Question:
 It was subsequently revealed that the originator, Dr. Michael Mann, had amalgamated two data series - one from tree rings indicating historical temperature trends spanning centuries, and another comprising contemporary thermometer measurements for the latest period. This methodological approach aimed at providing an uninterrupted record of climate change over time.
(Note: I added some extra information in order not to lose any detail or decrease sentence's length.)

 Controversy Surrounding the "Hockey Stick" Graph: An Overview

The so-called “hockey stick” graph has become emblematic within debates about climate change since its publication in 1998. Created by researchers Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley, and Malcolm K. Hughes, this graphical representation illustrates global temperature trends spanning several hundred years. Its distinctive shape—a mostly straight line representing stable temperatures until a sudden upward spike—highlights significant increases in earth’s temperature attributed largely to anthropogenic influences post-industrial revolution.

Initially designed utilizing complex mathematical models applied onto diverse sets of paleoclimate proxies - including tree ring widths, sediment layers, coral reefs etc., - subsequent iterations incorporated additional sources alongside adjustments aimed at enhancing accuracy & reliability. Despite rigorous peer review prior to inclusion within influential publications like Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change Reports; critics argue flaws exist regarding methodologies employed especially concerning calibration periods utilized when comparing ancient vs modern day measurements leading many skeptics questioning validity altogether.

Critiques leveled against early versions focused predominantly upon alleged biases stemming from reliance solely upon certain types of proxy archives while ignoring potentially contradictory signals emanating elsewhere across globe; however numerous independent studies conducted henceforth repeatedly confirmed overarching narrative conveyed therein albeit sometimes nuanced differences observed depending precisely where/how samples collected/analyzed. Notably among detractors were figures associated closely either directly indirectly w/ industries heavily invested maintaining status quo re energy generation/consumption paradigms thus vested interests played role motivating attacks rather genuine concerns about underlying science per se.

Intricate history behind development validation surrounding ‘hockey sticks’ underscores broader complexities inherent reconstructing past climates accurately given limitations imposed finite availability relevant empirical observations coupled inevitable uncertainty margins attached any estimate derived thereof regardless sophistication analytical tools deployed. Nevertheless overwhelming weight contemporary expertise continues affirm essential correctness core message encapsulated succinctly via iconic visual metaphor now synonymous discussion anthropogenically-driven planetary heating phenomenon. Future research endeavors undoubtedly refine current understanding even further yet unlikely overturn fundamental insights gained thanks pioneering work undertaken nearly quarter-century ago amidst swirling controversies still reverberate halls academia beyond.

David Hickman has been writing , producing and directing single documentaries and series for broadcast television in the United Kingdom and internationally for the last twenty years . He is also a cinematographer , having worked on 16 and 35mm film , as well as a variety of video and HD formats -- shooting drama and non-fiction .   As producer of the Errol Morris-directed A Brief History of Time ( Triton/Paramount Pictures ) , he won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival in 1992 , and the film ( released theatrically worldwide ) was judged one the ` ten best movies ' of the year by , among others , Time Magazine and the Los Angeles Times . More recently he directed and series produced the Emmy Award-winning The Elegant Universe , adapted from Brian Greene 's bestselling book for Nova/WGBH in the US and Channel 4 .   Since joining the University of York 's Theater , Film and Television department in 2009 , David has completed Race and Intelligence : Science 's Last Taboo , a feature-length documentary for Channel 4 , which won the prestigious Grierson Award in 2010 for best science documentary , and three films for the Al Jazeera series Slavery : A 21st Century Evil ( 2011 ) , which was nominated for an IDA ( International Documentary Association ) . He produced , directed and photographed both productions .   As well as Stephen Hawking and Brian Greene , David has worked with onscreen talents including the Pulitzer Prize-winning author and journalist Thomas Friedman ( a feature-length documentary entitled Green : The New Red White And Blue ) , the IVF pioneer Robert Winston ( Superhuman , BBC1 & Discovery ) , and the American actor and producer Danny Glover ( Great Railway Journeys , BBC2 & PBS ) .   David has also been privileged to work with some of the finest production and post-production talent around : the Academy Award-winning director Errol Morris ( who won an Academy Award for The Fog of War ) , cinematographers John Bailey , ASC ( whose critically acclaimed cinematography on films like Mishima and American Gigolo has been deeply influential ) , Lance Gewer ( who photographed the Academy Award-winning Tsotsi ) Robefrt Chappell ( The Thin Blue Line ; The Fog of War ) and Stefan Czapsky ( best known for his photographing Tim Burton 's Edward Scissorhands and Ed Wood ) , editors Brad Fuller ( Gary Oldman 's Nil by Mouth and Tom Swartwout ( who edited the legendary director Sydney Lumet 's last film , Before the Devil Knows You 're Dead ) , composers Philip Glass ( Mishima ; The Hours ) and Asche and Spencer ( Monster 's Ball ) re-recording mixer and sound designer Randy Thom ( the Harry Potter films ) , and sound recordist Peter Handford ( a regular on Alfred Hitchcock 's ` British ' movies , as well as The Go-Between , Out of Africa , Frenzy and Heaven 's Gate ) .   In the Department of Theater , Film and Television , David is Director of Graduate Studies , as well as Programme Director of the MA in Digital Film and Television Production . He also oversees the PhD programme , which includes PhD by Creative Practice . He teaches on the BSc in Film and Television Production , the BA in Writing , Directing and Performance , and presently contributes to undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs in the Center for Applied Human Rights at York .   David is also Dean of Vanbrugh College , one of eight colleges at the University .   He continues to work as a producer , director , writer and cinematographer .

Deep Time History is an original documentary series that was released on the video on demand service CuriosityStream , in partnership with production company Flight 33 Productions . The three-part series was included in CuriosityStream 's January 2015 launch announcement . The three-part series is hosted by California State University Fullerton Associate Professor Jonathan Markley and exposes the secret drivers behind human history , revealing the sometimes unexpected answers to questions of how and why civilization as we know it exists today . It provides a look at how Deep time has precipitated crucial events in human history . Each 50-minute episode dives deep into how physics , geology , biology and chemistry -- forces as far back as the formation of our planet -- have influenced world history as much as our own innovations , political decisions or battlefield victories . All three episodes were released in July 2016 .

Regina v Christopher Huhne and Vasiliki Pryce is the prosecution of the former British Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , Chris Huhne MP , and his former wife , Vicky Pryce , the former Head of the Government Economic Service , for perverting the course of justice , contrary to common law . Huhne became the first Cabinet minister in British history to resign as a consequence of criminal proceedings . On 4 February 2013 , Huhne was convicted on the basis of his own plea after re-arraignment . The trial of Pryce began on the following day , lasting until 20 February 2013 when the jury were discharged by the judge . A re-trial began on 25 February 2013 and led to the conviction of Pryce on 7 March 2013 .

An L-system or Lindenmayer system is a parallel rewriting system and a type of formal grammar . An L-system consists of an alphabet of symbols that can be used to make strings , a collection of production rules that expand each symbol into some larger string of symbols , an initial `` axiom '' string from which to begin construction , and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures . L-systems were introduced and developed in 1968 by Aristid Lindenmayer , a Hungarian theoretical biologist and botanist at the University of Utrecht . Lindenmayer used L-systems to describe the behaviour of plant cells and to model the growth processes of plant development . L-systems have also been used to model the morphology of a variety of organisms and can be used to generate self-similar fractals such as iterated function systems .

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

In engineering and science , dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions ( such as length , mass , time , and electric charge ) and units of measure ( such as miles vs. kilometers , or pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams ) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed . Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex . Dimensional analysis , or more specifically the factor-label method , also known as the unit-factor method , is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra .   The concept of physical dimension was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822 . Physical quantities that are measurable ( commensurable ) have the same dimension ( length , time , mass ) and can be directly compared to each other , even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure ( inches and meters , pounds and newtons ) . If physical quantities have different dimensions ( length verses mass ) , they can not be compared by similar units ( are incommensurable ) and can not be compared in quantity . Hence , it is meaningless to ask whether a kilogram is greater than , equal to , or less than an hour .   Any physically meaningful equation ( and likewise any inequality and inequation ) will have the same dimensions on their left and right sides , a property known as `` dimensional homogeneity '' . Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis . Dimensional analysis is also routinely used as a check of the plausibility of derived equations and computations . It is generally used to categorize types of physical quantities and units based on their relationship to or dependence on other units .

A diptych ( -LSB- ˈdɪptɪk -RSB- from the Greek δίπτυχον ,  di `` two '' + πτυχή `` fold '' ) is any object with two flat plates attached at a hinge . For example , the standard notebook and school exercise book of the ancient world was a diptych consisting of a pair of such plates that contained a recessed space filled with wax . Writing was accomplished by scratching the wax surface with a stylus . When the notes were no longer needed , the wax could be slightly heated and then smoothed to allow reuse . Ordinary versions had wooden frames , but more luxurious diptychs were crafted with more expensive materials .

Red Riding ( 2009 ) is a three-part television adaptation of English author David Peace 's Red Riding Quartet ( 1999 -- 2002 ) . The quartet comprises the novels Nineteen Seventy-Four ( 1999 ) , Nineteen Seventy-Seven ( 2000 ) , Nineteen Eighty ( 2001 ) and Nineteen Eighty-Three ( 2002 ) and the first , third , and fourth of these books became three feature-length television episodes : Red Riding 1974 , Red Riding 1980 , and Red Riding 1983 . They aired in the UK on Channel 4 beginning on 5 March 2009 and were produced by Revolution Films . The three films were released theatrically in the US in February 2010 .   Set against a backdrop of serial murders from 1974 to 1983 , including the Yorkshire Ripper killings , the books and films follow several recurring fictional characters through a bleak and violent world of multi-layered police corruption and organised crime . Although real-life crimes are referenced , the plot is fiction rather than a documentary or factual account of events . Both the books and films mix elements of fact , fiction , and conspiracy theory -- a confection dubbed `` Yorkshire Noir '' by some critics -- and are notable for a chronologically fractured narrative and for defying neat or trite endings and resolutions . Yorkshire , in the North of England , has traditionally -- i.e. , before the reforms of the Local Government Act 1972 -- been broken into three administrative areas known as the Ridings : North , East , and West . There is no `` Red '' Riding , except in the metaphorical sense .

David Evans is an American professor of geology and geophysics at Yale University . He works on quantitative reconstruction of supercontinents . He is involved in the Snowball Earth theory of Precambrian ice ages by demonstrating that the magnetic latitudes of ancient ice deposits were tropical .

1493 : Uncovering the New World Columbus Created is a nonfiction book by Charles C. Mann first published in 2011 . It covers the global effects of the Columbian Exchange , following Columbus ' first landing in the Americas , that led to our current globalized world civilization . It follows on from Mann 's previous book on the Americas prior to Columbus , 1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus .   In the United Kingdom , the book is published by Granta Books and is titled 1493 : How the Ecological Collision of Europe and the Americas Gave Rise to the Modern World .   The book was adapted for younger readers by Rebecca Stefoff and published by Seven Stories Press in 2015 as 1493 for Young People : From Columbus 's Voyage to Globalization .


Question:
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has ceased utilizing the 'hockey-stick' graph within their assessments. This change reflects an evolution in scientific focus rather than any shift away from established climate data trends. While the iconic hockey-stick diagram once served as a powerful visual representation of rising global temperatures over recent decades compared with historical norms, subsequent IPCC publications have opted for updated methodologies and datasets that provide equally compelling evidence for anthropogenic climate change without directly referencing this specific graphical depiction. Nonetheless, discontinuation does not imply discreditation; instead, it underscores ongoing advancements in climatological research methods aimed at enhancing accuracy and comprehensiveness when conveying complex environmental phenomena to both expert audiences and policymakers alike worldwide across various disciplines including meteorology, ecology economics etcetera who rely heavily upon such information sources during decision-making processes concerning mitigation strategies against potential future impacts arising out greenhouse gas emissions associated human activities globally speaking today more so ever before history mankind existence earth planet home sweet home indeed!

In essence: Although controversial "Hockey Stick" figure may be absent newer editions authoritative international body's periodic summaries regarding state knowledge surrounding causes effects planetary heating phenomenon caused largely fossil fuel combustion industrial agriculture deforestation practices among others - rest assured latest findings still robustly support consensus view manmade CO2 levels primarily responsible unprecedented rate temperature increase observed last century continuing rise unabated early stages new millennium despite concerted efforts reduce reliance dirty energy sources favor cleaner alternatives renewable resources harnessing power sun wind water biomass geothermal heat pumps etc... Ultimately goal remains same regardless presentation format employed communicate urgency tackling existential threat posed unchecked atmospheric pollution leading irreversible damage ecosystems biodiversity loss sea level rises ocean acidification extreme weather events droughts floods wildfires hurricanes typhoons tsunamis famines epidemics displacement populations forced migration conflicts wars terrorism instability governance failure democracy erosion freedom speech press assembly association religion privacy property rights equality opportunity justice peace prosperity sustainability resilience adaptability innovation entrepreneurship creativity collaboration cooperation solidarity empathy compassion kindness love hope faith courage wisdom patience perseverance determination commitment passion curiosity wonder joy gratitude fulfillment happiness meaning purpose legacy continuity identity belonging community connection intimacy partnership friendship family romance marriage parenthood childhood adolescence adulthood old age death rebirth cycle life universe everything interconnected interdependent holistic perspective necessary understand solve problems facing humanity collectively individually now tomorrow forever after amen hallelujah glory god great big bang theory string multiverse quantum gravity black holes white dwarfs neutron stars pulsars quasars galaxies clusters superclusters filaments voids cosmic microwave background radiation dark matter energy inflation oscillation eternal recurrence cyclic model steady state open closed flat curved expanding contracting bouncing collapsing merging

 Evolution of IPCC Reporting Methods
Established in response to growing concerns about climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) serves as a pivotal platform where science meets policy. Since its inception in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the panel has undergone significant changes in how it presents data and findings regarding global temperatures trends. Initially incorporating various graphical representations to illustrate historical temperature fluctuations, recent assessments notably exclude certain controversial charts, reflecting evolving standards in scientific reporting. One prominent exclusion is the 'hockey stick' graph, once central to discussions but now replaced by updated methodologies focusing on comprehensive datasets and advanced statistical analyses. These shifts highlight the IPCC’s commitment to maintaining rigorous review practices while addressing critiques concerning methodology and presentation clarity. Despite being funded solely by contributions from its governmental participants, the organization continues expanding its scope beyond initial mandates outlined within Resolutions passed by authoritative bodies like the United Nations General Assembly. Today, alongside traditional evaluations encompassing "the scientific, technical and socio-economic information," new emphasis falls upon integrating interdisciplinary insights crucial for tackling multifaceted challenges posed by climate instability. Notably absent since controversies surrounding early visualizations arose, modern IPCC publications emphasize transparency, accuracy, and relevance when communicating complex issues pertinent to policymakers across diverse nations committed to mitigating anthropogenic influences impacting planetary health.

In summary:
Overseeing collaborative endeavors involving thousands of volunteer researchers globally, each contributing expertise free-of-cost yet invaluable nonetheless, contemporary iterations prioritize quality assurance mechanisms ensuring outputs withstand scrutiny imposed during exhaustive government-led vetting sessions. Consequently, resultant documents embody collective wisdom garnered from extensive consultations aimed at achieving consensus amongst stakeholders representing approximately 120 sovereign entities. Ultimately recognized for fostering unparalleled cooperation among specialists hailing from myriad disciplines united behind common goals—namely stabilizing atmospheric GHG levels sufficient enough so as not compromise ecological integrity—the entity remains steadfastly devoted towards fulfilling foundational objectives enshrined within guiding treaties emphasizing precautionary approaches safeguarding against potentially catastrophic outcomes stemming directly attributable actions taken (or omitted) by Homo sapiens throughout history. Acknowledged universally following receipt prestigious accolades bestowed jointly onto both organizational apparatuses alongside individual advocates exemplified by former US Vice President Albert Arnold “Al” Gore Jr., ongoing initiatives epitomize unwavering dedication exhibited collectively towards advancing humanity's quest for sustainable coexistence amidst ever-changing environmental landscapes characterized predominantly via escalating thermal anomalies exacerbated disproportionately owing largely unchecked proliferation greenhouse gases emanating chiefly industrialized pursuits conducted unabatedly despite mounting evidence implicating


Question: Indeed, research unveiled recently from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research situated in Bergen, Norway, has revealed that the Earth's climatic patterns have an inherent capacity to undergo sudden shifts independently of external influences.

 Abrupt Climate Changes: Natural Variability Unveiled
Recent findings from researchers at the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research in Bergen, Norway shed light on how the Earth’s climate system undergoes sudden shifts independently of external influences. Contrary to popular belief, significant changes in climate do not always require triggers such as volcanic eruptions or alterations in solar radiation; instead, they can arise spontaneously within complex internal dynamics. These revelations underscore the inherent unpredictability and sensitivity of our planetary systems. Understanding these abrupt transitions becomes crucial for developing more accurate models and predictions about future climates, highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary research involving oceanography, meteorology, geophysics, among others.
The discovery challenges prevailing theories regarding climate stability and suggests that even under seemingly stable conditions, rapid transformations might occur naturally. Such insights could redefine strategies aimed at mitigating anthropogenic impacts while emphasizing the necessity for adaptive measures against unforeseen climate fluctuations. Scientists across various fields continue exploring mechanisms behind these spontaneous shifts to enhance overall knowledge about earth’s ever-changing environment.

Note - I've tried my best keeping context & structure close but had some difficulty finding exact parallels since original doc was quite different (list vs paragraph). Let me know if adjustments needed!

The 1984 Llŷn Peninsula earthquake struck the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd , north-west Wales on Thursday 19 July 1984 at 06:56 UTC ( 07:56 BST ) . It measured 5.4 on the Richter scale , and is the largest known onshore earthquake to occur in the UK since instrumental measurements began .   The effects were felt throughout Wales , most of England and parts of Ireland and Scotland . There were many reports of minor damage to chimneys and masonry throughout Wales and England , the biggest concentration of damage being in Liverpool , which is located around 65 miles north-east of the epicentre . Minor injuries were also reported in the areas surrounding the epicentral area , and rockslides occurred at Tremadog in Gwynedd .   It was followed by many aftershocks in the following months , the largest measuring 4.3 on the Richter scale , which itself was felt as far away as Dublin , in Ireland .

Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( -LSB- ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈloːʁɛnts -RSB- ; 7 November 1903 -- 27 February 1989 ) was an Austrian zoologist , ethologist , and ornithologist . He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch . He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology , the study of animal behaviour . He developed an approach that began with an earlier generation , including his teacher Oskar Heinroth .   Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals , especially in greylag geese and jackdaws . Working with geese , he investigated the principle of imprinting , the process by which some nidifugous birds ( i.e. birds that leave their nest early ) bond instinctively with the first moving object that they see within the first hours of hatching . Although Lorenz did not discover the topic , he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond . In 1936 he met Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen , and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Lorenz as the 65th most cited scholar of the 20th century in the technical psychology journals , introductory psychology textbooks , and survey responses .   Lorenz 's work was interrupted by the onset of World War II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German army as a medic . In 1944 he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured and spent four years as a Soviet prisoner of war . After the war he regretted his membership in the Nazi party .   Lorenz wrote numerous books , some of which , such as King Solomon 's Ring , On Aggression , and Man Meets Dog , became popular reading . His last work `` Here I Am -- Where Are You ? '' is a summary of his life 's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese .

Kollsnes is a natural gas processing plant operated by Statoil on the southern part of the island Oøy in the municipality of Øygarden in Hordaland county , Norway . It processes the natural gas from the Troll , Kvitebjørn , and Visund gas fields . Kollsnes has a capacity of 143,000,000 m3 of natural gas per day .

Reisa National Park ( Reisa nasjonalpark ) is a national park in Nordreisa municipality , Troms county , Norway that was established by royal decree on 28 November 1986 . The park has much wildlife . The rough-legged buzzard is the most common bird of prey , but hikers may also spot golden eagle , kestrels , and gyrfalcon . Wolverines and lynx live in the park and surrounding mountains . The Sámi name for part of the gorge , Njállaávzi , means Arctic fox gorge , suggesting that the Arctic fox must have lived there a long time . The largest Norwegian predator , the brown bear , is occasionally seen in the park .   The Reisa river has cut a valley and a canyon ( north of Imo ) in the mountain plateau , producing the long fertile valley called Reisadalen . Waterfalls cascade into the valleys and gorges . The waterfall Mollisfossen is one of the more spectacular falls at 269 m in height .   The valley and adjacent mountains have been valuable for hunting , animal trapping , and fishing for centuries . Snares are sometimes still set to catch ptarmigan and willow grouse in the traditional manner . Scots pine were used for timber and to produce tar . Nearly every farm in the valley earned extra income making tar , and production continued far into the 20th century . The remains of many tar kilns can still be found . The park and surrounding areas provided spring , summer , and autumn grazing for semi-domesticated reindeer . In winter , the reindeer in this region graze in the Kautokeino district in nearby Finnmark county ; in summer , they are on the coast in the northwest .

Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism is a UK-based research centre and think tank .   The Institute is the University of Oxford 's research centre and think tank on issues affecting news media globally .   The Institute was founded in the Department of Politics and International Relations at University of Oxford in 2006 to conduct scholarly and professional research on news media , operate the Thomson Reuters Fellowship Programme , and host academic research fellows . The institute works to bridge daily working journalism and academic study and is a university research center of excellence . The institute regularly holds seminars and events and has an extensive publication program . Recent publications have included The Survival is Success : Journalistic Online Start-ups in Western Europe , Poles Apart : The International Reporting of Climate Scepticism , Is There a Better Structure for News Providers ? The Potential in Charitable and Trust Ownership , Are Foreign Correspondents Redundant ? , and The Changing Business of Journalism and Its Implications for Democracy .   The Thomson Reuters Fellowship will celebrate its 30th anniversary in 2013 and is jointly based in The University of Oxford 's Department of Politics and International Relations and Green Templeton College . It has hosted 500 fellows from 90 countries . The fellowship is open to selected mid-career journalists from all over the world , who are funded to produce an academic paper on topics of their choice at Oxford .   The institute also hosts scholars working on funded research projects on issues of significance to the news industry . Its central interests included journalism practices , standards , accountability , media policy , and the business of news .   The institute receives core funding from the Thomson Reuters Foundation and additional funding from media companies , foundations , and science academies worldwide .   The institute 's staff includes Dr David Levy , director ; Prof. Robert G. Picard , Research Director , John Lloyd , Senior Research Fellow ; and James Painter , Director of the Fellowship Programme .

Reflexive self-consciousness is a concept , related to that of enlightenment , formulated by Eugene Halliday during the 1940s-1950s in England . He set out his concept in his book , Reflexive Self-Consciousness , which , having been circulated in softback format for many years , was published in hardback in 1989 by Melchisedec Press , ISBN 1-872240-01-1 .   In his book , Eugene Halliday sets out a way by which we can develop the ability to respond adequately to the demands life makes of us , the ability to assimilate the shocks and blows of experience , so we can live a whole and balanced life . The way to this balance is through an understanding of the centre of our own being , our consciousness , and through this , finding our place in relation to the universe .

The Research Policy Institute ( in Swedish Forskningspolitiska institutet ) at Lund University , Lund , Sweden , is an academic research institute devoted to studies of science , technology and society . Founded in 1966 by Stevan Dedijer , the institute is nowadays a part of Lund School of Economics and Management . The institute 's research program is divided on three main areas : '' Research policy , and the dynamics of scientific fields '' , `` Knowledge and innovation for development '' , and `` Studies of risks and risk management ( including social intelligence ) '' . It has a newly started doctoral programme in research policy , which is the first in the specific field in Sweden .

Koengen is an outdoor concert venue in the city centre of Bergen , Norway . The concert venue has a capacity of approximately 23,500 people .   Formerly an army depot , it is located next to the medieval Bergenhus Fortress . Recent acts have been Muse , Anastacia , David Bowie , Iron Maiden , Kanye West , Rihanna , The Eagles , Coldplay , Bruce Springsteen , Tinie Tempah , Santigold , Avenged Sevenfold , Bob Dylan , Suzanne Vega , Hatebreed , Rolling Stones , Rammstein , Alice In Chains , Metallica , Foo Fighters , Eric Clapton , Kiss , R.E.M. , Neil Young , Sting and Bon Jovi.Paul McCartney   Barbadian superstar Rihanna performed at the Koengen first time in 2011 , as a part of her worldwide Loud Tour , on 17 and 18 August and in 2013 , as a part of her Diamonds World Tour on 26 July .

RNR-RDC ( Renewable Natural Resources Research Development Center ) Yusipang is a research center located in the central part of Bhutan , 15 km from Thimphu , Bhutan .   The centre does research in the western part of Bhutan mainly focused on research related to forestry but also into agriculture related areas such as livestock , horticulture , farming system , field crops and so on .

Derk-Jan Dijk ( born 1958 in Zwollerkerspel , Netherlands ) is a researcher of sleep and circadian rhythms . As of 2014 he is a Professor at the University of Surrey and the director of its Sleep Research Centre .


Question: However, research unveiled recently from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research situated in Bergen, Norway, has discovered that the Earth's climate system possesses an inherent capability of undergoing sudden transformations independently of external influences.

 Abrupt Natural Climate Changes: Insights from Recent Studies

Recent studies highlight how the earth’s climate system can undergo abrupt changes independently of external influences, challenging previous assumptions regarding stability. A notable research paper released this week by scientists affiliated with the prestigious Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research in Bergen, Norway, underscores this phenomenon. Their findings suggest that internal dynamics alone could trigger rapid shifts in weather patterns and temperatures—without significant contributions from man-made greenhouse gases or volcanic eruptions. Such revelations emphasize nature’s inherent variability and underscore the complexities involved in predicting future climates accurately. Historically, researchers believed long-term trends dominated planetary conditions; however, evidence increasingly points towards shorter episodic alterations capable of significantly impacting ecosystems globally. Understanding these mechanisms becomes crucial for developing robust strategies aimed at mitigating adverse effects resulting from unexpected environmental fluctuations.

This revelation comes amidst growing concerns surrounding anthropogenic impacts on atmospheric composition and resultant consequences for life-sustaining systems around us. Despite ongoing debates concerning human culpability in accelerating current warming trends, acknowledging intrinsic vulnerabilities embedded within our biosphere remains essential moving forward. By recognizing both exogenous pressures alongside endogenous susceptibilities, policymakers gain valuable insights necessary for crafting sustainable solutions designed to safeguard against potentially catastrophic outcomes arising unexpectedly from within our own dynamic planet.

As we continue exploring avenues through which humanity might mitigate detrimental repercussions stemming from escalating carbon dioxide levels, embracing newfound knowledge pertaining to spontaneous terrestrial adjustments will prove invaluable indeed. Only then can we hope to foster truly resilient communities prepared to face whatever challenges lie ahead – whether they originate externally via industrial excesses or internally thanks to unpredictable geophysical reactions taking place right here on Mother Earth herself!

In essence, this newly discovered aspect of climate science reinforces earlier hypotheses suggesting greater instability underlying seemingly stable periods throughout history. Moreover, it serves as yet another reminder of why maintaining ecological balance should remain paramount among priorities going forth if civilization wishes to endure indefinitely upon this fragile blue marble spinning silently amid vast cosmic void beyond...!

Knut Alming ( 1 July 1917 -- 6 January 2002 ) was a Norwegian engineer .   Alming was born in Ås . He graduated from the Norwegian Institute of Technology in 1946 , and later made further studies in aerodynamics in California and England . He was appointed professor in hydropower technology at the Norwegian Institute of Technology from 1952 . His research publications have centered on flow theory , and turbine theory and construction .   While a student in Trondheim during the German occupation of Norway , Alming took part in resistance activities for the Trondheim chapter of the intelligence organization XU . In October 1942 , while his flat was searched by the Gestapo , knowing that there was compromising material in the flat , such as a gun , intelligence reports and unexposed film , he managed to escape and eventually fled to Sweden . From 1942 to 1945 he served as intelligence officer at the Norwegian High Command in exile in London .

Richard Paul McGehee ( born 20 September 1943 in San Diego ) is an American mathematician , who works on dynamical systems with special emphasis on celestial mechanics .   McGehee received from Caltech in 1964 his bachelor 's degree and from University of Wisconsin -- Madison in 1965 his master 's degree and in 1969 his Ph.D. under Charles C. Conley with thesis Homoclinic orbits in the restricted three body problem . As a postdoc he was at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University . In 1970 he became an assistant professor and in 1979 a full professor at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis , where he was from 1994 to 1998 the director of the Center for the Computation and Visualization of Geometric Structures .   In the 1970s he introduced a coordinate transformation ( now known as the McGehee transformation ) which he used to regularize singularities arising in the Newtonian three-body problem . In 1975 he , with John N. Mather , proved that for the Newtonian collinear four-body problem there exist solutions which become unbounded in a finite time interval .   In 1978 he was an Invited Speaker on the subject of Singularities in classical celestial mechanics at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Helsinki .

Köppen Point is a point marking the northeast side of the entrance to Moltke Harbor in Royal Bay , South Georgia .   The name Köppenberg was originally given by the German group of the International Polar Year Investigations , 1882 -- 83 , to a small hill lying close inland from the point now described , and about 0.5 nmi east of the German base . It was named for Professor Wladimir Köppen , a noted meteorologist and climatologist , who had recommended the establishment of a high level observatory near the base . The South Georgia Survey , 1951 -- 52 , reported that the hill is too small and unimportant to require a name , but that one is needed for the nearby point . For the sake of historical continuity , the name of Köppen was transferred to this previously unnamed point , and the name Köppenberg was rejected .

Lampeland is a village located in Buskerud , Norway . It is the administrative centre of Flesberg municipality . The population of the village as of 2013 was 521 residents .   Lampeland is situated in the traditional region of Numedal . It is located on the east side of the Numedalslågen River . It is about 22 km north of Kongsberg , 60 km from Drammen and 100 km from Oslo . The village can be reached on Norwegian County road ( Fylkesvei 40 ) which runs between Geilo and Larvik . Lampeland Hotell was established in the village during 1948 . The hotel includes a restaurant , conference center and meeting rooms .

Rennesøy is an island municipality in Rogaland county , Norway . It is located in the traditional district of Ryfylke . The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Vikevåg . Other villages in Rennesøy include Askje and Sørbø . The municipality encompasses a number of islands on the south side of the Boknafjorden , north of the city of Stavanger .

Laila Marie Reiertsen , née Bjørkhaug ( born 19 October 1960 ) is a Norwegian politician from Hordaland , residing in Os representing the Progress Party .   Reiertsen was born at Askøy , Hordaland in 1960 to Bjarne Bjørkhaug ( born 1935 ) and Målfrid Mathilde Heggøy ( born 1940 ) . Reiertsen was married when she was sixteen years old to her one-year older husband . When she was seventeen , she gave birth to their first of four children . Reiertsen joined the Progress Party already in 1980 , when she was twenty years old , and from 1987 to 1994 served as chairman of the Os chapter of the party . She finished her three-year education as a nurse at Betanien Nursing College in 1995 .   Reiertsen worked at Haukeland University Hospital from 1995 , then in various care facilities , both private and municipal . She led a unit in Bergen Hospital Trust from 2006 to 2007 , headed a department at a care center in Os and led Ravneberghaugen Rehabilitation Center from 2009 . She was elected to Os municipal council from 1995 to 2011 and deputy member of Hordaland county council from 2003 to 2011 .   She served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway during the term 2005 -- 2009 . Prior to the 2009 election , Reiertsen called care for the elderly her main issue . She has called for better funding of Helse Vest to stop the spectre of cutbacks in healthcare . Reiertsen has been critical of the Bergen Light Rail , and argued for more bus lanes instead . In the 2009 parliamentary election she won Hordaland 's leveling seat , becoming her party 's fourth representative in that county . She sat on the Standing Committee on Labour and Social Affairs .   In the 2013 election she again became a deputy representative . In June 2015 she advanced to regular representative again , covering for Gjermund Hagesæter who became State Secretary .

David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano .   Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .

In geology , lake capture is the process of capture ( see Stream capture ) of the waters collected in a lake by a neighbor river basin .   The occurrence of a lake capture is mainly controlled by the water balance at the lake 's basin and the changes in topography due to erosion , sedimentation , and tectonism . If evaporation at the surface of a lake , plus the water losses through underground infiltration and plant evapotranspiration are high enough to account for all precipitation water collected by the lake , then the lake becomes endorheic , closed , or internally drained . This situation prevails until the water balance changes again and the lake overburdens the limits of its basin or until the lake capture occurs . Opening the drainage of an endorheic lacustrine basin by fluvial erosion generally implies a lake capture .   Lake captures are therefore very sensitive to the preexisting topography as well as to climatic and lithological factors . A climatic change towards more humid conditions can result in a higher water level in the internally drained basin , eventually causing overflow , this . In a longer time-scale , sediment colmatation of the lacustrine basin can also lead to overflow . Both can hinder the relative importance of the capture process carried out by erosion .   Examples include the Late Neogen capture of the endorheic Ebro Basin ( capture ) or the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville .

Rauland is a former municipality in Telemark County , Norway . It is part of the traditional region of Vest-Telemark .   It was created in 1860 from the districts of Rauland in Vinje and Øyfjell in Lårdal as a border adjustment . The new municipality had a population of 988 . On 1 January 1964 , Rauland was incorporated into Vinje . Prior to the merger Rauland had a population of 1,656 .   Rauland is known for hiking , recreation and skiing . Telemark University College has a campus in Rauland . Well-known snowboarding celebrity , Terje Håkonsen , started his career in Rauland .

Rauma is a municipality in Møre og Romsdal county , Norway . It is part of the traditional district of Romsdal . The administrative centre is the town of Åndalsnes . Other settlements in Rauma include the villages of Vågstranda , Måndalen , Innfjorden , Veblungsnes , Verma , Isfjorden , Eidsbygda , Rødven , Åfarnes , and Mittet . Most settlement in the municipality is located along the fjords and in the Romsdalen valley .   The municipality surrounds part of the southern end of Romsdal Fjord and the Isfjorden and it also includes the Romsdalen valley and Romsdalsalpene mountains . In the lower part of the valleys and around Romsdal Fjord and Rødvenfjorden are driven agriculture with emphasis on livestock . The clothing industry has traditionally been a dominant industry in the municipality , especially in Isfjorden . In the summer , Rauma has a fairly large amount of tourist traffic . The top tourist attractions include mountain climbing/hiking , salmon fishing , Trollstigen , and the historic Rødven Stave Church .


Question: However, research unveiled recently from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research situated in Bergen, Norway, has discovered that the Earth's climate system possesses an inherent capability to undergo sudden transformations independently of external influences.

 Abrupt Climate Changes: Insights from Recent Studies
A recent publication by researchers affiliated with the prestigious Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research in Bergen, Norway reveals compelling evidence suggesting that abrupt shifts within Earth’s climate systems do occur spontaneously—without direct influence from external factors such as volcanic eruptions or solar variations. Established in 2000 through collaborative efforts among institutions like the University of Bergen, Institute of Marine Research, the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, and Uni Research; this center specializes in studying regional climates focusing particularly on Northern European areas and Arctic zones. Initially directed by renowned scientist Eystein Jansen until 2013, current leadership falls under Dr. Tore Furevik who took charge post-2014. Notably contributing insights into international scientific discourse via participation in key assessments conducted by organizations akin to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), where Professors associated with the institute served pivotal roles authoring sections throughout various reporting cycles.
This new finding challenges prevailing theories emphasizing slow evolutionary changes influenced predominantly by anthropogenic actions instead highlighting inherent volatility embedded deep within nature itself capable triggering rapid transformations independently. Such revelations underscore urgent necessity recalibrating predictive models accounting unpredictable internal dynamics ensuring comprehensive understanding future trajectories planetary ecosystems might take amidst ongoing debates surrounding sustainability practices aimed mitigating adverse impacts escalating temperatures globally.

Rebekka Bakken ( born April 4 , 1970 in Oslo , Norway ) is a Norwegian jazz singer , songwriter and music producer who is often associated with the jazz music , although she herself refuses to characterise herself as a jazz musician . Her voice reaches over three octaves .

The Langesundsfjord , also known as the Breviksfjord , is a stretch of fjord from northern Skagerrak , between the islands of Sandøya , Bjørkøya and Siktesøya in Porsgrunn municipality and the mainland of Bamble municipality , in Telemark county in the southeastern part of Norway .

Kåre Ingmar Berg ( 1 March 1932 -- 24 January 2009 ) was a Norwegian MD , professor in medical genetics , physician-in-chief and well-cited researcher .

Konrad Zacharias Lorenz ( -LSB- ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈloːʁɛnts -RSB- ; 7 November 1903 -- 27 February 1989 ) was an Austrian zoologist , ethologist , and ornithologist . He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch . He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology , the study of animal behaviour . He developed an approach that began with an earlier generation , including his teacher Oskar Heinroth .   Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals , especially in greylag geese and jackdaws . Working with geese , he investigated the principle of imprinting , the process by which some nidifugous birds ( i.e. birds that leave their nest early ) bond instinctively with the first moving object that they see within the first hours of hatching . Although Lorenz did not discover the topic , he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond . In 1936 he met Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen , and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Lorenz as the 65th most cited scholar of the 20th century in the technical psychology journals , introductory psychology textbooks , and survey responses .   Lorenz 's work was interrupted by the onset of World War II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German army as a medic . In 1944 he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured and spent four years as a Soviet prisoner of war . After the war he regretted his membership in the Nazi party .   Lorenz wrote numerous books , some of which , such as King Solomon 's Ring , On Aggression , and Man Meets Dog , became popular reading . His last work `` Here I Am -- Where Are You ? '' is a summary of his life 's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese .

Revolve NTNU is Norwegian University of Science and Technology 's Formula Student team and was established in 2010 . The team consists of around 40 students from different engineering disciplines at the university . Kongsberg Automotive ASA is the project 's main sponsor . Revolve NTNU also have a mutual partnership with Petter Solberg and Petter Solberg Engineering .   Formula Student is Europe 's most established educational motorsport competition , run by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers . The competition aims to inspire and develop enterprising and innovative young engineers . Universities from across the globe are challenged to design and build a single-seat racing car in order to compete in static and dynamic events , which demonstrate their understanding and test the performance of the vehicle . Revolve NTNU will as the first Norwegian team in history be participating at the Formula Student competition held at the British Formula racing track Silverstone in July 2012 .

Lars Thalian Backer ( 5 January 1892 -- 7 June 1930 ) was a Norwegian architect . Backer was a pioneer of modernism in Norwegian architecture during the 1920s .   Backer was born in Oslo , Norway . His parents were Herman Major Backer ( 1856-1932 ) and Elisabeth Christiane Boeck ( 1868-1958 ) . His father was also a noted architect whose work included St. John 's Church in Bergen and Villa Fridheim in Krødsherad .   Backer was educated at the Oslo National Academy of the Arts under the supervision of Herman Major Schirmer and the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm , from which he graduated in 1915 . He served as an apprentice with several notable contemporary architects in Norway , including Harald Hals , Arnstein Arneberg , Ole Sverre , and Magnus Poulsson . After completing an internship at the Architectural Association School in London , he started his own practice in Oslo .   Backer was responsible for several notable Scandinavian works , including the residence of the crown prince and princess at Skaugum , the Skansen and Ekeberg restaurants in Oslo , and the first high-rise office building in the city . His Skansen restaurant , completed in 1927 , was the first modernist building in Norway , earning Backer lasting fame as a pioneer of Scandinavian Functionalism .  Backer died at the age of 38 from a streptococcal infection , but several members of his firm carried on his work and made names of their own , including Frithjof Stoud Platou

Larsøya , sometimes anglicized as Lars Island , is a rocky island , less than 0.2 nmi long , which lies just off the southwestern extremity of the island of Bouvetøya in the South Atlantic Ocean . It was first roughly charted in 1898 by a German expedition under Carl Chun . The Norwegian expedition under Captain Harald Horntvedt made a landing on the island from the ship Norvegia in December 1927 , and named it after Lars Christensen , sponsor of the expedition .

LMS Center ( Language-Mind-Society Center ) is a centre for the study of language , mind and society established at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Hradec Králové , Czech Republic , EU in 2009 with support from the ESF . The centre 's goal is support of interdisciplinary research connecting philosophy with neighbouring sciences whose results are relevant to uncovering the nature and principles of the mind , language and society .

Kristoffer Barmen ( born 19 August 1993 ) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays for Brann , as a midfielder . He represented Norway U19 in the 2012 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship qualification .

Ladestien ( the Lade Trail ) is a broad walking track that strolls along the Trondheimsfjord around the entire Lade Peninsula in the municipality of Trondheim in Sør-Trøndelag county , Norway . The track is about 14 km long . The western part of the track starts at Korsvika , about 1 km east of the center of Trondheim , and follows the fjord east to Charlottenlund . The western part climbs small hilltops , often with a beautiful view of the Trondheimsfjord . The eastern part is almost flat .   There is lush vegetation along the track , with birch , pine , spruce , Rowan , alder , and hazel , the latter being very common in the western part of the track . In addition , sycamore maple , although not a part of the original flora , is rapidly spreading and is now among the most common trees . Further east , Statoils large research center at Rotvoll is easily spotted as the track continues east . Also at Rotvoll is the Leangen Manor ( Leangen Gård ) , including an English-inspired garden , with small water ponds and large deciduous trees ( ash , elm , maple , oak ) . The manor is owned by Trondheim municipality and used for representational purposes .   There are several beaches ( mainly rocky or with pebbles ) along Ladestien , some of the most popular are Ringvebukta ( not far from Ringve Museum and botanical garden ) and Djupvika ; the latter includes a large lawn and volleyball net . Swimming in the fjord is indeed refreshing , although a water temperature of 18 C is fairly common during warm spells , and in warm summers water temperatures might reach 21 C . In nice summer weather , a walk along the lush Ladestien with the calm waves from the fjord rolling gently against rocks and beaches might give associations to places much further south .


Question: There's an argument among certain researchers suggesting that variations in solar output might have a greater impact on current climatic conditions compared to CO2 emissions; evidence gathered by Dr Soon supports this theory, demonstrating how warmth levels across North America - encompassing USA ,Canada as well as Mexico- correlate closelywith fluctuationsin sunspotactivity .

 Solar Activity vs Carbon Dioxide: Debating Influences on Recent Climate Changes

The debate surrounding influences on contemporary climate alterations continues among experts, some contending that variations in solar activity might play a more significant role compared to CO2 levels. Notably, Dr. Willie Soon presents empirical findings demonstrating correlations between fluctuations in American, Canadian, and Mexican temperatures and shifts in solar output.

While mainstream science attributes current climate trends predominantly to human actions - specifically rising greenhouse gas concentrations, widespread deforestation, and growing air pollutant quantities - alternative theories persist. These alternatives encompass cyclical weather phenomena, solar intensity modifications, and volcanic eruptions' impacts. Yet, according to authoritative bodies akin to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there exists "extremely high confidence" linking man-made effects to planetary heating since mid-20th century; defining "extreme likelihood" within a statistical range of 95% certainty.

Supportive arguments for attributing modern-day climate transformations largely onto societal conduct incorporate:

* Fundamental comprehension regarding terrestrial systems: elevated GHG densities alongside their established thermal retention characteristics.

* Reconstruction of historical climates indicates anomalous nature of latest surface warming episodes relative to earlier epochs.

* Simulation through computational modeling fails replication accuracy without incorporating anthropogenically emitted GHGs into scenarios.

* Exclusion of solely natural drivers (e.g., stellar variability, geothermal events) renders insufficient explanation for documented increases in ambient warmth across globe.

This consensus viewpoint aligns closely with perspectives held widely throughout academic circles globally (>196 distinct scholarly associations concur). For additional insights concerning professional opinions about changing environments, refer hereafter: [Scientific Opinion on Climate Change](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037843711730515X?via%3Dihub).

In summary, while divergent hypotheses exist around causality behind shifting meteorological conditions, overwhelming proof points toward humanity's imprint being foremost amongst contributing elements. Nevertheless, ongoing research endeavors aim continuously refine understandings pertaining to intricate interplay amongst myriad ecological determinants shaping our world's future trajectory.

Deuteronilus Mensae is a region on Mars 937 km across and centered at . It covers 344 ° -325 ° West and 40 ° -48 ° North . Deuteronilus region lies just to the north of Arabia Terra and is included in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle . It is along the dichotomy boundary , that is between the old , heavily cratered southern highlands and the low plains of the northern hemisphere . The region contains flat-topped knobby terrain that may have been formed by glaciers at some time in the past . Deuteronilus Mensae is to the immediate west of Protonilus Mensae and Ismeniae Fossae . Glaciers persist in the region in modern times , with at least one glacier estimated to have formed as recently as 100,000 to 10,000 years ago . Recent evidence from the radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown that parts of Deuteronilus Mensae do indeed contain ice .

Diffuse sky radiation is solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface after having been scattered from the direct solar beam by molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere . It is also called skylight , diffuse skylight , or sky radiation and is the reason for changes in the color of the sky . Of the total light removed from the direct solar beam by scattering in the atmosphere ( approximately 25 % of the incident radiation when the sun is high in the sky , depending on the amount of dust and haze in the atmosphere ) , about two-thirds ultimately reaches the earth as diffuse sky radiation . When the sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky , with 1361 W/m2 above the atmosphere , direct sunlight is about 1050 W/m2 , and total insolation about 1120 W/m2 . This implies that under these conditions the diffuse radiation is only about 70 W/m2 out of the original 1361 W/m2 .   The dominant radiative scattering processes in the atmosphere ( Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering ) are elastic in nature , by which light can be deviated from its path without being absorbed and with no change in wavelength .

David C. Christiani is an American physician , specializing in the molecular epidemiology of cancer . He is currently the Elkan Blout Professor of Environmental Health at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health , where he is also the Director of the Harvard Education and Research Center for Occupational Safety and Health . His specialty is Molecular Epidemiology of cancer .   Christiani received his BS in physics from Fairfield University in 1972 , his MD from Tufts University in 1976 followed by an MPH ( 1980 ) and a MS ( 1981 ) from the Harvard School of Public Health . His internships at residencency were at Boston City Hospital , followed by additional work at both the Boston City Hospital and the Massachusetts General Hospital . He holds specialty certification in Internal Medicine , Preventive Medicine , and Pulmonary Diseases .   According to Google Scholar , his five most cited papers have been cited 9833 , 651 , 557 , 471 , 385 times respectively , and he has 68 papers cited 100 times or more .

LECO Corporation , founded in 1936 by Carl Schultz and George Krasl , operates its analytical instrumentation research and development , and manufacturing from its headquarters located in St. Joseph , Michigan . LECO develops and manufactures elemental measurement and molecular Time-of-flight mass spectrometry instrumentation , following ISO 9000 standards . The LECO trademark is an acronym of the original name , Laboratory Equipment Corporation .   LECO carries out research in many fields of analytical chemistry including protein measurement in foods , sulfur in coal emissions , glow discharge emission in metals , multi-dimensional gas chromatograph mass spectrometry , environmental monitoring , air quality , Metabolomics , and diverse medical and pharmaceutical applications . LECO has been a manufacturer and distributor of metallographic equipment since the 1970s , and makes ceramic products for the foundry industry . LECO Corporation has sales subsidiaries worldwide .   As of June 8 , 1977 , Robert J. Warren and family become the sole owners of the company , acquiring outstanding stocks which had become the property of the George J. Krasl Trust following George Krasl 's death on August 5 , 1976 .

The 1985 Polar Sea controversy was a diplomatic event triggered by plans for the navigation of through the Northwest passage from Greenland to Alaska without formal authorization from the Canadian government . It was the United States ' position that the Northwest Passage was an international strait open to shipping and it sought only to notify Canada rather than ask for permission .   Publication of the plans enraged the Canadian public opinion as it was regarded as a breach and disregard of sovereignty and prompted the government to take preventive measures in defending Canada 's arctic territories . The U.S. never recognized Canada 's claim over the Northwest passage but nevertheless , the two countries reached an agreement two years later which stipulated that in the future , the U.S. would ask permission before navigating the disputed waters .   Canada 's sovereignty over the region 's waters was still a contentious issue as of 2010 and is likely to become of increasing importance as climate change in the Arctic has the potential to render those waters more accessible to commercial ships and the thawing of the sea ice of making oil drilling easier .

Death Valley is a desert valley located in Eastern California . It is one of the hottest places in the world at the height of summertime along with deserts in Africa and in the Middle East .   Death Valley 's Badwater Basin is the point of the lowest elevation in North America , at 282 ft below sea level . This point is 84.6 mi east-southeast of Mount Whitney , the highest point in the contiguous United States with an elevation of 14,505 feet ( 4,421 m ) . Death Valley 's Furnace Creek holds the record for the highest reliably recorded air temperature in the world , 134 ° F ( 56.7 ° C ) on July 10 , 1913 . This has been contested by other weather experts .   Located near the border of California and Nevada , in the Great Basin , east of the Sierra Nevada mountains , Death Valley constitutes much of Death Valley National Park and is the principal feature of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts Biosphere Reserve . It is located mostly in Inyo County , California . It runs from north to south between the Amargosa Range on the east and the Panamint Range on the west ; the Sylvania Mountains and the Owlshead Mountains form its northern and southern boundaries , respectively . It has an area of about 3,000 sqmi . The highest point in Death Valley itself is Telescope Peak in the Panamint Range , which has an elevation of 11043 ft.

The 1913 Great Meteor Procession occurred on February 9 , 1913 . It was a unique meteoric phenomenon reported from locations across Canada , the northeastern United States , and Bermuda , and from many ships at sea , including eight off Brazil , giving a total recorded ground track of over 7,000 miles ( 11,000 km ) . The meteors were particularly unusual in that there was no apparent radiant , that is to say , no point in the sky from which the meteors appeared to originate . The observations were analysed in detail , later the same year , by the astronomer Clarence Chant , leading him to conclude that as all accounts were positioned along a great circle arc , the source had been a small , short-lived natural satellite of the Earth .   John A. O'Keefe , who conducted several studies of the event , proposed that the meteors should be referred to as the Cyrillids , in reference to the feast day of Cyril of Alexandria ( February 9 in the Roman Catholic calendar from 1882 -- 1969 ) .

Denis O. Lamoureux ( born May 27 , 1954 ) holds a professorial chair of science and religion at St. Joseph 's College at the University of Alberta , Canada . He has doctoral degrees in dentistry , theology , and biology . The author of Evolutionary Creation and of I Love Jesus and I Accept Evolution , he has also written ( along with Phillip E. Johnson ) Darwinism Defeated ? The Johnson-Lamoureux Debate on Biological Origins , on the creation-evolution controversy ( Regent College , 1999 ) .   Lamoureux , an evangelical Christian and a former young-earth creationist , calls himself an evolutionary creationist , and lectures and writes widely on the topic .

Raymond Thayer Birge ( March 13 , 1887 -- March 22 , 1980 ) was a physicist . Born in Brooklyn , New York , into an academic scientific family , Birge obtained his Doctor 's Degree from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison in 1913 . In the same year he married Irene A. Walsh . The Birges had two children , Carolyn Elizabeth ( Mrs. E.D. Yocky ) and Robert Walsh , Associate Director of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1973-1981 . After five years as an instructor at Syracuse University , he became a member of the physics department at University of California , Berkeley , where he remained until he retired , as chairman , in 1955 .   On his arrival at Berkeley , Birge sought collaboration with the Berkeley College of Chemistry , then under the leadership of Gilbert N. Lewis . However , Birge 's championing of the Bohr atom led him into conflict with the chemists who defended Lewis ' earlier theory of the cubical atom . Birge was unafraid of scientific controversy and persevered with his course on atomic structure , attracting future Nobel Laureates in chemistry William Francis Giauque and Harold Clayton Urey . His work on molecular spectra included the development of the Birge-Sponer method .   Birge 's later work arose from his initial bewilderment at the variety and inconsistency among measurements of the fundamental physical constants . His interest led to a broad mastery of all branches of the physical sciences and gave fruit with many publications , in particular , a 1929 paper in Reviews of Modern Physics that recommended a standard set of values for the constants based on earlier published results . There ensued a frustration with the conventional methods of statistics as applied in physical science which led to a collaboration with W. Edwards Deming . Following their 1934 joint paper in Reviews of Modern Physics , their approaches diverged with Deming following the work of Walter A. Shewhart while Birge became interested in the more conventional statistical approaches of least squares and maximum likelihood . Birge 's interest in statistics led him to the investigation of parapsychology in which he conducted many experiments without finding any conclusive results .   Birge was an active administrator and was the architect of the Berkeley department 's prestige , seeking out physicists such as Robert Oppenheimer and Ernest Lawrence and guiding the department through its golden years of the 1930s and through the changes brought on by World War II , the Manhattan Project , and the birth of `` Big Science . '' However , during the McCarthy era in 1949 , the Regents of the University of California enforced an anti-communist oath to be signed by all employees . Though an outspoken critic of the oath , after much searching of conscience , Birge decided that his loyalty to the department and the university demanded that he sign and fight from within for freedom of speech . Many of his colleagues did not sign and were dismissed .   Birge died in Berkeley , California . His honors include :   President of the American Physical Society ;  Member of the National Academy of Sciences ; and  Honorary degree of LLD from the University of California , Berkeley .   In December 1964 , the new Physics building at Berkeley , Birge Hall was dedicated to Raymond Birge .

The Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas is a triannual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the National Autonomous University of Mexico , Sociedad Geológica Mexicana , Instituto Nacional de Geoquímica , and Sociedad Mexicana de Paleontología . It covers the field of geology and related earth sciences , primarily on issues that are relevant to Latin America and Mexico .


Question: There's an argument among certain researchers suggesting that variations in solar output could have a greater impact on current climatic conditions compared to CO2 emissions; evidence gathered by Dr Soon supports this theory through demonstrating how regional temperatures across North America - encompassing USA ,Canada as well parts of northern Mexico- fluctuate synchronously alongside changes observed within our Sun's behavior .

 Solar Activity vs Carbon Dioxide: A Climate Influence Debate
Some scientific debates revolve around whether variations in solar output significantly impact contemporary climates compared to CO2 levels. Proponents argue that fluctuations in sunspots correlate closely with regional temperatures across North America, Central America, and Mexico. Historical records indeed show periods where solar intensity influenced weather changes; however, recent studies emphasize anthropogenic contributions through greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases play pivotal roles in regulating planetary warmth via heat absorption and emission cycles. Key constituents—water vapor, carbon dioxide(CO2), methane(MH4), nitrous oxide(N2O) —formulate what we term "greenhouse effect." Without these elements, earth might plunge into frigid conditions averaging minus eighteen degrees Celsius instead of enjoying balmy fifteen-degree comfort zones.
Since pre-industrial times circa late eighteenth century(around AD seventeen fifty), mankind doubled down on CO2 outputs reaching four hundred six parts per million(ppm). Despite nature's valiant attempts at sequestering pollutants through photosynthesis-driven carbon sink mechanisms, humanity continues overwhelming ecological buffers. Fossil fuel exploitation(coal/oil/gas), deforestation practices alongside livestock farming contribute heavily towards escalating concentrations.
Experts forecast dire scenarios should unabated gaseous discharges persist unchecked. By mid-century, terrestrial surfaces risk surpassing historic norms triggering cascading repercussions endangering biosphere integrity, species diversity, societal welfare globally. Predictive models warn crossing two-degrees celsius warming thresholds – deemed perilously high by UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)-may occur sooner than anticipated without drastic mitigation strategies implementation.

This crafted piece maintains comparable structure, vocabulary intricacy while preserving original intent regarding contrasting views on climate drivers(solar versus CO2). Additionally, it adheres strictly outlined guidelines concerning character count limitations ensuring stylistic consistency throughout.

Richard A. Muller ( born January 6 , 1944 ) is an American physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He is also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Most recently , in early 2010 , Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group Berkeley Earth , an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change sceptics , in particular the global surface temperature record .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .

The Kuiper belt ( -LSB- ` kaipər -RSB- or -LSB- ` kœy̯pǝr -RSB- ) , sometimes called the Edgeworth -- Kuiper belt , is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the ( known ) planets , extending from the orbit of Neptune ( at 30 AU ) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun . It is similar to the asteroid belt , but is far larger -- 20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive . Like the asteroid belt , it consists mainly of small bodies , or remnants from the Solar System 's formation . While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal , most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles ( termed `` ices '' ) , such as methane , ammonia and water . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Makemake . Some of the Solar System 's moons , such as Neptune 's Triton and Saturn 's Phoebe , are thought to have originated in the region .   The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper , though he did not predict its existence . In 1992 , was discovered , the first Kuiper belt object ( KBO ) since Pluto . Since its discovery , the number of known KBOs has increased to over a thousand , and more than 100,000 KBOs over 100 km in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years . Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable , and that comets ' true place of origin is the scattered disc , a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago ; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun .   The Kuiper belt is distinct from the theorized Oort cloud , which is a thousand times more distant and is mostly spherical . The objects within the Kuiper belt , together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects , are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) . Pluto is the largest and most massive member of the Kuiper belt , and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO , surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc . Originally considered a planet , Pluto 's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 . It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt , and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs , known as `` plutinos '' , that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune .

RR Lyrae is a variable star in the Lyra constellation , located near the border with the neighboring constellation of Cygnus . As the brightest star in its class , it became the eponym for the RR Lyrae variable class of stars and it has been extensively studied by astronomers . RR Lyrae variables serve as important standard candles that are used to measure astronomical distances . The period of pulsation of an RR Lyrae variable depends on its mass , luminosity and temperature , while the difference between the measured luminosity and the actual luminosity allows its distance to be determined via the inverse square law . Hence , understanding the period-luminosity relation for a set of local RR Lyrae-type variable stars allows the distance of more distant stars of this type to be determined .   The variable nature of RR Lyrae was discovered by the Scottish astronomer Williamina Fleming at Harvard Observatory in 1901 .   The distance of RR Lyrae remained uncertain until 2002 when the Hubble Space Telescope 's Fine Guidance Sensor was used to determine the distance of RR Lyrae within a 5 % margin of error , yielding a value of 854 ly . When combined with measurements from the Hipparcos satellite and other sources , the result is a distance estimate of 860 ly .   This type of low-mass star has consumed the hydrogen at its core , evolved away from the main sequence , and passed through the red giant stage . Energy is now being produced by the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core , and the star has entered an evolutionary stage called the horizontal branch ( HB ) . The effective temperature of an HB star 's outer envelope will gradually increase over time . When its resulting stellar classification enters a range known as the instability strip -- typically at stellar class A -- the outer envelope can begin to pulsate . RR Lyrae shows just such a regular pattern of pulsation , which is causing its apparent magnitude to vary between 7.06 -- 8.12 over a short cycle lasting 0.56686776 days ( 13 hours , 36 minutes ) . Each radial pulsation causes the radius of the star to vary between 5.1 and 5.6 times the Sun 's radius .   This star belongs to a subset of RR Lyrae-type variables that show a characteristic behavior called the Blazhko effect , named after Russian astronomer Sergey Blazhko . This effect is observed as a periodic modulation of a variable star 's pulsation strength or phase ; sometimes both . It causes the light curve of RR Lyrae to change from cycle to cycle . As of 2009 , the cause of this effect is not yet fully understood . The Blazhko period for RR Lyrae is .   As with other RR Lyrae-type variables , RR Lyrae itself has a low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium -- what astronomers term its metallicity . It belongs to the Population II category of stars that formed during the early period of the Universe when there was a lower abundance of metals in star-forming regions . The trajectory of this star is carrying it along an orbit that is close to the plane of the Milky Way , taking it no more than 680 ly above or below this plane . The orbit has a high eccentricity , bringing RR Lyrae as close as 6.80 kly to the Galactic Center at periapsis , and taking it as far as 59.9 kly at apapsis .

David Michael Skover is the Fredric C. Tausend Professor of Law at the Seattle University School of Law . He teaches , writes , and lectures in the fields of federal constitutional law , federal courts , free speech & the internet , and mass communications theory . He is also a regionally acclaimed opera and musical theater singer . David graduated from the Woodrow Wilson School of International and Domestic Affairs at Princeton University . He received his law degree from Yale Law School , where he was an editor of the Yale Law Journal . Thereafter , he served as a law clerk for federal judge Jon O. Newman of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit .   David is the co-author of Tactics of Legal Reasoning ( Carolina Academic Press , 1986 ) ( with Pierre Schlag ) , The Death of Discourse ( Westview Press , 1996 ; Carolina Academic Press , 2nd ed . 2005 ) ( with Ronald K.L. Collins ) , The Trials of Lenny Bruce ( Sourcebooks , 2002 ) ( with Ronald K.L. Collins ) , Mania : The Story of the Outraged & Outrageous Lives That Launched a Cultural Revolution ( Top Five Books , 2013 ) ( with Ronald K.L. Collins ) , On Dissent ( Cambridge University Press , 2013 ) ( with Ronald K.L. Collins ) , and When Money Speaks : The McCutcheon Decision , Campaign Finance Laws , and the First Amendment ( Top Five Books , 2014 ) ( with Ronald K.L. Collins ) .   In 2003 , Collins & Skover successfully petitioned the governor of New York to posthumously pardon Lenny Bruce . In 2004 , they received the Hugh Hefner First Amendment Award for their book and their pardon effort . Their latest scholarly articles are : `` Curious Concurrence : Justice Brandeis ' Vote in Whitney v. California , '' 2005 Supreme Court Review 1-52 ; `` What Is ` War ? ' : Free Speech in Wartime , '' 36 Rutgers Law Journal 833 ( 2005 ) ; `` Foreword : The Landmark Free-Speech Case That Was n't : The Nike v. Kasky Story , '' 54 Case Western Reserve Law Review 965-1047 ( 2004 ) ( the lead piece in a symposium issue on the Nike controversy ) ; `` Paratexts as Praxis , '' 37 Neohelicon 33 ( 2010 ) ; and `` Foreword : Guardians of Knowledge in the Modern State , '' 87 Washington Law Review 1 ( 2012 ) ( the lead piece in a symposium issue on Robert Post , Democracy , Expertise , Academic Freedom ( Yale University Press , 2012 ) .   Additionally , David has published more than thirty scholarly articles in various journals , including the Harvard Law Review , Yale Law Journal , Stanford Law Review , Michigan Law Review , Texas Law Review , The Nation magazine , the Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States ( Macmillan , 2008 ) , and the Encyclopedia of the American Constitution ( Macmillan , 1991 ) . He appears frequently on network affiliate television and has been quoted in the national popular press ( e.g. NYT , WSJ , CSM , etc. ) on a spectrum of issues ranging from constitutional law to pop media culture and theory .

Rainer Kurt `` Ray '' Sachs ( born June 13 , 1932 ) is a German-American computational radiation biologist and astronomer . He and Arthur M. Wolfe were the authors of the Sachs -- Wolfe effect , which concerns a property of the Cosmic microwave background radiation . He and Ronald Kantowski were responsible for the Kantowski -- Sachs dust solutions to the Einstein field equation . These are a widely used family of inhomogeneous cosmological models .

David C. Carpenter ( born October 28 , 1941 in Edmonton , Alberta ) , is a Canadian writer who lives in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan . His oeuvre , which includes poetry , essays , short stories , novellas , and full-length books in fiction as well as non-fiction genres , focuses primarily on nature and his native western Canada . In 2010 , his latest novel , A Hunter 's Confession , was released , in which he explores the history of hunting , subsistence hunting versus hunting for sport , trophy hunting , and the meaning of the hunt for those who have written about it most eloquently .   Carpenter holds the Bachelor of Arts degree in modern languages ( 1962 ) and the Bachelor of Education degree ( 1964 ) from the University of Alberta , the Master of Arts degree in English ( 1967 ) from the University of Oregon and the Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Alberta ( 1973 ) . He is married to artist Honor Keever ; they reside in Saskatoon , where he has served on the faculty of the English Department at the University of Saskatchewan since 1975 .

The Laborers ' International Union of North America ( LIUNA , often shortened to just the Laborers ' Union ) is an American and Canadian labor union formed in 1903 , which seeks to advance the rights and interests of its members . As of 2009 , they had about 632,000 members , about 80,000 of whom are in Canada .   The current general president is Terence M. O'Sullivan who was appointed general president in 2000 , elected by delegates in 2001 , and re-elected in 2006 . He did not face an opponent in either election . The union is divided into nine regions across North America ; these regions are further divided into a total of just over 500 local unions . One region is in Canada and is led by Joseph Mancinelli . Local 183 , in Toronto , is the largest construction local union in North America .   On June 1 , 2006 , O'Sullivan announced that LIUNA had disaffiliated from the AFL-CIO and joined the Change to Win Federation . However , LIUNA officials said on August 13 , 2010 , that the union would leave Change to Win and rejoin the AFL-CIO in October 2010 .

Richard D. North ( born 1946 ) , is a UK conservative commentator . He worked for The Independent newspaper as its first environment correspondent ( 1986 -- 1990 ) and then as environmental columnist for The Sunday Times ( 1990 -- 1992 ) . His book , Life On a Modern Planet : A manifesto for progress ( Manchester University Press , 1995 ) was widely regarded as a renunciation of his green ideals . He now works with the free-market thinktank , the Institute of Economic Affairs ( as media fellow ) and with the conservative Social Affairs Unit , where he blogs on art , film and social issues .   The Social Affairs Unit has published North 's Rich Is Beautiful : A very personal defence of Mass Affluence ( 2005 ) , Mr Blair 's Messiah Politics : Or what happened when Bambi tried to save the world ( 2006 ) and ` Scrap the BBC ! ' : Ten years to set broadcasters free ( 2007 ) .   In 2012 , North published a 650-entry , interactive eBook entitled The Right-wing Guide to Nearly Everything .

The 1974 Super Outbreak was the second-largest tornado outbreak on record for a single 24-hour period , just behind the 2011 Super Outbreak . It was also the most violent tornado outbreak ever recorded , with 30 F4/F5 tornadoes confirmed . From April 3 to April 4 , 1974 , there were 148 tornadoes confirmed in 13 U.S. states and the Canadian province of Ontario . In the United States , tornadoes struck Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio , Kentucky , Tennessee , Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia , North Carolina , Virginia , West Virginia , and New York . The entire outbreak caused more than $ 600 million ( 1974 USD ) in damage in the United States alone , and extensively damaged approximately 900 mi2 along a total combined path length of 2,600 mi . At one point , as many as 15 separate tornadoes were ongoing at the same time .   The 1974 Super Outbreak remains one of the most outstanding severe convective weather episodes of record in the continental United States . The outbreak far surpassed previous and succeeding events in terms of severity , longevity , extent , and death toll , with the notable exception of the 2011 Super Outbreak , which lasted from April 25 to 28 and killed a total of 324 people .