powers; emerging markets now significantly contribute to its expansion. Nations once considered peripheral players are increasingly asserting influence through robust export strategies and investment opportunities abroad. Economists observe that while established economies still dominate international commerce, new contenders' ascension reshapes dynamics, fostering greater interconnectivity among diverse regions. This phenomenon underscores how shifting paradigms can redefine conventional wisdom regarding wealth generation and distribution across continents.
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Depleted uranium ( DU ; also referred to in the past as Q-metal , depletalloy or D-38 ) is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope U-235 than natural uranium . Natural uranium contains about 0.72 % U-235 , while the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense contains 0.3 % U-235 or less . Uses of DU take advantage of its very high density of 19.1 g/cm3 ( 68.4 % denser than lead ) . The less radioactive and non-fissile uranium-238 constitutes the main component of depleted uranium .   Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft , radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy and industrial radiography equipment , and containers for transporting radioactive materials . Military uses include armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles .   Most depleted uranium arises as a by-product of the production of enriched uranium for use as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the manufacture of nuclear weapons . Enrichment processes generate uranium with a higher-than-natural concentration of lower-mass-number uranium isotopes ( in particular U-235 , which is the uranium isotope supporting the fission chain reaction ) with the bulk of the feed ending up as depleted uranium , in some cases with mass fractions of U-235 and U-234 less than a third of those in natural uranium . Since U-238 has a much longer half-life than the lighter isotopes , DU emits less alpha radiation than natural uranium . DU from nuclear reprocessing has different isotopic ratios from enrichment -- by-product DU , from which it can be distinguished by the presence of U-236 .   DU used in US munitions has 60 % of the radioactivity of natural uranium . Trace transuranics ( another indicator of the use of reprocessed material ) have been reported to be present in some US tank armor .   The use of DU in munitions is controversial because of concerns about potential long-term health effects . Normal functioning of the kidney , brain , liver , heart , and numerous other systems can be affected by exposure to uranium , a toxic metal . It is only weakly radioactive because of its long radioactive half-life ( 4.468 billion years for uranium-238 , 700 million years for uranium-235 ; or 1 part per million every and years , respectively ) . The biological half-life ( the average time it takes for the human body to eliminate half the amount in the body ) for uranium is about 15 days . The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced by impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites , leading to possible inhalation by human beings .   The actual level of acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also controversial . Several studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest the possibility of leukemogenic , genetic , reproductive , and neurological effects from chronic exposure . A 2005 epidemiology review concluded : `` In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU . ''

Deflagration ( Lat : de + flagrare , `` to burn down '' ) is subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer ; hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it . Most `` fires '' found in daily life , from flames to explosions , are deflagrations . Deflagration is different from detonation , which propagates supersonically through shock waves . This means that when a substance deflagrates , it burns extremely quickly instead of detonating . Black powder is an example of a substance that deflagrates ; when it is ignited , black powder burns extremely quickly ( so fast in fact that the burn is sometimes mistaken for a detonation ) .

Denatured alcohol , also called methylated spirits or denatured rectified spirit , is ethanol that has additives to make it poisonous , bad tasting , foul smelling or nauseating , to discourage recreational consumption . In some cases it is also dyed . Pyridine , methanol , or both can be added to make denatured alcohol poisonous , and denatonium can be added to make it bitter .   Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for alcohol burners and camping stoves . Because of the diversity of industrial uses for denatured alcohol , hundreds of additives and denaturing methods have been used . The main additive has traditionally been 10 % methanol , giving rise to the term `` methylated spirits '' . Other typical additives include isopropyl alcohol , acetone , methyl ethyl ketone , methyl isobutyl ketone , and denatonium .   Denaturing alcohol does not chemically alter the ethanol molecule . Rather , the ethanol is mixed with other chemicals to form an undrinkable solution . For many of these solutions , there is no practical way to separate the components .

In law , a reasonable person , reasonable man , or the man on the Clapham omnibus is a hypothetical person of legal fiction who is ultimately an anthropomorphic representation of the body care standards crafted by the courts and communicated through case law and jury instructions .   Strictly according to the fiction , it is misconceived for a party to seek evidence from actual people in order to establish how the reasonable man would have acted or what he would have foreseen . This person 's character and care conduct under any common set of facts , is decided through reasoning of good practice or policy -- or `` learned '' permitting there is a compelling consensus of public opinion -- by high courts .   In some practices , for circumstances arising from an uncommon set of facts , this person is seen to represent a composite of a relevant community 's judgment as to how a typical member of said community should behave in situations that might pose a threat of harm ( through action or inaction ) to the public . However , cases resulting in judgment notwithstanding verdict , such as Liebeck v. McDonald 's Restaurants , can be examples where a vetted jury 's composite judgment were deemed outside that of the actual fictional reasonable person , and thus overruled .   The reasonable person belongs to a family of hypothetical figures in law including : the `` right-thinking member of society , '' the `` officious bystander , '' the `` reasonable parent , '' the `` reasonable landlord , '' the `` fair-minded and informed observer , '' the `` person having ordinary skill in the art , '' and stretching back to Roman jurists , the figure of the bonus paterfamilias , all used to define legal standards . While there is a loose consensus in black letter law , there is no accepted technical definition . As with legal fiction in general , it is somewhat susceptible to ad hoc manipulation or transformation , and hence the `` reasonable person '' is an emergent concept of common law . The `` reasonable person '' is used as a tool to standardize , teach law students , or explain the law to a jury .   As a legal fiction , the `` reasonable person '' is not an average person or a typical person , leading to great difficulties in applying the concept in some criminal cases , especially in regards to the partial defence of provocation . The standard also holds that each person owes a duty to behave as a reasonable person would under the same or similar circumstances . While the specific circumstances of each case will require varying kinds of conduct and degrees of care , the reasonable person standard undergoes no variation itself . The `` reasonable person '' construct can be found applied in many areas of the law . The standard performs a crucial role in determining negligence in both criminal law -- that is , criminal negligence -- and tort law .   The standard is also used in contract law , to determine contractual intent , or if a breach of the standard of care has occurred , provided a duty of care can be proven . The intent of a party can be determined by examining the understanding of a reasonable person , after consideration is given to all relevant circumstances of the case including the negotiations , any practices the parties have established between themselves , usages and any subsequent conduct of the parties .   The standard does not exist independently of other circumstances within a case that could affect an individual 's judgment .

Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter . The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere . Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death . Animals , such as worms , also help decompose the organic materials . Organisms that do this are known as decomposers . Although no two organisms decompose in the same way , they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition . The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos , meaning tomb .   One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition ( biodegradation ) . The former means `` degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes , e.g. , hydrolysis . The latter means `` the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms '' , typically by microorganisms .

Decompression sickness ( DCS ; also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease ) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation . DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression ( i.e. , during ascent ) , but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson , flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude , and extravehicular activity from spacecraft . DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness .   Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago .   Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed . If DCS is suspected , it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .