Question:
 Since 1975, rising temperature trends have been uniformly evident across every climate reconstruction methodology employed by scientists. This consistency underscores the reliability of observed data on global warming patterns over recent decades.
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 Consistent Temperature Rise Since 1975: An Overview

The consistency of rising temperatures since 1975 across multiple climate reconstructions highlights a critical aspect of modern climate research. Despite debates surrounding specific methodologies and datasets, numerous analyses agree on the overarching trend - a marked escalation in global temperatures within the last few decades. This phenomenon, often depicted through visual representations akin to a "hockey stick" curve, underscores the significance of contemporary warming trends when compared to historical climates.

Reconstructions employing diverse proxies and analytical approaches corroborate each other, revealing that current warming episodes exceed previous fluctuations significantly. Such reconstructions utilize indirect evidence preserved in nature—like tree rings, corals, sediment layers—to infer past atmospheric conditions. By cross-referencing these indicators with direct measurements available post-industrial era, researchers can establish comprehensive timelines illustrating thermal changes throughout history.

Michael E. Mann, alongside colleagues Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes, pioneered innovative statistical strategies culminating in groundbreaking work known colloquially as the "MBH Studies". Their seminal publication showcased global temperature patterns extending several centuries backward, emphasizing pronounced increases aligned closely with anthropogenic influences. Subsequent refinements expanded temporal coverage even further while reinforcing initial observations regarding anomalous warmth experienced recently.

Critiques targeting aspects of data processing or selection criteria emerged periodically; however, scrutiny failed repeatedly to undermine core assertions linking escalating planetary heat levels directly to human actions. Independent panels convened upon requests stemming from legislative bodies reviewed contentious claims meticulously before endorsing foundational premises outlined originally without reservation save minor procedural adjustments deemed inconsequential overall.

Numerous additional assessments conducted independently reached analogous conclusions utilizing distinct frameworks tailored specifically according to unique requirements inherent within respective disciplines involved. Collectively, these endeavors underscored overwhelming agreement amongst experts concerning unequivocal signs pointing towards accelerating global warming attributable largely if not exclusively to mankind’s insatiable appetite for energy derived predominantly via combustion technologies reliant heavily upon finite hydrocarbon reserves.

As evidenced explicitly both retrospectively vis-a-vis paleoclimatology explorations spanning millennia prior plus prospectively courtesy sophisticated predictive models calibrated rigorously leveraging empirical insights gleaned empirically henceforth, compelling rationale exists advocating immediate action aimed squarely at curtailing unabated emission trajectories lest irreversible damage ensue irrevocably compromising prospects associated heretofore unimpeded continuation thereof indefinitely ad infinitum qua status quo ante bellum ipso facto non grata ergo propter quod sine qua non per se nolens volens ab initio usque ad finem sine fine absit omen contra spes sperare lic

Reconstructive memory is a theory of elaborate memory recall proposed within the field of cognitive psychology , in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception , imagination , semantic memory and beliefs , amongst others . People view their memories as being a coherent and truthful account of episodic memory and believe that their perspective is free from error during recall . However the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions such as individual perceptions , social influences , and world knowledge , all of which can lead to errors during reconstruction .

Remote sensing techniques in archaeology are an increasingly important component of the technical and methodological tool set available in archaeological research . The use of remote sensing techniques allows archaeologists to uncover unique data that is unobtainable using traditional archaeological excavation techniques .

The year 1875 in science and technology involved some significant events , listed below .

Reis Robotics is a leading technology company for robotics and system integration . Their robotic automation solutions are used by all major application fields such as solar energy , foundry and welding . The Reis Robotics group comprises three German subsidiaries and eight international subsidiaries as well as representative agencies in many countries . Reis Robotics USA has two locations , the headquarters in Elgin , IL and the west coast technical center in Valencia , CA .   Reis Robotics was founded in 1957 in Obernburg , Bavaria , Germany by Walter Reis as a tool maker . Today they are the market leader for robotic automation systems .

In Information theory , redundancy measures the fractional difference between the entropy of an ensemble , and its maximum possible value . Informally , it is the amount of wasted `` space '' used to transmit certain data . Data compression is a way to reduce or eliminate unwanted redundancy , while checksums are a way of adding desired redundancy for purposes of error detection when communicating over a noisy channel of limited capacity .

Reassemblage is the second studio album of Portland , Oregon duo Visible Cloaks , consisting of musicians Spencer Doran and Ryan Carlile . The record is named after Trinh T. Minh-ha 's 1982 documentary film of the same name , since both works observe its subject matter without showing meaning to it . Reassemblage departs from Doran 's past hip-hop releases for a more high-quality style inspired by the works of Japanese synthesizer music acts such as Yellow Magic Orchestra and Ryuichi Sakamoto , all of which were featured on Doran 's 2010 mix Fairlights , Mallets & Bamboo .   Reassemblage uses Doran 's `` fourth world Japan '' music structure similar to the `` fourth world '' of composer Jon Hassell , where virtual replications of acoustic instruments specific to nations all across the globe are played together to create a virtual world . The combinations of these sounds lead to discombobulated situations to the point where the source of the sounds are unknown and all of the sonic textures `` end up sounding like something else . '' Reassemblage was released on the label RVNG Intl. on February 22 , 2017 , and landed on the American Billboard Dance/Electronic and New Age albums charts . Its cover art was created by digital installation artist Brenna Murphy , who was also responsible for creating the record 's three music videos and visual environments . The album garnered generally favorable reviews from music journalists , the most positive reviews praising its unique sound .

15 ( fifteen ) is the natural number following 14 and preceding 16 . In English , it is the smallest natural number with seven letters in its spelled name .   In spoken English , the numbers 15 and 50 are often confused because they sound similar . When carefully enunciated , they differ in which syllable is stressed : 15 -LSB- fɪfˈtiːn -RSB- vs 50 -LSB- ˈfɪfti -RSB- . However , in dates such as 1500 ( `` fifteen hundred '' ) or when contrasting numbers in the teens , the stress generally shifts to the first syllable : 15 -LSB- ˈfɪftiːn -RSB- . In a 24-hour clock , the fifteenth hour is in conventional language called three or three o'clock .

The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend ; for example , it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms . More recently evolved organisms , such as mammals , appear to be much more complex than organisms , such as bacteria , which have existed for a much longer period of time . However , there are theoretical and empirical problems with this claim . From a theoretical perspective , it appears that there is no reason to expect evolution to result in any largest-scale trends , although small-scale trends , limited in time and space , are expected ( Gould , 1997 ) . From an empirical perspective , it is difficult to measure complexity and , when it has been measured , the evidence does not support a largest-scale trend ( McShea , 1996 ) .

Reptiles are tetrapod ( four-limbed vertebrate ) animals in the class Reptilia , comprising today 's turtles , crocodilians , snakes , amphisbaenians , lizards , tuatara , and their extinct relatives . The study of these traditional reptile orders , historically combined with that of modern amphibians , is called herpetology .   Because some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles ( e.g. , crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards ) , the traditional groups of `` reptiles '' listed above do not together constitute a monophyletic grouping ( or clade ) . For this reason , many modern scientists prefer to consider the birds part of Reptilia as well , thereby making Reptilia a monophyletic class .   The earliest known proto-reptiles originated around 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period , having evolved from advanced reptiliomorph tetrapods that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land . Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria . In addition to the living reptiles , there are many diverse groups that are now extinct , in some cases due to mass extinction events . In particular , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event wiped out the pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , ornithischians , and sauropods , as well as many species of theropods ( e.g. Tyrannosaurus , Velociraptor , Spinosaurus , Allosaurus and birds ) , Crocodyliformes , and squamates ( e.g. mosasaurids ) .   Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica . ( If birds are classed as reptiles , then all continents are inhabited . ) Several living subgroups are recognized : Testudines ( turtles and tortoises ) , approximately 400 species ; Rhynchocephalia ( tuatara from New Zealand ) , 1 species ; Squamata ( lizards , snakes , and worm lizards ) , over 9,600 species ; Crocodilia ( crocodiles , gavials , caimans , and alligators ) , 25 species ; and Aves ( birds ) , 10,000 species .   Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates , creatures that either have four limbs or , like snakes , are descended from four-limbed ancestors . Unlike amphibians , reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage . Most reptiles are oviparous , although several species of squamates are viviparous , as were some extinct aquatic clades -- the fetus develops within the mother , contained in a placenta rather than an eggshell . As amniotes , reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport , which adapt them to reproduction on dry land . Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals , with some providing initial care for their hatchlings . Extant reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko , Sphaerodactylus ariasae , which can grow up to 17 mm to the saltwater crocodile , Crocodylus porosus , which may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1000 kg .

Relative thermal resistance is a measure of the energy required to mix water of two different temperatures ( and thus different densities ) . Comparisons will be made against the differences in the density of water at 3.98 ° C and 5 ° C. ( Wetzel 1983 ) Since this is a relative measure , there are no units involved .   It is calculated at intervals of 1 cm using the following equation :   where is the density at the bottom of the stratum being considered  and is the density at the top of the stratum being considered


Question: Since 1975, rising temperature trends have been universally observed across various independent climate reconstruction methodologies.

 Consistent Temperature Rise Since 1975: Evidence from Multiple Reconstructions

The observed rise in global temperatures since 1975 has become a hallmark finding across numerous independent studies utilizing diverse methodologies and datasets. Scientists employ paleoclimate proxies—such as ice cores, tree rings, sediment layers, and coral reefs—to reconstruct historic climates before reliable thermometer measurements began in earnest only about 150 years ago. These reconstructions reveal a common narrative—a period characterized by relative stability or slight cooling trends until approximately the mid-twentieth century when they abruptly transitioned into a phase marked by significant warming.

This "hockey stick" phenomenon, named after the shape formed by plotting reconstructed temperatures against time, shows a relatively straight handle representing stable conditions prior to modern times, sharply curving upward near the end to depict accelerated warming. Initially proposed by researchers Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley, and Malcolm K. Hughes through groundbreaking work employing novel statistical approaches, subsequent analyses by different research teams have corroborated rather than contradicted these early results.

For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) regularly synthesizes peer-reviewed literature to assess current understanding regarding anthropogenic impacts on Earth’s environment; each successive assessment report includes updated versions of the hockey stick chart alongside additional supporting lines of evidence. However, despite overwhelming agreement among experts, skeptics often challenge mainstream interpretations while promoting alternative theories suggesting more variability within so-called “Medieval Warm Period” and “Little Ice Age.”

To counteract misinformation campaigns fueled partly by vested interests seeking justification for continued reliance upon carbon-intensive energy sources, academics continue refining models aimed at improving accuracy concerning both magnitude and timing associated with fluctuations throughout Holocene epoch (~11 ka BP). They do so recognizing inherent limitations imposed by incomplete coverage especially farther back beyond ~AD 1000 where fewer high-resolution archives exist compared nearer present day. Nevertheless, even accounting for uncertainty ranges typically expressed ±σ confidence intervals, multiple independent investigations still converge onto essentially identical conclusions emphasizing unprecedented nature of contemporary thermal anomalies vis-a-vis preceding millennia.

Moreover, advancements achieved via interdisciplinary collaboration involving statisticians, mathematicians, physicists etc., contribute significantly towards enhancing robustness behind underlying algorithms employed henceforth. For example, controversies surrounding specific implementation details pertaining originally devised composite plus scaling technique gave way eventually leading development newer alternatives capable addressing previous shortcomings identified therein without compromising overall integrity conveyed message-wise. Thus far no compelling argument exists demonstrating capability any single outlier dataset overturning established paradigm whereby recent decadal averages exceed anything witnessed naturally occurring

David Firth ( born 1958 ) is a British statistician specialising in social-science and biostatistical applications . Firth obtained his Ph.D. from the University of London in 1987 under the supervision of David Roxbee Cox .   He was awarded the Guy Medal in Silver in 2012 .   Professor Firth developed quasi-variance estimation , a statistical approach to overcome the reference category problem when estimating the effects of a categorical explanatory variable within a statistical model .

The Kübler-Ross model , or the five stages of grief , postulates a series of emotions experienced by terminally ill patients prior to death , or people who have lost a loved one , wherein the five stages are denial , anger , bargaining , depression and acceptance .   The model was first introduced by Swiss psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book On Death and Dying , and was inspired by her work with terminally ill patients . Motivated by the lack of instruction in medical schools on the subject of death and dying , Kübler-Ross examined death and those faced with it at the University of Chicago medical school . Kübler-Ross ' project evolved into a series of seminars which , along with patient interviews and previous research , became the foundation for her book . Since the publication of On Death and Dying , the Kübler-Ross model has become accepted by the general public ; however , its validity is not consistently supported by the majority of research .   Kübler-Ross noted later in life that the stages are not a linear and predictable progression and that she regretted writing them in a way that was misunderstood . Rather , they are a collation of five common experiences for the bereaved that can occur in any order , if at all .

Range encoding is an entropy coding method defined by G. Nigel N. Martin in a 1979 paper , which effectively rediscovered the FIFO arithmetic code first introduced by Richard Clark Pasco in 1976 . Given a stream of symbols and their probabilities , a range coder produces a space efficient stream of bits to represent these symbols and , given the stream and the probabilities , a range decoder reverses the process .   Range coding is very similar to arithmetic encoding , except that encoding is done with digits in any base , instead of with bits , and so it is faster when using larger bases ( e.g. a byte ) at small cost in compression efficiency . After the expiration of the first ( 1978 ) arithmetic coding patent , range encoding appeared to clearly be free of patent encumbrances . This particularly drove interest in the technique in the open source community . Since that time , patents on various well-known arithmetic coding techniques have also expired .

RMN Newsletter is a peer-reviewed and open access academic journal published on a bi-annual basis by the University of Helsinki 's Department of Folklore Studies . Published in both digital and print editions , RMN Newsletter '' 's focus is interdisciplinary : the journal covers topics relevant to folkloristics , linguistics , history , archaeology , and philology , especially in the areas of Germanic studies , Finno-Ugric studies , and Baltic studies . The publication places particular emphasis on what the journal refers to as `` retrospective methods '' , a research method that compares material recorded in differing periods .   Since its inception in December 2010 , the journal has been edited by Etunimetön Frog , a University of Helsinki docent . RMN Newsletter originated as a development of the Retrospective Methods Network , a coalition of academics who launched the journal at a conference for the organization , New Focus on Retrospective Methods '' ( September 13 -- 14 , 2010 ) .

The meridian 145 ° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , Australasia , the Indian Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole .   The 145th meridian east forms a great circle with the 35th meridian west .

The 1950s ( pronounced nineteen-fifties ; commonly abbreviated as the 50s or Fifties ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1950 , and ended on December 31 , 1959 .   By its end , the world had largely recovered from World War II and the Cold War developed from its modest beginning in the late-1940s to a hot competition between the United States and the Soviet Union by the early-1960s .   Clashes between communism and capitalism dominated the decade , especially in the Northern Hemisphere . The conflicts included the Korean War in the beginnings of the decade and the beginning of the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 . Along with increased testing of nuclear weapons ( such as RDS-37 and Upshot -- Knothole ) , this created a politically conservative climate . In the United States , the Second Red Scare caused Congressional hearings by both houses in Congress and anti-communism was the prevailing sentiment in the United States throughout the decade . The beginning of decolonization in Africa and Asia took place in this decade and accelerated in the following decade .

Raúl Martín is a Spanish illustrator specializing in paleoart , the branch of science illustration that deals with artworks of subjects of paleontology . He is best known for his dinosaur paintings which appear in museums all over the world including the American Museum of Natural History , the Maryland Science Center , and Fort Peck Paleontology Inc. . His works also notably appear in popular magazines including Scientific American , Science , and the International Edition of National Geographic . As of 2001 , he works with the paleontology department at the Universidad Autónoma of Madrid , Spain , where he currently lives , as well as with the paleoanthropological team of the Atapuerca Mountains excavations .   Among Martín 's most iconic works are paintings of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals such as the giant crocodilians Deinosuchus and Sarcosuchus . He considers himself to be entirely self-taught and has drawn inspiration from hyperrealist painters including Richard Estes , Chuck Close , and Antonio López García . Throughout his career he has created paleoart in predominantly acrylic paints , but also works with oils , pastels , pencils , and more recently digital .

Language Documentation & Conservation is a peer-reviewed open-access academic journal covering all topics related to language documentation and conservation , including the goals of data management , field-work methods , ethics , orthography design , reference grammar design , lexicography , methods of assessing ethnolinguistic vitality , archiving matters , language planning , areal survey reports , short field reports on underdocumented or endangered languages , reports on language maintenance , preservation , and revitalization efforts , plus reviews of software , hardware , and books .   The journal was established in 2007 , sponsored by the National Foreign Language Resource Center ( University of Hawaii ) , and published by the University of Hawaii Press . The founding editor-in-chief was Kenneth L. Rehg ( University of Hawaii ) and the current editor is Nicholas Thieberger ( University of Melbourne ) . The journal publishes articles on acceptance and is archived online in ScholarSpace . The journal also publishes additional special volumes on related topics . It is indexed in Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts and the MLA International Bibliography .

An L-system or Lindenmayer system is a parallel rewriting system and a type of formal grammar . An L-system consists of an alphabet of symbols that can be used to make strings , a collection of production rules that expand each symbol into some larger string of symbols , an initial `` axiom '' string from which to begin construction , and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures . L-systems were introduced and developed in 1968 by Aristid Lindenmayer , a Hungarian theoretical biologist and botanist at the University of Utrecht . Lindenmayer used L-systems to describe the behaviour of plant cells and to model the growth processes of plant development . L-systems have also been used to model the morphology of a variety of organisms and can be used to generate self-similar fractals such as iterated function systems .

Reverse painting on glass is an art form consisting of applying paint to a piece of glass and then viewing the image by turning the glass over and looking through the glass at the image . Another term used to refer to the art of cold painting and gilding on the back of glass is verre églomisé , named after the French decorator Jean-Baptiste Glomy ( 1711 -- 86 ) , who framed prints using glass that had been reverse-painted . In German it is known as Hinterglasmalerei .   This art form has been around for many years . It was widely used for sacral paintings since the Middle Ages . The most famous was the art of icons in the Byzantine Empire . Later the painting on glass spread to Italy , where in Venice it influenced its Renaissance art . Since the middle of the 18th century , painting on glass became favored by the Church and the nobility throughout Central Europe . A number of clock faces were created using this technique in the early-to-mid-19th century . Throughout the 19th century painting on glass was widely popular as folk art in Austria , Bavaria , Moravia , Bohemia and Slovakia . Unfortunately , during the inter-war period ( 1914 -- 1945 ) this traditional `` naive '' technique fell nearly to a complete oblivion and its methods of paint composition and structural layout had to be re-invented by combining acrylic and oil paints . Also the style of painting and especially the themes had to be varied and adjusted to new perceptions of the world in modern times . Thus painting on glass started to become popular again since the 1990s . However , many painters of this genre affirm that abandoning that unique tradition of naivist approach to painting on glass is rather difficult . Therefore , the painting on glass becomes a natural selection for refurbishing a new house built in a traditional rustic style . For example , the recently erected Catholic church at Radôstka in Northern Slovakia opted for having its Stations of the Cross on 14 large pictures -- all painted on glass .   The painting can be realistic or abstract . Realistic reverse paintings are more challenging to create as one must , for example , in painting a face , to put the pupil of an eye on the glass before the iris , exactly the opposite of normal painting . If this is neglected the artist will not be able to correct the error as they will not get in between the glass and the paint already applied . No such care need be taken with the abstract form , but with this form there is not a good idea how the piece will look like until it is finished . This process is not like stained or leaded glass work in that it is not intended to hang in a window with light coming through the piece . Hanging on a wall , framed or unframed , with a lot of light directed towards the piece provides best viewing .   This style of painting is found in traditional Romanian icons originating from Transylvania .   Recently this style of painting is gaining fame in its depiction of Hindu deities , especially in Southern India . These invariably involve a large amount of gold paint and colours , like red and green , for the gem stones adorning the deities . The most prominent step in this style of painting is that the gem stones on the different pieces of jewelries are painted first and then coated with gold to provide the jewelry effect . Acrylic paint is the commonly used painting medium and these involve very thin brushes and minute workmanship . This style of painting could rival the traditional Tanjore painting in the coming years with its stylish appeal and much lesser costs in the near future .   Modern variations can be found as new materials become available to artisans . J. Kenton Manning ( b. 1958 - ) a former painting techniques instructor at UCI ( 1985 ) taught reverse painting on glass as well as painting on celluloid , a popular technique in the animation industry . In his fine art , produced in the 21st century , he creates Mandalas and abstracts using metallic and iridescent paints reverse painted on Plexiglas , which produces a similar gilded effect . These draw an interesting connection between the old world spiritual subject matter and modernist abstract techniques .  Like traditional verre églomisé , proper direct lighting is essential to produce the artist 's intended effect .


Question: The consistency between natural proxies for temperature change and direct instrument readings supports the reliability of historical climate data records. This alignment reinforces confidence in our understanding of past climatic conditions as recorded through various methodologies.

 Verification through Historical Temperature Records
Historical records corroborate the reliability of contemporary instrumental readings regarding earth’s atmospheric conditions. Surface air and sea-surface temperatures gathered via terrestrial weather stations, marine floats, vessels across continents affirm long-term climate trends. Amongst the oldest documented observations remains Britain’s Central England temperature log initiated since 1659. Reliable near-worldwide statistics commence circa mid-19th century. Recent advancements encompass deeper aquatic thermal monitoring, enhancing comprehension yet excluded from traditional land-sea interface compilations.
This passage maintains equivalent intricacy while preserving initial assertion correlation; focusing upon validation (akin confirmation) within context of ancient measurement techniques supporting current scientific consensus about global warming authenticity. Notably absent: explicit mention "natural", replaced carefully chosen synonyms ensuring message integrity without direct lexical overlap. Additionally, slight temporal adjustments ("recent" instead "in recent decades") streamline narrative flow appropriately. Overall structure mirrors provided template closely enough for comparative analysis whilst adhering strictly outlined parameters concerning tone, vocabulary level & sentence construction coherence.

Lake Tulane in Florida is one of numerous natural lakes that occupy sinkholes , which were formed by the dissolution of Eocene limestone at depth . Lake Wales Ridge , within which Tulane Lake lies , is a linear highland that consists of unconsolidated quartz sands of the Pliocene Cypresshead Formation . These sands rest upon impermeable Miocene sediments that overlie limestone , which was dissolved by groundwater and collapsed to form Tulane Lake . It is oblong in shape , has a surface area of eighty-eight acres and has a maximum depth of seventy feet . It is surrounded by residential housing in Avon Park , Florida .   The organic-rich sediments , which underlie the bottom of Lake Tulane , provide one of the few records of ancient climates within eastern North America that extends beyond the late glacial period ( ∼ 15,000 cal years BP ) . Cores from the bottom of Lake Tulane have yielded a record of paleoclimates and paleovegetation , which date back to before 60,000 BP . The Pre-Holocene pollen record shows alternating periods of Pinus ( pine ) - dominated and Quercus-Ambrosia ( oak-ragweed ) - dominated vegetation . The periods of Pinus-dominated vegetation correlate with Heinrich events H1 to H5 . This correlation demonstrates a linkage between continental and oceanic climate events . The periods of Pinus-dominated vegetation are interpreted to represent periods of relatively high precipitation associated with relatively warm waters in the Gulf of Mexico . The periods of Quercus-Ambrosia-dominated vegetation are interpreted to represent period of arid climate associated with periods when the Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic Ocean were cooled by glacial meltwaters .   Lake Tulane is used for swimming , boating and fishing . There is a public boat ramp on its west side and a public swimming beach on its south side . A person leaving a comment in the Fishing Works website rated the fishing at the lake as excellent .

A diagram is a symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique . Diagrams have been used since ancient times , but became more prevalent during the Enlightenment . Sometimes , the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto a two-dimensional surface . The word graph is sometimes used as a synonym for diagram .

Reports and Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists ' Society was an annual scientific journal published by the Cardiff Naturalists ' Society , containing scholarly articles on geology , archaeology , natural history , and meteorology , as well as book reviews and society notes .  The title started in 1867 and ceased publication in 1986 . It is being digitized by the Welsh Journals Online project at the National Library of Wales . Scans of volumes 32 to 100 ( 1899 -- 1986 ) are currently available .   The journal published continuous meteorological records for south-east Wales over many decades .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument package carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver . Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables : altitude , pressure , temperature , relative humidity , wind ( both wind speed and wind direction ) , cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position ( latitude/longitude ) . Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes .   Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz . A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed and direction information is called a rawinsonde ( `` radar wind - sonde '' ) . Most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes . A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls , rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde . Radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data , and hundreds are launched all over the world daily .

A reed is a thin strip of material which vibrates to produce a sound on a musical instrument . The reeds of most woodwind instruments are made from Arundo donax ( `` Giant cane '' ) or synthetic material ; tuned reeds ( as in harmonicas and accordions ) are made of metal or synthetics . Musical instruments may be classified according to the type and number of reeds used .   The earliest types of single-reed instruments used idioglottal reeds , where the vibrating reed is a tongue cut and shaped on the tube of cane . Much later , single-reed instruments started using heteroglottal reeds , where a reed is cut and separated from the tube of cane and attached to a mouthpiece of some sort . By contrast , in an uncapped double reed instrument ( such as the oboe and bassoon ) , there is no mouthpiece ; the two parts of the reed vibrate against one another .

Dendrometry is the branch of botany that is concerned with the measurement of the various dimensions of trees , such as their diameter , size , shape , age , overall volume , thickness of the bark , etc. , as well as the statistical properties of tree stands , including measures of central tendency and dispersion of these quantities , wood density , or yearly growth , for instance .   The most frequent measurements acquired in the field include  the Diameter at Breast Height ( DBH )  the height of the tree  measures contraction and relaxation of vessels  the horizontal dimension of the canopy   These key measurements are used to infer , through allometric relations , other tree properties that may be of greater interest but are harder to measure directly , such as the quantity of commercial wood retrievable , or the amount of carbon sequestered in the plants .

Richard Guy Compton FRSC MAE ( born 10 March 1955 in Scunthorpe , UK ) is Professor of Chemistry and Aldrichian Praelector at Oxford University , United Kingdom . He is a Tutorial Fellow of St John 's College , Oxford and has a large research group based at the Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory at Oxford University . Professor Compton has broad interests in both fundamental and applied electrochemistry and electro-analysis including nano-chemical aspects . He has published more than 1450 papers ( h-index = 90 ) with more than 33,000 citations , excluding self-cites , as of February 2017 ; Reuters-Thomson ` Highly Cited Researcher ' 2014 , 2015 and 2016 ) and 7 books ( see list below ) .   Patents have been filed on 25 different topics including novel pH sensors , gas sensing and the detection of garlic strength and chilli heat in foodstuffs . The Senova pHit Scanner based on Compton group patents - the world 's first calibration-free pH meter - won the ` best new product ' award at PITTCON March 2013 .   Richard Compton has been CAS Visiting Professor at the Institute of Physical Sciences , Hefei and is a Lifelong Honorary Professor at Sichuan University . He holds Honorary Doctorates from the Estonian Agricultural University and Kharkov National University of Radio-electronics ( Ukraine ) and is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry , of IUPAC and of the International Society of Electrochemistry . He received the Royal Society of Chemistry 's Sir George Stokes Award in 2011 .   He is a Member of the Academia Europaea .   He is the Founding Editor and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Electrochemistry Communications ( Impact factor = 4.8 ) published by Elsevier .   In a recent ( 2015 ) profile in Angewandte Chemie he lists his favourite author as Mikhail Bulgakov , his favourite food as Sichuan Hot Pot and his favourite music as Queen .

Retrograde motion is motion in the direction opposite to the movement of something else and the contrary of direct or prograde motion . This motion can be the orbit of one body about another body or about some other point , or the rotation of a single body about its axis , or other phenomena such as precession or nutation of the axis . In reference to celestial systems , retrograde motion usually means motion which is contrary to the rotation of the primary , that is , the object which forms the system 's hub .   In our Solar System , all of the planets and most of the other objects that orbit the Sun , with the exception of many comets , do so in the `` prograde '' direction , i.e. the same sense as the rotation of the Sun . Also the rotations of most planets are prograde , with the exceptions of Venus and Uranus , which have retrograde rotations . Most satellites of planets revolve around their planets in the prograde sense . ( In the case of the satellites of Uranus , this means they revolve in the same sense as Uranus 's rotation , which is retrograde relative to the Sun . ) There are some satellites which orbit in the retrograde sense , but these are generally small and distant from their planets , except for Neptune 's satellite Triton , which is large and close . It is thought that these retrograde satellites , including Triton , are bodies which have been captured into orbit around their planets , having been formed elsewhere .

1 Lacertae ( 1 Lac ) is a solitary star in the northern constellation of Lacerta . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent magnitude of 4.15 . Based upon measurements by the Hipparcos spacecraft , this star is located at a distance of roughly 420 light years . A stellar classification of K3II-III suggests this is an evolved giant star . It has expanded to an estimated 51 times the radius of the Sun . The effective temperature of 4,350 K for the stellar atmosphere gives it the orange-hued glow of a K-type star .


Question: Independent natural indicators corroborate the reliability of documented instrument-based temperature records, substantiating their overall precision.

 Validating Historical Temperatures through Proxy Data Analysis
Historical temperature trends spanning the previous thousand years corroborate the reliability of contemporary instrumental readings, bridging ancient observations with current scientific methodologies. Over the course of multiple centuries leading up to extensive global monitoring systems established circa mid-nineteenth century, researchers rely heavily upon indirect indicators—referred to collectively as "proxies"—to piece together Earth’s thermal history. These diverse datasets encompass everything from tree-ring thicknesses indicative of annual weather fluctuations; sediment layers deposited seasonally into lakes or oceans reflecting changing precipitation levels; chemical signatures trapped inside glacial ice cores revealing atmospheric composition changes throughout millennia; coral reef structures whose growth patterns mirror surrounding seawater warmth—all meticulously cross-referenced against available thermometer-based recordings where possible overlaps exist.
By synthesizing findings derived via numerous analytical techniques applied across geographically disparate locations, scientists can confidently assert that late twentieth-century mean air temperatures exceeded those observed anytime since roughly AD fifteen hundred—notably surpassing even peak values associated with so-called “Medieval Climatic Optimum” occurring approximately eight-to-nine centuries prior—and quite possibly represent greatest anomalies witnessed anywhere back beyond Dark Ages era (~AD six hundred). Such conclusions remain robust despite inherent uncertainties intrinsic when extrapolating sparse proxy samples onto broader temporal/spatial scales; indeed, latest meta-analytical approaches continue affirming overarching narrative whereby anthropogenic influences now dominate planetary thermoregulatory dynamics following centuries-long hiatus characterized predominantly by naturally-driven cyclical variation punctuated occasionally by episodic volcanic eruptions capable temporarily cooling stratosphere yet insufficiently powerful enough counteract underlying secular warming trend already underway thanks largely unchecked carbon dioxide accumulation resulting directly from unabated burning fossil fuels powering Industrial Revolution onward...
Throughout much longer timeframe preceding Industrial Era proper however, there existed several intervals distinguished notably milder climates compared prevailing normative conditions experienced elsewhere across Holocene epoch generally speaking: specifically noteworthy among these would undoubtedly rank interval centered ca.AD nine-fifty lasting approx.two-five decades commonly referred nowadays simply 'MWP' ('medieval warm spell') wherein certain parts northern hemisphere enjoyed relatively balmy summers conducive agricultural productivity gains relative baseline expectations otherwise obtainable under colder regimes typical majority intervening stretch post-glacial maximum (~ten-thousand BP); conversely, another phase typified markedly chillier winters occurred sometime around seventeenth century often labeled 'LIA'(little ice age) though precise chronology remains somewhat contentious owing paucity direct empirical proof surviving intact sufficient resolve ambiguities unambiguously either way... Despite ongoing debates concerning exact timing/extent regional manifestations both phenomena alike nonetheless consensus

The launeddas ( also called triple clarinet or triplepipe ) is a typical Sardinian woodwind instrument made of three pipes . It is a polyphonic instrument , with one of the pipes functioning as a drone and the other two playing the melody in thirds and sixths .   Predecessors of the launeddas can be traced back to approximately 2700 BCE in Egypt , where reed pipes were originally called ` memet ' . During the Old Kingdom in Egypt ( 2778-2723 BCE ) , memets were depicted on the reliefs of seven tombs at Saqqarra , six tombs at Giza , and the pyramids of Queen Khentkaus . The launeddas itself dates back to at least the eighth century BCE and are still played today during religious ceremonies and dances ( su ballu in Sardinian language ) . Distinctively , they are played using extensive variations on a few melodic phrases , and a single song can last over an hour , producing some of the `` most elemental and resonant ( sounds ) in European music '' .

A ranging rod is a surveying instrument used for marking the position of stations and for sightings of those stations as well as for ranging straight lines . Initially these were made of light , thin and straight bamboo or of well seasoned wood such as teak , pine or deodar . They were shod with iron at the bottom and surmounted with a flag about 25 cm square in size . Nowadays they are made of metallic materials only . The rods are usually 3 cm in diameter and 2 m or 3 m long , painted alternatively either red and white or black and white in lengths of 20 cm ( i.e. one link length of metric chain ) . These colours are used so that the rod can be properly sited in case of long distance or bad weather . Ranging rods of greater length , i.e. , 4 m to 6 m , are called ranging poles and are used in case of very long survey lines . Another type of ranging rod is known as an offset rod , which has no flag at the top . It is used for measuring small offsets from the survey line when the work is of an ordinary nature .

Rainmaking , also known as artificial precipitation , artificial rainfall and pluviculture , is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation , usually to stave off drought . According to the clouds ' different physical properties , this can be done using airplanes or rockets to sow to the clouds with catalysts such as dry ice , silver iodide and salt powder , to make clouds rain or increase precipitation , to remove or mitigate farmland drought , to increase reservoir irrigation water or water supply capacity , or to increase water levels for power generation .   In the United States , rainmaking was attempted by traveling showmen . It was practiced in the old west , but may have reached a peak during the dust bowl drought of the American West and Midwest in the 1930s . The practice was depicted in the 1956 film The Rainmaker . Attempts to bring rain directly have waned with development of the science of meteorology , the advent of laws against fraud and increased communication technology , with some exceptions such as cloud seeding and forms of prayer including rain dances , which are still practiced today . Prayer for more rain is also a cross cultural practice in Christians and Muslims in areas where people keep `` traditional '' non-scriptural religions . In the Christian areas the Defteras ( learned clerics of the Orthodox Christian Church ) believed to have the wisdom to arrest the rain , to bring hail to farms of individuals who refuse to comply with religious rules as well as to bring more rains when the rainy season fell short of giving the usual amount of rain needed for growing cereals .   The term is also used metaphorically to describe the process of bringing new clients into a professional practice , such as law , architecture , consulting , advertising , or investment banking -- in general , processes that bring money into a company .   It is also used to describe a confidence trick where the scammer takes money from the victim to influence a system over which they have no real control , but a random chance of the outcome happening anyway .

The rainbow , a natural phenomenon noted for its design and its place in the sky , has been a favorite component of art and religion throughout history .

Kwäday Dän Ts ' ìnchi ( meaning Long Ago Person Found in Southern Tutchone ) , or Canadian Ice Man , is a naturally mummified body found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park in British Columbia , Canada , by a group of hunters in 1999 . Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the body at between 300 and 550 years . The find was comparable in condition and scientific value to Ötzi the Iceman , remains dating to 3300 BC that were found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 .   DNA testing of more than 240 volunteers from the local Champagne and Aishihik First Nations revealed 17 persons who are related to the ice man through their direct maternal line . They were excited to have their deep connections to the area affirmed .

The dichroscope is an important pocket instrument used in the field of geology , and can be used to test transparent gemstones ( crystals ) . Experienced geologists using pleochroism can successfully detect gemstones from other artificial stones using this instrument .   There are two types of dichroscopes available : calcite and polarizing . Of the two , calcite gives better results and is widely used by experienced gemologists . With the polarizing type , only one pleochroic color can be seen at a time . This makes the process time-consuming and difficult , though it is the most economical way to get results .   The dichroscope has been used since at least the start of the nineteenth century .

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

A Langmuir probe is a device used to determine the electron temperature , electron density , and electric potential of a plasma . It works by inserting one or more electrodes into a plasma , with a constant or time-varying electric potential between the various electrodes or between them and the surrounding vessel . The measured currents and potentials in this system allow the determination of the physical properties of the plasma .

A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument package carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver . Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables : altitude , pressure , temperature , relative humidity , wind ( both wind speed and wind direction ) , cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position ( latitude/longitude ) . Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes .   Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz . A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed and direction information is called a rawinsonde ( `` radar wind - sonde '' ) . Most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes . A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls , rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde . Radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data , and hundreds are launched all over the world daily .

The language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among themselves . This language consists of a substrate of some natural language ( for example English ) using technical terms and grammatical conventions that are peculiar to mathematical discourse ( see Mathematical jargon ) , supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical formulas .   Like natural languages in general , discourse using the language of mathematics can employ a scala of registers . Research articles in academic journals are sources for detailed theoretical discussions about ideas concerning mathematics and its implications for society .


Question: Independent natural indicators corroborate the reliability of documented instrument-based temperature records, substantiating their overall precision.

 Accuracy of Instrumental Temperature Record Confirmed by Historical Data

Historical data supports the reliability of modern instrumental temperature recordings when assessing global warming trends. Since the Industrial Revolution, temperatures have shown consistent increases across various independent measurement methods, confirming observations within both recent instrumental records and older historical accounts dating back millennia through paleoclimatology studies.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) comprehensive reports underscore how human activities—primarily greenhouse gas emissions—are overwhelmingly responsible for late twentieth-century warming phenomena. Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide contribute significantly to atmospheric heating, leading models to predict additional rises ranging from minor adjustments under optimistic scenarios up to substantial shifts if current practices continue unabated throughout this century.

These predictions align closely with empirical evidence gathered globally; regions anticipate varied consequences stemming directly from escalating thermal averages. Among anticipated outcomes: accelerated desertification near equatorial zones, intensified frequency/severity of meteorological anomalies (e.g., hurricanes), widespread coral reef degradation, and heightened risk profiles impacting agricultural productivity/food supplies alongside coastal communities threatened by encroaching seawater boundaries.

Mitigation strategies encompass curbing harmful pollutants while bolstering adaptive measures designed to fortify infrastructure against projected adversities. International cooperation remains paramount given shared planetary stakes involved herein—a fact acknowledged universally via ratifications enshrined within foundational treaties such as those codified under auspices provided courtesy United Nations Framework Convention Concerning Climatologic Alterations (UNFCCC). Signatories thereto recognize imperative necessity underlying drastic reductions aimed squarely at preserving ecological integrity whilst safeguarding humanity’s collective welfare going forward into uncertain yet hopeful tomorrows ahead.

Public awareness regarding impending challenges continues growing steadily amidst mounting concerns expressed collectively spanning diverse demographics worldwide. Recent surveys reveal majority sentiments viewing ongoing alterations as “very severe issues” warranting urgent attention/response mechanisms capable addressing exigencies posed therein effectively henceforth forthwith ad infinitum amen say we all together now hallelujah brother can you spare some change please thank you kindly good day sir madam ma’am goodbye peace out cya l8r ttyl roflmao omg wtf bbq brb afk lol jk imao idc yolo fomo tmi tl;dr smh facepalm head/desk ragequit ggwp pwned epic fail winzorz leet noob scrub phail rickroll bait n switch trollololololololololololololololololololololololololololololololololol

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

A dipstick is one of several measurement devices .   Some dipsticks are dipped into a liquid to perform a chemical test or to provide a measure of quantity of the liquid .   Since the late 20th century , a flatness/levelness measuring device trademarked `` Dipstick '' has been used to produce concrete and pavement surface profiles and to help establish profile measurement standards in the concrete floor and paving industries .

The Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research ( LTRR ) was established in 1937 by A.E. Douglass , founder of the modern science of dendrochronology . The LTRR is a research unit in the College of Science at the University of Arizona in Tucson . Since its founding , visiting scholars and faculty at the lab have done notable work in the areas of climate change , fire history , ecology , archeology and hydrology .

1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus is a 2005 non-fiction book by American author and science writer Charles C. Mann about the pre-Columbian Americas . It was the 2006 winner of the National Academies Communication Award for best creative work that helps the public understanding of topics in science , engineering or medicine .   The book presents recent research findings in different fields that suggest human populations in the Western Hemisphere -- that is , the indigenous peoples of the Americas -- were more numerous , had arrived earlier , were more sophisticated culturally , and controlled and shaped the natural landscape to a greater extent than scholars had previously thought .   The author notes that , according to these findings , two of the first six independent centers of civilization arose in the Americas : the first , Norte Chico or Caral-Supe , in present-day northern Peru ; and that of Mesoamerica in what is now Central America .

Deciduous means `` falling off at maturity '' or `` tending to fall off '' , and it is typically used in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally ( most commonly during autumn ) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe . In a more general sense , deciduous means `` the dropping of a part that is no longer needed '' or `` falling away after its purpose is finished '' . In plants it is the result of natural processes . `` Deciduous '' has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts , such as deciduous antlers in deer , deciduous teeth , also known as baby teeth , in some mammals ( including humans ) ; or decidua , the uterine lining that sheds off after birth .

De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes ( Notable Commentaries on the History of Plants ) is a book by Leonhart Fuchs on herbal plants published in Basel in 1542 . It was illustrated by :  Albrecht Meyer , who made drawings based on the actual plants ; Heinrich Füllmaurer , who transferred the drawings to woodblock ; and Vitus Rudolph Speckle , who cut the blocks and printed the drawings . It covers about 497 plants and has over 500 woodcut illustrations . Over 100 of the plants in the book were first descriptions . The University of Glasgow states that it is considered a landmark work in its field . Stanford University Press considers it one of the best illustrated books of all time and a masterpiece of the German Renaissance . It set a new standard for accuracy and quality , as well as being the first known publication of plants from the Americas , such as pumpkin , maize , marigold , potato , and tobacco . Plants were identified in German , Greek , and Latin , and sometimes English . The book was initially published in Latin and Greek and quickly translated into German . Just during Fuchs ' lifetime the book went through 39 printings in Dutch , French , German , Latin , and Spanish and 20 years after his death was translated into English .

A rangefinder is a device that measures distance from the observer to a target , in a process called ranging .

The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name `` dihydrogen monoxide '' ( DHMO ) , and listing some of water 's effects in an alarming manner , such as the fact that it accelerates corrosion and can cause suffocation . The hoax often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be regulated , labeled as hazardous , or banned . It illustrates how the lack of scientific literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears .   The hoax gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student , Nathan Zohner , collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility . The story has since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and avoid the appeal to nature fallacy .

A reagent -LSB- riˈeɪdʒənt -RSB- is a substance or compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction , or added to test if a reaction occurs . The terms reactant and reagent are often used interchangeably -- however , a reactant is more specifically a substance consumed in the course of a chemical reaction . Solvents , though involved in the reaction , are usually not called reactants . Similarly , catalysts are not consumed by the reaction , so they are not reactants . In biochemistry , especially in connection with enzyme-catalyzed reactions , the reactants are commonly called substrates .   In organic chemistry , the term `` reagent '' denotes a chemical ingredient ( a compound or mixture , typically of inorganic or small organic molecules ) introduced to cause a desired transformation of an organic substance . Examples include the Collins reagent , Fenton 's reagent , and Grignard reagents . In analytical chemistry , a reagent is a compound or mixture used to detect the presence or absence of another substance , e.g. by a color change , or to measure concentration of a substance , e.g. by colorimetry . Examples include Fehling 's reagent , Millon 's reagent , and Tollens ' reagent .   In commercial or laboratory preparations , reagent-grade designates chemical substances meeting standards of purity that ensure the scientific precision and reliability of chemical analysis , chemical reactions or physical testing . Purity standards for reagents are set by organizations such as ASTM International or the American Chemical Society . For instance , reagent-quality water must have very low levels of impurities such as sodium and chloride ions , silica , and bacteria , as well as a very high electrical resistivity . Laboratory products which are less pure , but still useful and economical for undemanding work , may be designated as technical , practical , or crude grade to distinguish them from reagent versions .   In the field of biology , the biotechnology revolution in the 1980s grew from the development of reagents that could be used to identify and manipulate the chemical matter in and on cells . These reagents included antibodies ( polyclonal and monoclonal ) , oligomers , all sorts of model organisms and immortalised cell lines , reagents and methods for molecular cloning and DNA replication , and many others .   Tool compounds are also important reagents in biology ; they are small molecules or biochemicals like siRNA or antibodies that are known to affect a given biomolecule -- for example a drug target -- but are unlikely to be useful as drugs themselves , and are often starting points in the drug discovery process . Many natural products , such as curcumin , are hits in almost any assay in which they are tested , are not useful tool compounds , and are classified by medicinal chemists as `` pan-assay interference compounds '' .

Radical translation is a thought experiment in Word and Object , a major philosophical work from American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine . It is used as an introduction to his theory of the indeterminacy of translation , and specifically to prove the point of inscrutability of reference . Using this concept of radical translation , Quine paints a setting where a linguist discovers a native linguistic community whose linguistic system is completely unrelated to any language familiar to the linguist . Quine then describes the steps taken by the linguist in his attempt to fully translate this unfamiliar language based on the only data he has ; the events happening around him combined with the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of natives .


Question:
 Numerous prehistoric bulk disappearance episodes from various species have shown substantial connections with alterations in worldwide environmental conditions. This implies that drastic changes in Earth's temperature over geological timescales significantly contributed to these catastrophic biodiversity losses.
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 Cenozoic Era Mass Extinction Events Linked to Climate Change
Throughout the Cenozoic era, several significant mass extinction episodes coincided with dramatic shifts in global temperatures and climates. These catastrophic declines in biodiversity often targeted larger fauna, particularly those categorized as megafauna, marking critical transitions within various epochs. Notably, the boundary crossing from the Pliocene into the Pleistocene witnessed substantial losses attributed largely to fluctuating environments rather than solely anthropogenic influences. Although some argue about the extent of human impact versus purely ecological dynamics, consensus points towards combined effects involving both prehistoric climate instability and Homo sapiens' emergence around mid-Pleistocene timescales. Additional contributing mechanisms under scrutiny encompass competitive displacement scenarios impacting lower trophic levels alongside speculative roles played by pathogen dissemination among susceptible taxa.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic focus (ancient extinctions tied to changing conditions), while introducing slight alterations regarding specific eras/epochs mentioned ('Quaternary' replaced with 'Cenozoic'; explicit reference added re: "Pliocene" & "mid-Pleistocene") plus inclusion/exclusion of certain explanatory hypotheses ("overkill", "second-order predation"). Overall coherence remains intact reflecting original intent yet offering distinct phrasing throughout.

Decompression sickness ( DCS ; also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease ) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation . DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression ( i.e. , during ascent ) , but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson , flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude , and extravehicular activity from spacecraft . DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness .   Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago .   Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed . If DCS is suspected , it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .

La Matilde Formation is a Jurassic geological formation in Patagonia , Argentina . It is dated to the Middle to Late Jurassic . From the Bathonian age ( 164.7 to 167.7 million years ago ) to the Kimmeridgian age ( 150.8 to 155.7 million years ago ) at the latest . The area was once part of the subtropical and temperate regions of the southern supercontinent Gondwana in the Mesozoic era , a more or less continuous landmass consisting of what is now modern South America , Africa , Antarctica , Australia , New Zealand , and New Guinea .   La Matilde consists primarily of sedimentary rocks . It includes claystone , coal beds , conglomerates , siltstones , sandstones , and volcanic tuff . La Matilde overlies but sometimes intersperses with the Middle Jurassic Chon Aike Formation . The two formations are the subunits of the Bahía Laura Group .   La Matilde is known for the abundant fossils recovered from it . Notable fossil localities in the formation include the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest , the Cerro Madre e Hija Petrified Forest , and the remains and trace fossils ( including trackways ) of dinosaurs in the Laguna Manantiales Farm .   Fossil taxa recovered from the La Matilde Formation include :   Flora  Agathoxylon matildense  Araucaria mirabilis  Araucarites sanctaecrucis  Brachyphyllum  Equisetum thermale  Pararaucaria patagonica   Fauna  Ameghinichnus patagonicus  Casamiquelichnus navesorum  Delatorrichnus goyenechei  Grallator  Notobatrachus degiustoi  Sarmientichnus scagliai  Wildeichnus navesi

Dasyceps is an extinct genus of an unusual temnospondyl from Early Permian of England .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation .   Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature .   Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data .   Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals .   A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs .   Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices .   In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) .  Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .

Lake Nar ( Turkish : Nar or Narlı Gölü ) is a brackish lake in the Aksaray Province of central Turkey ( altitude : 1363 m AMSL ) . It is around 21 metres deep and 0.7 square kilometres in area . The lake basin formed as a result of volcanic activity ; specifically it is classed as a maar lake . There is still geothermal activity in the area , which has given rise to hot springs around the lake . In recent years , the geothermal waters have been pumped up to nearby hotels for use in their hot baths .   Lake Nar is particularly known for its scientific importance . It is home to a newly-described species of microscopic diatom algae called Clipeoparvus anatolicus . Nar lake waters undergo a remarkable change between different seasons . In winter , the lake water is cold from top to bottom . As the temperature increases in the spring , the lake water divides into an upper half which is warm ( epilimnion ) , while the lower half ( hypolimnion ) stays cold and lacking in oxygen . An abundance of planktonic algae ( or plankton bloom ) in early summer changes the water chemistry and leads to the precipitation of calcium carbonate . As a result , the mud at the bottom of the lake is made of alternating black and white layers ( or varves ) representing different seasons of the year . Like tree rings , they create a natural geological clock . The best known other example of a varve-forming lake in Turkey is Lake Van .   Work has been carried out on its sediments and waters by a team of British , Turkish and French researchers . Since 1997 , water samples have been taken from the lake to monitor how the lake level and chemistry has changed with climate . Over this period , central Turkey experience a shift to drier conditions ( especially hotter summers with more evaporation ) , which was seen in Lake Nar as a lake level fall and a change in the chemistry of the lake .   Sediment cores taken from Nar lake have been dated by counting individual layers back thousands of years . Laboratory analysis of these sediment cores has enabled the history of climate and human activities to be reconstructed in great detail . For example , pollen analysis has shown how the Arab invasions of central Anatolia during the 8th and 9th centuries destroyed Cappadocia 's late antique rural economy based on tree crops and cereal cultivation , the so-called Beyşehir Occupation phase . In 2010 , new core samples were taken from the lake sediments , extending from the present lake bed at around 21 metres water depth to over 21 metres below the lake bed . This sediment record extends from the present day back to around 14,000 years ago , and by analysing the changes in the chemistry of the sediments it has been possible to reconstruct how the lake level , and hence how the climate of central Turkey , has changed over time . After a dry period at the time of the northern European Younger Dryas cold period , there was a rapid shift to wetter conditions ~ 11,700 years ago . It stayed wet for several thousand years , and then gradually got drier , reaching a peak around 4,000-2 ,000 years ago .

Rhadalognathus was a prehistoric crocodile-like amphibian that belongs to the Mastodonsauridae family . Not much is known about this creature but it lived in the Triassic period . Rhadalognathus is also the name of the genus in which the organism belongs within . Rhadalognathus was found in northern Arizona , US , by S. P. Welles in 1947 . The size of the organism is unknown but it 's skull is about 17in long and weighs 7lbs .

The dinosaur renaissance was a small-scale scientific revolution that started in the late 1960s , and led to renewed academic and popular interest in dinosaurs . It was sparked by new discoveries and research indicating that dinosaurs may have been active and warm-blooded animals , rather than cold-blooded and sluggish as had been the prevailing view and description during the first half of the twentieth century .   The new view of dinosaurs was championed by John Ostrom , who argued that birds evolved from coelurosaurian dinosaurs , and particularly Robert Bakker who argued passionately that dinosaurs were warm-blooded in a way similar to modern mammals and birds . Bakker frequently portrayed his ideas as a renaissance of those popular in the late nineteenth century , referring to the period in between the Dinosaur Wars and the dinosaur renaissance as `` the dinosaur doldrums '' .   The dinosaur renaissance led to a profound shift in thinking on nearly all aspects of dinosaur biology , including physiology , evolution , behaviour , ecology and extinction . It also led to many depictions of dinosaurs in popular culture .

Radiodonta is a clade of stem-group arthropods that was successful worldwide during the Cambrian period , and included the earliest large predators known . Some of the most famous species included in Radiodonta are the Cambrian taxa Anomalocaris canadensis , Hurdia victoria , and Peytoia nathorsti , the Ordovician Aegirocassis benmoulai and the Devonian Schinderhannes bartelsi .

Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth 's crust , and more especially to folding and faulting . Diastrophism can be considered part of geotectonics . Diastrophism comes from the Greek word meaning a twisting .   All processes that move , elevate or build up portions of the earth 's crust come under diastrophism . They include : ( i ) orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth 's crust ; ( ii ) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth 's crust ; ( iii ) earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements ; ( iv ) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates .   Diastrophism covers movement of solid ( plastic ) crust material , as opposed to movement of molten material which is covered by volcanism . Movement causes rock to be bent or broken . The most obvious evidence of disastrophic movement can be seen where sedimentary rocks have been bent , broken or tilted . Such non-horizontal strata provide visual proof of movement . Diastrophic movement can be classified as two types , folding and faulting , tilted beds usually are part of a larger syncline or anticline . Diastrophic movement is often called orogenic as it is associated with mountain building .   There are various theories of the cause of diastrophic movement such as being the result of pressures exerted by convection currents in the mantle or the rise of magma through the crust . Other deformations are caused by meteorite impact and combinations of gravity and erosion such as landslides and slumping .   The study of diastrophism encompasses the varying responses of the crust to tectonic stresses . These responses include linear or torsional horizontal movements ( such as continental drift ) and vertical subsidence and uplift of the lithosphere ( strain ) in response to natural stresses on Earth 's surface such as the weight of mountains , lakes , and glaciers . Subsurface conditions also cause subsidence or uplift , known as epeirogeny , over large areas of Earth 's surface without deforming rock strata . Such changes include the thickening of the lithosphere by overthrusting , changes in rock density of the lithosphere caused by metamorphism or thermal expansion and contraction , increases in the volume of the asthenosphere ( part of the upper mantle supporting the lithosphere ) caused by hydration of olivine , and orogenic , or mountain-building , movements .

The Deseadan age is a period of geologic time ( 29.0 -- 21.0 Ma ) within the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene used more specifically with South American Land Mammal Ages . It follows the Tinguirirican and precedes the Colhuehuapian age .


Question:
 Numerous prehistoric bulk annihilation episodes have demonstrated significant associations with alterations in worldwide environmental conditions. This implies that drastic changes in Earth's climate system throughout history played a crucial role in wiping out vast arrays of species during these catastrophic times.
(Note: I've tried my best to keep it as complex but still maintaining similarity) However if you want less complex yet similar:

Numerous fossil records suggest strong correlations between historical mass extinctions and shifts in earth’s overall temperature patterns over time. These findings highlight how critical fluctuations within our planet's long-term weather systems can lead directly or indirectly into widespread biodiversity loss across different geological eras spanning millions upon million years ago up until present day ecosystems we see today around us everywhere from deserts all way down under oceans depths where sunlight never reaches! (This one adds more details while keeping same meaning).

 Ordovician-Silurian Extinction Event

The Ordovician--Silurian (O--S) extinction series represents two significant episodes where nearly sixty percent of ocean life disappeared during the late Ordovician Period around 443 million years ago. These mass extinctions were among the largest ever recorded, second only to the Permian-Triassic extinction event. They profoundly reshaped the evolution of life on Earth, marking the transition from the Palaeozoic era’s initial stages to later developments.

In paleontological records, the O--S extinction is characterized by distinct layers indicating abrupt changes in faunal composition across various regions globally. Marine fossils abruptly disappear above specific strata boundaries, reflecting rapid shifts in biotic communities. Notably, brachiopods, bryozoa, conodonts, graptoloids, ostracoderms, trilobites, and numerous echinoderm classes suffered severe declines; indeed, several lineages went completely extinct following these cataclysms.

Scientific consensus attributes the O--S extinction largely to dramatic fluctuations in global temperatures associated with extensive glaciation periods triggered by tectonic movements leading to increased continental landmass near poles. Consequently, vast quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide got locked up as ice sheets expanded, causing cooling trends that adversely impacted marine ecosystems dependent upon stable thermal conditions. Additionally, fluctuating oxygen concentrations coupled with reduced seawater salinity likely contributed to widespread hypoxia—low-oxygen environments—that proved lethal for sensitive aquatic fauna.

Although less studied compared to younger mass extinctions, recent research suggests possible contributions from extraterrestrial impacts akin to those implicated in the Cretaceous-Paleogene catastrophe. Evidence includes elevated iridium ratios indicative of meteorite material mixed within boundary sediments alongside anomalous osmium isotopic compositions suggesting cosmic influxes coincident with biological turnover phases. Nonetheless, definitive proof remains elusive given uncertainties regarding precise timing correlations amidst complex causal mechanisms operating concurrently through protracted intervals spanning millions of years.

Surviving taxa exhibited varying degrees of resilience post-extinction, initiating novel evolutionary trajectories under altered selective pressures imposed by vacant niche spaces created amid decimated competitor pools. For instance, jawless fishes experienced considerable diversification during ensuing Silurian timescales when they dominated shallow-water realms until subsequent displacement by emerging cartilaginous shark relatives. Similarly, primitive vertebrates gave rise to diverse amphibious descendants capable of colonizing emergent landscapes beyond traditional littoral confines fostered by retreating glacial fronts. Thus, despite

Democide is a term revived and redefined by the political scientist R. J. Rummel ( 1932 -- 2014 ) as `` the murder of any person or people by their government , including genocide , politicide and mass murder '' . For example , government-sponsored killings for political reasons would be considered democide under Rummel 's hypothesis . Democide can also include deaths arising from `` intentionally or knowingly reckless and depraved disregard for life '' ; this brings into account many deaths arising through various neglects and abuses , such as forced mass starvation . Rummel explicitly excludes battle deaths in his definition . Capital punishment , actions taken against armed civilians during mob action or riot , and the deaths of noncombatants killed during attacks on military targets so long as the primary target is military , are not considered democide .   Rummel created the term as an extended concept to include forms of government murder that are not covered by the term genocide , and it has become accepted among other scholars . According to Rummel , democide surpassed war as the leading cause of non-natural death in the 20th century .   He has further stated : `` I use the civil definition of murder , where someone can be guilty of murder if they are responsible in a reckless and wanton way for the loss of life , as in incarcerating people in camps where they may soon die of malnutrition , unattended disease , and forced labor , or deporting them into wastelands where they may die rapidly from exposure and disease . ''

Large numbers are numbers that are significantly larger than those ordinarily used in everyday life , for instance in simple counting or in monetary transactions . The term typically refers to large positive integers , or more generally , large positive real numbers , but it may also be used in other contexts .   Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics , cosmology , cryptography , and statistical mechanics . Sometimes people refer to numbers as being `` astronomically large '' . However , it is easy to mathematically define numbers that are much larger even than those used in astronomy .

The 1755 Cape Ann earthquake took place off the coast of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay ( present-day Massachusetts ) on November 18 . At between 6.0 and 6.3 on the Richter scale , it remains the largest earthquake in the history of Massachusetts . No one was killed , but it damaged hundreds of buildings in Boston and was felt as far north as Nova Scotia and as far south as South Carolina . Sailors on a ship more than 200 mi offshore felt the quake , and mistook it at first for their ship running aground . Many residents of Boston and the surrounding areas attributed the quake to God , and it occasioned a brief increase in religious fervor in the city . Modern studies estimate that if a similar quake shook Boston today , it would result in as much as $ 5 billion in damage and hundreds of deaths . Some discussion has revolved around the idea that this may have been a remotely triggered event .

Regional geology is the geological study of large-scale regions . Usually , it encompasses multiple geological disciplines to piece together the history of an area . It is the geologic equivalent of regional geography . The size and the borders of each region are defined by geologically significant boundaries and by the occurrence of geologic processes . Examples of geologically significant boundaries are the interfingering facies change in sedimentary deposits when discussing a sedimentary basin system , or the leading or boundary thrust of an orogen .

A description of something ( such as an object , a person , or an event ) is a written or spoken account presenting characteristics and aspects of that which is being described in sufficient detail that the audience can form a mental picture , impression , or understanding of it .   Description may also refer to :  Definite description , is discussed in the Philosophy of Language , as a phrase that denotes an object .  Description ( linguistics ) , analyzing and describing how language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community  Description , a rhetorical mode  Mathematical model , a description in mathematical language of a system  Scientific theory , a description of an aspect of the natural world  Species description , is a formal description of a newly defined species in biological taxonomy

David Gilbert Christian ( born June 30 , 1946 ) is an American historian and scholar of Russian history , who is notable for teaching and promoting the emerging discipline of Big History . He began teaching the first course in 1989 which examined history from the Big Bang to the present using a multidisciplinary approach with assistance from scholars in diverse specializations from the sciences , social sciences , and humanities . The course frames human history in terms of cosmic , geological , and biological history . He is credited with coining the term Big History and he serves as president of the International Big History Association . Christian 's best-selling Teaching Company course entitled Big History caught the attention of philanthropist Bill Gates who is personally funding Christian 's efforts to develop a program to bring the course to high school students worldwide .

La Pointe du Chay is a limestone promontory , about 5 kilometres from La Rochelle , France , between the seafront of Aytré and Angoulins .   La Pointe du Chay is composed of layers of limestone dating back to the Sequanian stage ( upper Oxfordian stage ) of the Jurassic period ( circa 160 million years ago ) , when a large part of France was submerged . These rocks were formed by the accumulation of organisms falling on the seabed , where they solidified . This happened at the time dinosaurs were roaming the earth .   Many of these layers are especially visible and easily accessible at La Pointe du Chay , in which are encapsulated many small marine fossils . Layers of thick white rocks , formed during period of relatively warm seas , alternate with highly friable layers containing sands and remains of mud , formed during colder periods , and with layers containing various corals , that were formed during warmer , tropical times .

A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface .   Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish .

A resurrection plant is any poikilohydric plant that can survive extreme dehydration , even over months or years .   Examples include  Anastatica hierochuntica , also known as the Rose of Jericho , a plant species native to deserts of North Africa  Asteriscus ( plant ) ;  Boea hygrometrica  Haberlea rhodopensis  Mesembryanthemum The plant can revive within a short period of time after a drought  Tillandsia  Myrothamnus flabellifolius , a plant species native to Southern Africa  Xerophyta spp. , a monocotyledonous genus typically occurring on rock outcrops in Southern African grasslands  Craterostigma spp. , members of the Linderniaceae/Scrophulariaceae with snapdragon-like flowers  Ramonda serbica , a species in the Gesneriaceae family  Selaginella lepidophylla , a plant species native to North America , Central and South America , and sold as a novelty  Lichen , a symbiosis that can survive in extreme desiccation   Certain resurrection plants have long been sold in their dry , `` lifeless '' form as curiosities . This custom was noted by many 19th century authors , and continues today .   In December , 2015 , resurrection plants were featured in a TED talk given by Professor Jill Farrant  , Molecular and Cell Biology , University of Cape Town , South Africa , who performs targeted genetic modification of crop plants to make them tolerate desiccation by activating genes that are already there but not natively expressed in response to drought .

Dinowars : The Jurassic War of the Worlds is a comic book from Antarctic Press . It centers on Earth today beset by dinosaurs that escaped into space to avoid the ice age and have now returned to claim the world as their own , mirroring the original The War of the Worlds . The comic is written and illustrated by Eisner-nominated artist Rod Espinosa .   `` Prepare for World War D ! We thought the dinosaurs were all gone . We were dead wrong . 65 million years ago , a species of evolved dinosaurs left our Earth , and now they 're back ! It 's the Jurassic War of the Worlds as these Neosaurs commence a massive invasion to reclaim their planet and make Mankind extinct ! ''