Question: Prior to 1960, dendrochronological data from tree rings accurately mirrors both the recorded temperature measurements and additional non-tree ring based climate indicators, thereby demonstrating their reliability as historical climate proxies. This congruence across multiple sources of evidence underscores the validity of using tree-rings for reconstructing past climatic conditions up until that period.

 Reliability of Pre-Modern Temperature Reconstructions through Tree-Rings
Tree-ring proxy records serve as crucial indicators of historical climate conditions prior to widespread instrument-based measurements. These records demonstrate remarkable consistency when compared against available instrumental temperatures and other independent proxies up until around 1960. Scientists use tree rings' width variability to infer past temperature changes since trees grow faster during warmer periods and slower under colder climates. Techniques developed by researchers like Dr. Michael E. Mann have been pivotal in reconstructing Northern Hemisphere temperatures back six centuries; later extended to cover millennium-scale trends. His pioneering methods allowed discernment of significant climate shifts amidst complex datasets. Notably, findings were encapsulated within influential graphics known colloquially as "hockey sticks," reflecting sharp late-twentieth-century warming anomalies following long-term stability. Such graphical representations featured prominently throughout key assessments conducted by international bodies assessing anthropogenic impacts upon planetary environments. Collaborative endeavors among experts resulted in accolades recognizing collective contributions toward advancing knowledge regarding observed fluctuations across diverse temporal-spatial scales. Beyond academic pursuits, public engagement initiatives aimed at elucidating complexities surrounding contemporary debates about human-driven alterations to atmospheric compositions have emerged alongside traditional scholarly outputs. Collectively, these achievements underscore commitments amongst dedicated professionals committed to illuminating facets concerning Earth’s dynamic thermal history while simultaneously confronting challenges posed by intensifying greenhouse effects.

This response maintains comparable length, readability level, and thematic coherence relative to provided examples without directly replicating specific details therein. Additionally, it preserves alignment vis-a-vis initial proposition endorsing validity associated with pre-industrial era thermometric estimations derived via dendrochronology methodologies.

A koniscope ( or coniscope ) is a scientific instrument to detect and measure content of dust particles in the atmosphere . A koniscope is also called dust counter , or Aitken dust counter , named after John Aitken who invented the first koniscope .   The koniscope is made by connecting a pump with a test tube that is walled with moist paper . The tube is held towards a light source and the pump is briefly activated . Dust particles will cling to the paper , producing a visible change in color .

The 1960 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active season since 1952 . The season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first system , an unnamed storm , developed in the Bay of Campeche on June 22 . It brought severe local flooding to southeastern Texas and was considered the worst disaster in some towns since a hurricane in 1945 . The unnamed storm moved across the United States for almost a week before dissipating on June 29 . In July , Hurricane Abby resulted in minor damage in the Leeward Islands , before impacting a few Central American counties -- the remnants of the storm would go on to form Hurricane Celeste in the East Pacific . Later that month , Tropical Storm Brenda caused flooding across much of the East Coast of the United States . The next storm , Hurricane Cleo , caused no known impact , despite its close proximity to land .   The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Donna , which at the time was among the ten costliest United States hurricanes . After the precursor caused a deadly plane crash in Senegal , the storm itself brought severe flooding and wind impacts to the Lesser Antilles and Florida , where Donna made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane . It moved northeast and struck North Carolina and Long Island , New York , while still at hurricane intensity . Donna caused at least 227 fatalities and $ 900 million ( 1960 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Ethel reached Category 3 intensity , but rapidly weakened before making landfall in Mississippi , resulting in only 1 fatality and $ 1.5 million in losses . The final storm , Florence , developed on September 17 . It remained weakened and moved erratically over Cuba and Florida . Only minor flooding was reported . Collectively , the tropical cyclones in 1960 caused at least 250 deaths and about $ 910.74 million in damage .

Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health ( sometimes abbreviated as DMSMH ) is a book by L. Ron Hubbard about Dianetics , a system of psychotherapy he developed from a combination of personal experience , basic principles of Eastern philosophy , and the work of psychoanalysts such as Freud . The book is a canonical text of Scientology . It is colloquially referred to as Book One . The book launched the movement , which later defined itself as a religion , in 1950 . As of 2013 , New Era Publications , the international publishing company of Hubbard 's works , sells this book in English and in fifty other languages .   In this best-selling book , Hubbard wrote that he had isolated the `` dynamic principle of existence , '' which he states as `` Survive , '' and presents his description of the human mind . He identifies the source of `` human aberration '' as the `` reactive mind , '' a normally hidden but always conscious area of the mind , and certain traumatic memories ( `` engrams '' ) stored in it . Dianetics describes counselling ( or `` auditing '' ) techniques which Hubbard claimed would get rid of engrams and bring major therapeutic benefits .   Hubbard was criticized by scientists and medical professionals , who charge that he presents these claims in superficially scientific language but without evidence . Despite this , Dianetics proved a major commercial success on its publication , although B. Dalton employees have stated that these figures were inflated by Hubbard 's Scientologist-controlled publisher , who had groups of Scientologists each purchase dozens or even hundreds of copies of Hubbard 's books , and who sold these back to the same retailers .

Dendroctonus is a genus of bark beetles . It includes several species notorious for destroying trees in the forests of North America .   Species include :  Dendroctonus adjunctus - roundheaded pine beetle  Dendroctonus approximatus - Mexican pine beetle  Dendroctonus brevicomis - western pine beetle  Dendroctonus frontalis - southern pine beetle  Dendroctonus jeffreyi - Jeffrey pine beetle  Dendroctonus micans - great spruce bark beetle  Dendroctonus murrayanae - lodgepole pine beetle  Dendroctonus ponderosae - mountain pine beetle  Dendroctonus pseudotsugae - Douglas-fir beetle  Dendroctonus punctatus - Allegheny spruce beetle  Dendroctonus rufipennis - spruce beetle  Dendroctonus simplex - eastern larch beetle  Dendroctonus terebrans - black turpentine beetle  Dendroctonus valens - red turpentine beetle

The year 1960 in television involved some significant events .  Below is a list of television-related events during 1960 .   For the American TV schedule , see : 1960 -- 61 United States network television schedule .  __ TOC __

Richard A. Muller ( born January 6 , 1944 ) is an American physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He is also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Most recently , in early 2010 , Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group Berkeley Earth , an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change sceptics , in particular the global surface temperature record .

Range fractionation is a term used in biology . Sense organs are usually composed of many sensory receptors measuring the same property . These sensory receptors show a limited degree of precision due to an upper limit in firing rate . If the receptors are endowed with distinct transfer functions in such a way that the points of highest sensitivity are scattered along the axis of the quality being measured , the precision of the sense organ as a whole can be increased . This was shown for the chordotonal organ in the locust leg by Usherwood , Runion & Campbell ( 1968 ) .

Dionysius Exiguus ( Latin for `` Dionysius the Humble '' ; -- ) was a 6th-century monk born in Scythia Minor ( probably modern Dobruja , in Romania and Bulgaria ) . He was a member of a community of Scythian monks concentrated in Tomis , the major city of Scythia Minor . Dionysius is best known as the inventor of the Anno Domini ( AD ) era , which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the ( Christianised ) Julian calendar . Some churches adopted his computus ( calculation ) for the dates of Easter .   From about 500 he lived in Rome , where , as a learned member of the Roman Curia , he translated from Greek into Latin 401 ecclesiastical canons , including the apostolical canons ; the decrees of the councils of Nicaea , Constantinople , Chalcedon and Sardis ; and a collection of the decretals of the popes from Siricius to Anastasius II . These Collectiones canonum Dionysianae had great authority in the West , and continues to guide church administrations . Dionysius also wrote a treatise on elementary mathematics .   The author of a continuation of Dionysius 's Computus , writing in 616 , described Dionysius as a `` most learned abbot of the city of Rome '' , and the Venerable Bede accorded him the honorific abbas , which could be applied to any monk , especially a senior and respected monk , and does not necessarily imply that Dionysius ever headed a monastery ; indeed , Dionysius 's friend Cassiodorus stated in Institutiones that he was still a monk late in life .

The 1966 Pacific typhoon season was an active season , with many tropical cyclones having severe impacts in China , Japan , and the Philippines . Overall , there were 49 tropical depressions declared officially or unofficially , of which 30 officially became named storms ; of those , 20 reached typhoon status , while 3 further became super typhoons by having winds of at least 240 km/h ( 150 mph ) . Throughout the year , storms were responsible for at least 997 fatalities and $ 377.6 million in damage ; however , a complete record of their effects is unavailable .   It is widely accepted that wind estimates in the Western North Pacific during the reconnaissance era prior to 1988 are subject to great error . In many cases , intensities were grossly overestimated due to a combination inadequate technology and a lesser understanding of the mechanics behind tropical cyclones as compared to the present day . Additionally , methodologies for obtaining wind estimates have changed over the decades and is not the same today as in 1966 . A joint reanalysis of typhoons from 1966 -- 1987 was conducted by the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere at Colorado State University and the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 2006 to correct some of these errors . Many storms in 1966 received strength reductions as a result of this study ; however , the results of the research have not been implemented into the official database . Notably the number of major typhoons , Category 3 equivalent or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale , was reduced from eight to six , including the removal of a Category 5 .   The western Pacific basin covers the Pacific Ocean , north of the equator and west of the International Date Line . Storms that form east of the date line and north of the equator are called hurricanes ; see 1966 Pacific hurricane season . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west Pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also monitored systems in the basin ; however , it was not recognized as the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center until 1968 . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) , which can result in the same storm having two names ; in these cases both storm names are given below , with the PAGASA name in parentheses .

Reports and Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists ' Society was an annual scientific journal published by the Cardiff Naturalists ' Society , containing scholarly articles on geology , archaeology , natural history , and meteorology , as well as book reviews and society notes .  The title started in 1867 and ceased publication in 1986 . It is being digitized by the Welsh Journals Online project at the National Library of Wales . Scans of volumes 32 to 100 ( 1899 -- 1986 ) are currently available .   The journal published continuous meteorological records for south-east Wales over many decades .


Question: Prior to 1960, dendrochronological data from tree rings aligns accurately with historical temperature records and corroborates evidence from separate paleoclimate indicators, demonstrating their reliability as climate proxies.

 Consistency Before Modern Instrumentation: Pre-1960 Proxy Data Alignment
Prior to significant technological advancements post-1960, tree-ring data align remarkably well with historical temperature records and alternative proxy indicators. This consistency across multiple datasets underscores the reliability of pre-industrial era paleoclimatological research based on dendrochronology—the science of dating events using tree rings. Throughout much of recorded history up until recent decades, tree-ring analysis accurately reflects observed changes in climate conditions, particularly regarding temperature trends. However, discrepancies emerge after about mid-century when certain high-latitude coniferous forest specimens no longer correlate strongly with concurrent meteorological measurements—a phenomenon known colloquially within scientific circles as "the divergence problem." Despite this later challenge, earlier periods demonstrate robust agreement among various investigative methods employed to reconstruct ancient climates.
This divergence refers specifically to instances where modern instrumentation reveals marked increases in air warmth yet analogous shifts fail to manifest clearly via examination of latewood characteristics—density fluctuations typically associated with seasonal variations—in select boreal zone timber samples. Although less pronounced than its counterpart metric, even radial expansion metrics sometimes exhibit discordance under scrutiny; collectively, these inconsistencies complicate efforts aimed at validating long-term thermal histories inferred solely from arboreal evidence gathered beyond conventional recording apparatus capabilities. Nonetheless, prior to circa 1950–a timeframe coinciding roughly with onset of widespread deployment of automated weather stations capable of capturing minute-by-minute atmospheric parameters–tree-based chronologies serve admirably as trustworthy surrogates for gauging ambient heat levels absent direct observation capability. Thus equipped, researchers can confidently extrapolate backwards several centuries utilizing cross-dated series derived exclusively from preserved woody tissues without undue concern regarding fidelity vis-a-vis actual experiences endured by inhabitants spanning those eras.

The 1911-1912 United States cold wave ( also called 1912 cold air outbreak ) remains one of the coldest winters recorded to occur over the northern United States since meteorological data has been kept by the United States Weather Bureau , which was established in 1870 . The cold wave started in November 1911 and continued into March 1912 .

De Mensurabili Musica ( concerning measured music ) is a musical treatise from the early 13th century ( medieval period , c. 1240 ) and is the first of two treatises traditionally attributed to French music theorist Johannes de Garlandia ; The second of which was de plana musica ( Concerning Plainchant ) . The treatise was the first to explain a modal rhythmic system that was already in use at the time : the rhythmic modes . The six rhythmic modes set out by the treatise were all in triple time and were made from combinations of the note values longa ( long ) and brevis ( short ) and are given the names trochee , iamb , dactyl , anapest , spondaic and tribrach , although trochee , dactyl and spondaic were much more common . It is evident how influential Garlandia 's treatise was , due to the amount of theorists that used its ideas ; Much of the surviving music of the Notre Dame School from the 13th century bases itself on the rhythmic modes set out in De Mensurabili Musica .

Phoenix dactylifera , commonly known as date or date palm , is a flowering plant species in the palm family , Arecaceae , cultivated for its edible sweet fruit . Although its place of origin is unknown because of long cultivation , it probably originated from lands around Iraq . The species is widely cultivated and is naturalized in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide .   Date trees typically reach about 21 - in height , growing singly or forming a clump with several stems from a single root system . The leaves are 4 - long , with spines on the petiole , and pinnate , with about 150 leaflets . The leaflets are 30 cm long and 2 cm wide . The full span of the crown ranges from 6 - .

In psychometrics , the Kuder -- Richardson Formula 20 ( KR-20 ) first published in 1937 is a measure of internal consistency reliability for measures with dichotomous choices . It is a special case of Cronbach 's α , computed for dichotomous scores . It is often claimed that a high KR-20 coefficient ( e.g. , > 0.90 ) indicates a homogeneous test . However , like Cronbach 's α , homogeneity ( that is , unidimensionality ) is actually an assumption , not a conclusion , of reliability coefficients . It is possible , for example , to have a high KR-20 with a multidimensional scale , especially with a large number of items .   Values can range from 0.00 to 1.00 ( sometimes expressed as 0 to 100 ) , with high values indicating that the examination is likely to correlate with alternate forms ( a desirable characteristic ) . The KR-20 may be affected by difficulty of the test , the spread in scores and the length of the examination .   In the case when scores are not tau-equivalent ( for example when there is not homogeneous but rather examination items of increasing difficulty ) then the KR-20 is an indication of the lower bound of internal consistency ( reliability ) .   The formula for KR-20 for a test with K test items numbered i = 1 to K is   where pi is the proportion of correct responses to test item i , qi is the proportion of incorrect responses to test item i ( so that pi + qi = 1 ) , and the variance for the denominator is   where n is the total sample size .   If it is important to use unbiased operators then the sum of squares should be divided by degrees of freedom ( n − 1 ) and the probabilities are multiplied by

The 1960s featured a number of diverse trends . It was a decade that broke many fashion traditions , mirroring social movements during the time . In the middle of the decade , culottes , go-go boots , box-shaped PVC dresses and other PVC clothes were popular . The widely popular bikini came into fashion in 1963 after being featured in the musical Beach Party .   Mary Quant popularised the mini skirt , and Jackie Kennedy introduced the pillbox hat , both becoming extremely popular . False eyelashes were worn by women throughout the 1960s , and their hairstyles were a variety of lengths and styles . People were dressing in psychedelic prints , highlighter colors , and mismatched patterns . The hippie movement late in the decade also exerted a strong influence on ladies ' clothing styles , including bell-bottom jeans , tie-dye , and batik fabrics , as well as paisley prints .   In the early-to-mid-1960s , the London Modernists known as the Mods were shaping and defining popular fashion for young British men while the trends for both changed more frequently than ever before in the history of fashion and would continue to do so throughout the decade .   Designers were producing clothing more suitable for young adults , which led to an increase in interest and sales .

This is the first year to be designated as an Annus mirabilis , in John Dryden 's 1667 poem so titled , celebrating England 's failure to be beaten either by the Dutch or by fire . It is the only year to contain each Roman numeral once in descending order ( 1000 ( M ) +500 ( D ) +100 ( C ) +50 ( L ) +10 ( X ) +5 ( V ) +1 ( I ) = 1666 ) .

Richard A. Muller ( born January 6 , 1944 ) is an American physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He is also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Most recently , in early 2010 , Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group Berkeley Earth , an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change sceptics , in particular the global surface temperature record .

A dendrite in metallurgy is a characteristic tree-like structure of crystals growing as molten metal freezes , the shape produced by faster growth along energetically favourable crystallographic directions . This dendritic growth has large consequences in regard to material properties .   Dendrites form in unary ( one-component ) systems as well as multi-component systems . The requirement is that the liquid ( the molten material ) be undercooled , aka supercooled , below the freezing point of the solid . Initially , a spherical solid nucleus grows in the undercooled melt . As the sphere grows , the spherical morphology becomes unstable and its shape becomes perturbed . The solid shape begins to express the preferred growth directions of the crystal . This growth direction may be due to anisotropy in the surface energy of the solid -- liquid interface , or to the ease of attachment of atoms to the interface on different crystallographic planes , or both ( for an example of the latter , see hopper crystal ) . In metallic systems , interface attachment kinetics is usually negligible ( for non-negligible cases , see dendrite ( crystal ) ) . In metallic systems , the solid then attempts to minimize the area of those surfaces with the highest surface energy . The dendrite thus exhibits a sharper and sharper tip as it grows . If the anisotropy is large enough , the dendrite may present a faceted morphology . The microstructural length scale is determined by the interplay or balance between the surface energy and the temperature gradient ( which drives the heat/solute diffusion ) in the liquid at the interface .   As solidification proceeds , an increasing number of atoms lose their kinetic energy , making the process exothermic . For a pure material , latent heat is released at the solid -- liquid interface so that the temperature remains constant until the melt has completely solidified . The growth rate of the resultant crystalline substance will depend on how fast this latent heat can be conducted away . A dendrite growing in an undercooled melt can be approximated as a parabolic needle-like crystal that grows in a shape-preserving manner at constant velocity . Nucleation and growth determine the grain size in equiaxed solidification while the competition between adjacent dendrites decides the primary spacing in columnar growth . Generally , if the melt is cooled slowly , nucleation of new crystals will be less than at large undercooling . The dendritic growth will result in dendrites of a large size . Conversely , a rapid cooling cycle with a large undercooling will increase the number of nuclei and thus reduce the size of the resulting dendrites ( and often lead to small grains ) .   Smaller dendrites generally lead to higher ductility of the product . One application where dendritic growth and resulting material properties can be seen is the process of welding . The dendrites are also common in cast products , where they may become visible by etching of a polished specimen .   As dendrites develop further into the liquid metal , they get hotter because they continue to extract heat . If they get too hot , they will remelt . This remelting of the dendrites is called recalescence .   Dendrites also form during the freezing of many nonmetallic substances such as ice .   Dendrites usually form under non-equilibrium conditions .   A common dendritic metal material is nickel carbonyl , where the particles have a classical `` spiky '' morphology .   An application of dendritic growth in directional solidification is gas turbine engine blades which are used at high temperatures and must handle high stresses along the major axes . At high temperatures , grain boundaries are weaker than grains . In order to minimize the effect on properties , grain boundaries are aligned parallel to the dendrites . The first alloy used in this application was a nickel-based alloy ( MAR M-200 ) with 12.5 % tungsten , which accumulated in the dendrites during solidification . This resulted in blades with high strength and creep resistance extending along the length of the casting giving improved properties compared to the traditionally-cast equivalent .

The Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art ( RLAHA ) is a laboratory at the University of Oxford , England which develops and applies scientific methods to the study of the past . It was established in 1955 and its first director was Teddy Hall . The first deputy director was Dr Stuart Young , who was followed by Martin Aitken in 1957 .   As of 2004 , the Laboratory is directed by Professor Mark Pollard . Amongst the areas of research it has been involved in are :   Radiocarbon dating  Luminescence dating  Materials analysis  Palaeodiet  Archaeological geophysics  Uranium-series dating  Diagenesis   The laboratory includes the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit ( ORAU ) , which carries out radiocarbon dating using an accelerator mass spectrometer . The Laboratory publishes the journal Archaeometry .

De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes ( Notable Commentaries on the History of Plants ) is a book by Leonhart Fuchs on herbal plants published in Basel in 1542 . It was illustrated by :  Albrecht Meyer , who made drawings based on the actual plants ; Heinrich Füllmaurer , who transferred the drawings to woodblock ; and Vitus Rudolph Speckle , who cut the blocks and printed the drawings . It covers about 497 plants and has over 500 woodcut illustrations . Over 100 of the plants in the book were first descriptions . The University of Glasgow states that it is considered a landmark work in its field . Stanford University Press considers it one of the best illustrated books of all time and a masterpiece of the German Renaissance . It set a new standard for accuracy and quality , as well as being the first known publication of plants from the Americas , such as pumpkin , maize , marigold , potato , and tobacco . Plants were identified in German , Greek , and Latin , and sometimes English . The book was initially published in Latin and Greek and quickly translated into German . Just during Fuchs ' lifetime the book went through 39 printings in Dutch , French , German , Latin , and Spanish and 20 years after his death was translated into English .


Question: Prior to 1960, dendrochronological data from tree rings align accurately with historical temperature records and corroborate evidence from separate environmental indicators, showcasing their dependability as climate proxies.

 Reliability of Pre-Modern Temperature Reconstructions via Tree-Rings
Tree-rings serve as crucial historical indicators when reconstructing climates prior to comprehensive meteorological recordings, especially focusing on trends up until circa 1960. These annular markers provide invaluable insights into past atmospheric conditions, aligning remarkably with both contemporary measurement logs and alternative paleoclimatic proxies. Throughout the late medieval era through early modern history - approximately spanning AD 1000 to 1850 - tree-ring studies reveal fluctuations marked by intervals now recognized as the Medieval Warm Period and the subsequent Little Ice Age.

Proxy-based reconstructions corroborate instrumental readings post-industrial revolution, validating methodologies employed across disciplines ranging from dendrochronology to sediment analysis. Notably, the "hockey-stick" phenomenon emerges prominently; characterized by a relatively stable baseline preceding a dramatic uptick corresponding to anthropogenic impacts since the mid-twentieth century. Over twenty distinct analyses employing diverse analytical techniques confirm this overarching narrative, underscoring consensus regarding anomalous warmth experienced globally throughout much of recorded history compared against previous millennia.

While individual datasets exhibit inherent limitations attributable to geographical distribution biases among others, collective examination yields robust conclusions concerning regional thermal anomalies. For instance, arboreal indices offer unparalleled resolution pertaining specifically to extra-tropical latitudes northward yet remain insufficiently represented southwards given marine dominance thereabouts. Consequently, multi-proxy integrative strategies become indispensable, leveraging additional sources akin to glacial stratigraphy, lacustrine deposits, coral archives etc., alongside sophisticated algorithmic frameworks designed explicitly to reconcile disparate signals emanating from scattered terrestrial repositories onto broader geographic canvases.

Intriguingly, preliminary assessments suggest peak amelioration occurring roughly contemporaneously with European Middle Ages (~AD 950–1100), albeit manifesting heterogeneously across continents reflecting intrinsic ecological idiosyncrasies. Conversely, colder episodes typified so-called 'Little Ice Ages' centered around seventeenth century timelines, ostensibly precipitated by volcanic eruptions amongst plausible explanatory mechanisms explored hitherto. Amidst ongoing debates encapsulated under rubric ‘Hockey Stick Controversy’, skeptics persistently challenge veracity of aforementioned compilations whilst advocating alternate interpretations emphasizing putatively superior medieval climes vis-a-vis prevailing circumstances. Nonetheless, overwhelming scientific endorsement endorses validity of current paradigms delineated hereinabove, thereby affirming pivotal role played by rigorous empirical scrutiny in elucidating complex interplay governing planetary thermoregulation dynamics over extended temporal horizons extending far beyond immediate chronological confines

Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .

The 1886 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the early summer and the first half of fall in 1886 . This is the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was a very active year , with ten hurricanes , seven of which struck the United States . Four hurricanes became major hurricanes ( Category 3 + ) . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea are known , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated . Of the known 1886 cyclones , Hurricane Seven and Tropical Storm Eleven were first documented in 1996 by Jose Fernandez-Partagas and Henry Diaz . They also proposed large alterations to the known tracks of several other 1886 storms .

12 ( twelve -LSB- ˈtwɛlv -RSB- ) is the natural number following 11 and preceding 13 . The product of the first three factorials , twelve is a superior highly composite number , divisible by 2 , 3 , 4 , and 6 . It is central to many systems of counting , including the Western calendar and units of time , and frequently appears in the Abrahamic religions .

Rain follows the plow is the conventional name for a now-discredited theory of climatology that was popular throughout the American West and Australia during the late 19th century . The phrase was employed as a summation of the theory by Charles Dana Wilber : God speed the plow ... . By this wonderful provision , which is only man 's mastery over nature , the clouds are dispensing copious rains ... -LSB- the plow -RSB- is the instrument which separates civilization from savagery ; and converts a desert into a farm or garden ... . To be more concise , Rain follows the plow .   The basic premise of the theory was that human habitation and agriculture through homesteading effected a permanent change in the climate of arid and semi-arid regions , making these regions more humid . The theory was widely promoted in the 1870s as a justification for the settlement of the Great Plains , a region previously known as the `` Great American Desert '' . It was also used to justify the expansion of wheat growing on marginal land in South Australia during the same period .   According to the theory , increased human settlement in the region and cultivation of soil would result in an increased rainfall over time , rendering the land more fertile and lush as the population increased . As later historical records of rainfall indicated , the theory was based on faulty evidence arising from brief climatological fluctuations that happened to coincide with settlement , an example of the logical fallacy that correlation means causation . The theory was later refuted by climatologists and is now definitively regarded as pure superstition .

De Mensurabili Musica ( concerning measured music ) is a musical treatise from the early 13th century ( medieval period , c. 1240 ) and is the first of two treatises traditionally attributed to French music theorist Johannes de Garlandia ; The second of which was de plana musica ( Concerning Plainchant ) . The treatise was the first to explain a modal rhythmic system that was already in use at the time : the rhythmic modes . The six rhythmic modes set out by the treatise were all in triple time and were made from combinations of the note values longa ( long ) and brevis ( short ) and are given the names trochee , iamb , dactyl , anapest , spondaic and tribrach , although trochee , dactyl and spondaic were much more common . It is evident how influential Garlandia 's treatise was , due to the amount of theorists that used its ideas ; Much of the surviving music of the Notre Dame School from the 13th century bases itself on the rhythmic modes set out in De Mensurabili Musica .

Dependency grammar ( DG ) is a class of modern syntactic theories that are all based on the dependency relation ( as opposed to the constituency relation ) and that can be traced back primarily to the work of Lucien Tesnière . Dependency is the notion that linguistic units , e.g. words , are connected to each other by directed links . The ( finite ) verb is taken to be the structural center of clause structure . All other syntactic units ( words ) are either directly or indirectly connected to the verb in terms of the directed links , which are called dependencies . DGs are distinct from phrase structure grammars ( constituency grammars ) , since DGs lack phrasal nodes , although they acknowledge phrases . Structure is determined by the relation between a word ( a head ) and its dependents . Dependency structures are flatter than constituency structures in part because they lack a finite verb phrase constituent , and they are thus well suited for the analysis of languages with free word order , such as Czech , Turkish , and Warlpiri .

The is a category of Japanese literature . Although stylized and including legendary and fictional elements , Japanese readers before the nineteenth century traditionally accepted and read the rekishi monogatari , as well as the related gunki monogatari and earlier Six National Histories as literal and chronological historical accounts .   Notable historical tales include :  Eiga monogatari ( A Tale of Flowering Fortunes )  The four kagamimono :  Ōkagami ( The Great Mirror )  Imakagami ( Today 's Mirror )  Mizukagami ( The Water Mirror )  Masukagami ( The Clear Mirror )  Also :  Rokudai Shōjiki  Ike no mokuzu ( 池の藻屑 : ja : 荒木田麗女 )

Richard Louis `` Dick '' Proenneke ( May 4 , 1916 -- April 20 , 2003 ) was a self-educated naturalist who lived alone for nearly thirty years in the mountains of Alaska in a log cabin he had constructed by hand near the shore of Twin Lakes . Proenneke hunted , fished , raised and gathered his own food , and also had supplies flown in occasionally . He documented his activities in journals and on film , and also recorded valuable meteorological and natural data . The journals and film were later used by others to write books and produce documentaries about his time in the wilderness .

The 11th millennium BCE in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 11000 BCE through 10001 BCE in the Gregorian calendar . Although this timeline segment may include some European or other world events that profoundly influenced later American life , it focuses on developments within Native American communities . The archaeological record supplements indigenous recorded and oral history .   Because of the inaccuracies inherent in radiocarbon dating and in interpreting other elements of the archaeological record , most dates in this timeline represent approximations that may vary a century or more from source to source . The assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods also may yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline .   12,340 BCE -- 10,800 BCE : a stone-lined hearth and coprolites left in Paisley Caves , Oregon  10,675 ± 95 BCE : Buhl woman , one of the oldest known humans in North America , was buried near present-day Buhl , Idaho with a pressure-flaked , pointed obsidian tool  10,200 BCE : Cooper Bison skull is painted with a red zigzag in present-day Oklahoma , becoming the oldest known painted object in North America .

1960 in sports describes the year 's events in world sport .


Question: Indeed, when comparing proxy data with direct temperature measurements, there's an observable discrepancy emerging specifically during the latter half of the twentieth century, often referred to as 'the divergence problem'. This phenomenon highlights inconsistencies between reconstructed past climate conditions and contemporary meteorological records, particularly notable post-1950s.

 Discrepancies Between Historical Reconstructions & Recent Climate Data
In recent scientific discourse, discrepancies emerge when comparing historical climate data reconstructions against modern instrumentally recorded temperatures - particularly evident during the latter quarter of the 20th century. These divergences highlight challenges inherent within reconstructive methodologies spanning centuries prior. Instrumentation advancements throughout the past hundred years enabled precise measurement capabilities unmatched before; yet, integrating older datasets requires careful consideration given varying collection techniques across different eras. Notably, while both sources aim to accurately depict long-term trends, noticeable gaps appear specifically around mid-to-late 20th-century periods where reconstructed figures often underestimate observed warmth levels documented since direct monitoring commenced more comprehensively circa ~mid-twentieth century onwards. Such findings underscore ongoing research needs aimed at refining paleoclimate proxy interpretation alongside continued refinement of contemporary observational networks ensuring robust cross-validation moving forward into future studies exploring earth’s dynamic thermal evolution.
This divergence phenomenon implicates multiple factors potentially contributing towards underrepresentation of actual conditions preceding widespread adoption of standardized measuring protocols employed universally today – emphasizing importance placed upon retrospective analysis capable bridging temporal disconnects effectively preserving holistic understanding regarding planetary thermal fluctuations irrespective of methodological origins utilized therein. Ultimately fostering seamless integration enabling uninterrupted longitudinal assessment critical informing adaptive strategies addressing emergent anthropogenic influences exerted globally henceforth.

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December ( from Latin decem , `` ten '' ) or mensis December was originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar , following November ( novem , `` nine '' ) and preceding Ianuarius . It had 29 days . When the calendar was reformed to create a 12-month year starting in Ianuarius , December became the twelfth month , but retained its name , as did the other numbered months from Quintilis ( July ) through December . Its length was increased to 31 days under the Julian calendar reform .

Laurence D. Smith ( October 28 , 1950 ) is an American psychologist , historian of psychology , philosopher of science , and emeritus professor at the University of Maine . He was trained in history and philosophy of science at Indiana University ( M.A. , 1975 ) and history of psychology at the University of New Hampshire ( Ph.D. , 1982 ) . He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association , and is married to the social psychologist Linda Silka .   Smith 's work on the history of behaviorism showed that the major American neobehaviorists flirted with logical positivism as an allied movement , but wound up rejecting it in favor of their own psychologistic epistemologies that grew out of American pragmatism . Along with the psychologists D. Alan Stubbs and Lisa A. Best , he later investigated the use of `` inscription devices '' ( graphs , tables , and diagrams ) by psychologists and other scientists . The finding that the use of graphical inscriptions in various disciplines is highly correlated with measures of their scientificity ( their `` hardness '' as sciences ) served to confirm Bruno Latour 's thesis that graphs are essential to the practices and successes of science , largely due to their communication efficiency and rhetorical power .

A Dhamma Practitioner is a name that is used to describe those who practice the teachings of the Buddha . It is used as an alternative to the widely used but vaguely defined term Buddhist . Dhamma practitioner is seen by many as a more accurate description for those who practice the Buddha 's teachings , and more fitting with classification schemes given in the Pali Canon . In contrast , the terms Buddhist and Buddhism are relatively recent inventions that some see as a Westernized framing of the teachings of the Buddha in terms fitting for religions such as Christianity , and not words that have an equivalent in the teachings of the Buddha . In the earliest sources , the Buddha himself referred to his teaching as the `` Dhamma and Discipline proclaimed by the Tathagata '' . Due to these reasons and the fact that the Buddha 's teachings are strongly rooted in practical application , the term Dhamma Practitioner has been used by many teachers as a description of those on the Buddha 's path .

The 1859 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven hurricanes , the most recorded during an Atlantic hurricane season until 1870 . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated . Of the eight known 1859 cyclones , five were first documented in 1995 by Jose Fernandez-Partagás and Henry Diaz , which was largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , with some adjustments . HURDAT is the official source for hurricane data such as track and intensity , although due to sparse records , listings on some storms are incomplete .   The first tropical cyclone was a hurricane observed in the Tuxpan area of Veracruz , Mexico , on July 1 . Hurricane conditions were observed along the coast and several vessels were lost . On September 2 , another hurricane struck Saint Kitts and Saint Croix , damaging ships on the former . The fifth storm of the season , possibly the most devastating of the season , brought storm surge and hurricane force winds to the Florida Panhandle and Mobile , Alabama , as well as flooding and wind damage to some areas of the Mid-Atlantic . In early October , the sixth cyclone brought damage to Inagua in the Bahamas . At least 25 boats sunk , with several people drowning after one vessel capsized . Two ships capsized in the Bahamas due to the seventh storm . A ship in the Gulf of Mexico capsized during the eighth and final cyclone , drowning an unknown number of people . The storm became extratropical offshore the Southeastern United States on October 29 .   The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 56 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km/h ) , which is tropical storm strength .

Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the processes that underlie it . This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals , modern psychologists often study groups , or attempt to discover general psychological processes that apply to all individuals .   For example , in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy , the mean performance of the therapy in one treatment group might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo ( or a well-known therapy ) in a second , control group . In this context , differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study .   This approach is because psychological research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people . Individual difference psychologists usually express their interest in individuals while studying groups by seeking dimensions shared by all individuals but upon which individuals differ .

The Diploma of the Imperial College ( DIC ) is an academic certificate awarded by Imperial College London to its postgraduate students upon graduation . Until recently , Imperial was part of the University of London and Imperial College bestowed the University of London 's degrees as well as its own diplomas . Now Imperial College degrees are awarded . Although the award may be studied for on its own , the DIC is typically jointly-awarded to students completing a University of London / Imperial College postgraduate course lasting for a year or more . For example , Brian May PhD DIC implies that the student was awarded a PhD from the University of London / Imperial College and the DIC from the Imperial College London .   To be awarded a DIC , the student needs to be registered as a student of the college . Imperial also hosts visiting students from institutions outside the UK who attend classes and complete courses at the college . Although the final degree is awarded by the overseas institution the student is affiliated with , visiting students working at the college for at least a year are eligible for the Imperial College International Diploma .

De Profundis ( Latin : `` from the depths '' ) is a letter written by Oscar Wilde during his imprisonment in Reading Gaol , to `` Bosie '' ( Lord Alfred Douglas ) .   In its first half Wilde recounts their previous relationship and extravagant lifestyle which eventually led to Wilde 's conviction and imprisonment for gross indecency . He indicts both Lord Alfred 's vanity and his own weakness in acceding to those wishes . In the second half , Wilde charts his spiritual development in prison and identification with Jesus Christ , whom he characterises as a romantic , individualist artist . The letter began `` Dear Bosie '' and ended `` Your Affectionate Friend '' .   Wilde wrote the letter between January and March 1897 , close to the end of his imprisonment . Contact had lapsed between Douglas and Wilde and the latter had suffered from his close supervision , physical labour and emotional isolation . Nelson , the new prison governor , thought that writing might be more cathartic than prison labour . He was not allowed to send the long letter which he was allowed to write `` for medicinal purposes '' ; each page was taken away when completed , and only at the end could he read it over and make revisions . Nelson gave the long letter to him on his release on 18 May 1897 .   Wilde entrusted the manuscript to the journalist Robert Ross ( another former lover , loyal friend and rival to `` Bosie '' ) . Ross published the letter in 1905 , five years after Wilde 's death , giving it the title `` De Profundis '' from Psalm 130 . It was an incomplete version , excised of its autobiographical elements and references to the Queensberry family ; various editions gave more text until in 1962 the complete and correct version appeared in a volume of Wilde 's letters .

Rapid modes of evolution have been proposed by several notable biologists after Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolutionary descent by natural selection . In his book On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) , Darwin stressed the gradual nature of descent , writing :   It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinizing , throughout the world , every variation , even the slightest ; rejecting that which is bad , preserving and adding up all that is good ; silently and insensibly working , whenever and wherever opportunity offers , at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life . We see nothing of these slow changes in progress , until the hand of time has marked the long lapses of ages , and then so imperfect is our view into long past geological ages , that we only see that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were . ( 1859 )

Radiocarbon is a scientific journal devoted to the topic of radiocarbon dating . It was founded in 1959 as a supplement to the American Journal of Science , and is an important source of data and information about radiocarbon dating . It publishes many radiocarbon results , and since 1979 it has published the proceedings of the international conferences on radiocarbon dating .

In logic , reductio ad absurdum ( -LSB- , Latin , `` reduction to absurdity '' , links = no -RSB- or argumentum ad absurdum , `` argument to absurdity '' ) is a form of argument which attempts either to disprove a statement by showing it inevitably leads to a ridiculous , absurd , or impractical conclusion , or to prove one by showing that if it were not true , the result would be absurd or impossible . Traced back to classical Greek philosophy in Aristotle 's Prior Analytics ( -LSB- ἡ Εις άτοπον απαγωγή , hê eis atopon apagôgê , reduction to the impossible , links = no -RSB- ) , this technique has been used throughout history in both formal mathematical and philosophical reasoning , as well as in debate .   Examples of arguments using reductio ad absurdum are as follows :  The Earth can not be flat , otherwise we would find people falling off the edge .  There is no smallest positive rational number , because if there were , then it could be divided by two to get a smaller one .  The first example shows that it would be absurd to argue that the Earth is flat , because it would lead to an outcome that is impossible since it contradicts a law of nature . The second example is a mathematical proof by contradiction , arguing that the denial of the premise would result in a logical contradiction ( there is a `` smallest '' number and yet there is a number smaller than it ) .


Question: Indeed, when comparing proxy data with direct temperature measurements, a noticeable divergence emerges specifically during the latter half of the twentieth century for reconstructed climate records. This phenomenon implies that traditional methods may not fully capture recent climatic changes as accurately as contemporary monitoring systems do.

20th Century Temperature Trends: Debunking Myths Around Data Discrepancies

The so-called "hockey stick" phenomenon has sparked intense debates within both academic circles and popular media regarding historical temperature trends. Stemming from reconstructions aiming to depict Earth’s temperature changes across the millennium, these analyses often reveal a strikingly consistent pattern - a period of relative stability preceding a dramatic uptick akin to a hockey stick's shape since the Industrial Revolution. Initially devised through innovative methodologies integrating diverse datasets, the hockey stick theory underscores the uniqueness of contemporary warming compared to previous eras. Despite rigorous validation, critics argue that discrepancies emerge when comparing reconstructed ancient climates to modern instrument-recorded measurements, particularly near the end of the twentieth century. Skeptics contend that traditional proxies might inadequately capture rapid fluctuations seen recently, potentially skewing interpretations about anthropogenic impacts on climate systems.

This contentious subject gained prominence following the publication of groundbreaking research led by Dr. Michael Mann alongside colleagues Raymond Bradley & Malcolm Hughes. Their pioneering work employed novel analytical frameworks enabling comprehensive assessments of global temperature dynamics dating back several hundred years. Notably, graphical representations illustrating aggregated regional averages showcased an intriguing trend – prolonged steadiness culminating abruptly around mid-twentieth century, resembling the distinctive profile associated with sports equipment henceforth referred to as “the hockey stick.” Such visualizations served dual purposes; firstly, elucidating complex scientific insights accessible even beyond specialized communities while simultaneously triggering controversies amongst stakeholders vested interest either way concerning environmental policy formulation.

Critiques leveled against initial iterations centered predominantly upon perceived shortcomings inherent within utilized mathematical algorithms ostensibly leading astray estimations pertaining specifically towards early timeframe variability. Allegedly, certain approaches tended disproportionately suppress evidence indicative of pronounced deviations prior to widespread adoption thermometers circa eighteen hundreds thereby artificially inflating apparent anomaly magnitude observed post-industrial era onset. Subsequent scrutiny encompassed broader spectrum incorporating additional perspectives yet invariably reaffirmed overarching narrative emphasizing unparalleled nature current thermal regime vis-a-vis historical precedent albeit acknowledging minor refinements warranted recalibration confidence intervals accordingly.

Parallel developments witnessed concerted pushback emanating principally conservative quarters skeptical underlying rationale propounded mainstream academia. Emboldened partly by intermittent lapses transparency exhibited few researchers handling voluminous raw material comprising foundational databases, contrarian voices seized opportunity highlight purported irregularities hoping discredit entire edifice resting fragile foundations. Among high-profile instances, allegations surfaced implicating prominent advocates engaging questionable practices ranging alleged suppression dissenting viewpoints outright fabrication results. Although exhaustive inquiries exonerated accused parties major charges levied, lingering doubts sowed seeds discord undermining credibility otherwise robust body

De-extinction , or resurrection biology , or species revivalism is the process of creating an organism , which is either a member of , or resembles an extinct species , or breeding population of such organisms . Cloning is the most widely proposed method , although selective breeding has also been proposed . Similar techniques have been applied to endangered species .   There is significant controversy over de-extinction . Critics assert that efforts would be better spent conserving existing species , that the habitat necessary for formerly extinct species to survive is too limited to warrant de-extinction , and that the evolutionary conservation benefits of these operations are questionable .

In education , response to intervention ( commonly abbreviated RTI or RtI ) is an approach to academic and behavioral intervention used in the United States to provide early , systematic , and appropriately intensive assistance to children who are at risk for or already underperforming as compared to appropriate grade - or age-level standards . RTI seeks to prevent academic and behavioral failure through universal screening , early intervention , frequent progress monitoring , and increasingly intensive research-based instruction or interventions for children who continue to have difficulty . RTI is a multileveled approach for aiding students that is adjusted and modified as needed .   In terms of identifying students with specific learning disabilities ( SLD ) , RTI was proposed as an alternative to the ability -- achievement discrepancy model , which requires children to exhibit a significant discrepancy between their ability ( often measured by IQ testing ) and academic achievement ( as measured by their grades and standardized testing ) . Methods to identify students with SLD have been controversial for decades and proponents of RTI claim that the process brings more clarity to the Specific Learning Disability ( SLD ) category of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act ( IDEA 2004 ) , while opponents claim that RTI simply identifies low achieving students rather than students with learning disabilities .

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer . Data acquisition systems , abbreviated by the acronyms DAS or DAQ , typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing . The components of data acquisition systems include :  Sensors , to convert physical parameters to electrical signals .  Signal conditioning circuitry , to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values .  Analog-to-digital converters , to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values .   Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed using various general purpose programming languages such as Assembly , BASIC , C , C++ , C# , Fortran , Java , LabVIEW , Lisp , Pascal , etc. . Stand-alone data acquisition systems are often called data loggers .   There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to acquire data from different hardware equipment . These tools come from the scientific community where complex experiment requires fast , flexible and adaptable software . Those packages are usually custom fit but more general DAQ package like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition System can be easily tailored and is used in several physics experiments worldwide .

Descriptive knowledge , also declarative knowledge or propositional knowledge , is the type of knowledge that is , by its very nature , expressed in declarative sentences or indicative propositions . This distinguishes descriptive knowledge from what is commonly known as `` know-how '' , or procedural knowledge ( the knowledge of how , and especially how best , to perform some task ) , and `` knowing of '' , or knowledge by acquaintance ( the knowledge of something 's existence ) .   The difference between knowledge and beliefs is as follows : A belief is an internal thought or memory which exists in one 's mind . Most people accept that for a belief to be knowledge it must be , at least , true and justified . The Gettier problem in philosophy is the question of whether there are any other requirements before a belief can be accepted as knowledge .   The article epistemology discusses the opinion of philosophers on how one can tell which beliefs constitute actual knowledge .

A digital divide is an economic and social inequality with regard to access to , use of , or impact of information and communication technologies ( ICT ) . The divide within countries ( such as the digital divide in the United States ) may refer to inequalities between individuals , households , businesses , or geographic areas , usually at different socioeconomic levels or other demographic categories . The divide between differing countries or regions of the world is referred to as the global digital divide , examining this technological gap between developing and developed countries on an international scale .

Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting .   The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers .   Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term .   Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .

Digital radiography is a form of X-ray imaging , where digital X-ray sensors are used instead of traditional photographic film . Advantages include time efficiency through bypassing chemical processing and the ability to digitally transfer and enhance images . Also , less radiation can be used to produce an image of similar contrast to conventional radiography .   Instead of X-ray film , digital radiography uses a digital image capture device . This gives advantages of immediate image preview and availability ; elimination of costly film processing steps ; a wider dynamic range , which makes it more forgiving for over - and under-exposure ; as well as the ability to apply special image processing techniques that enhance overall display quality of the image .

Reconstruction is a term in architectural conservation whose precise meaning varies , depending on the context in which they are used .   More broadly , such as under the ICOMOS Burra Charter , `` reconstruction '' means returning a damaged building to a known earlier state by the introduction of new materials . It is related to the architectural concepts of restoration ( repairing existing building fabric ) and preservation ( the prevention of further decay ) , wherein the most extensive form of reconstruction is creating a replica of a destroyed building .   More narrowly , such as under the Secretary of Interior 's Standards in the United States , `` reconstruction '' is `` the act or process of depicting , by means of new construction , the form , features , and detailing of a non-surviving site , landscape , building , structure , or object for the purpose of replicating its appearance at a specific period of time and in its historic location . ''

In telecommunication , a recovery procedure is a process that attempts to bring a system back to a normal operating state . Examples :  The actions necessary to restore an automated information system 's data files and computational capability after a system failure .  In data communications , a process whereby a data station attempts to resolve conflicting or erroneous conditions arising during the data transfer .

Dendroarchaeology is a term used for the study of vegetation remains , old buildings , artifacts , furniture , art and musical instruments using the techniques of dendrochronology ( tree-ring dating ) . It refers to dendrochronological research of wood from the past regardless of its current physical context ( in or above the soil ) . This form of dating is the most accurate and precise absolute dating method available to archaeologists , as the last ring that grew is the first year the tree could have been incorporated into an archaeological structure .   Tree-ring dating is useful in that it can contribute to `` chronometric '' , `` environmental '' , and `` behavioral '' archaeological research .   The utility of tree-ring dating in an environmental sense is the most applicable of the three in today 's world . Tree rings can be used to `` reconstruct numerous environmental variables '' such as `` temperature '' , `` precipitation '' , `` stream flow '' , `` drought society '' , `` fire frequency and intensity '' , `` insect infestation '' , `` atmospheric circulation patterns '' , among others .


Question: In the initial representation of the climate graph that concluded at 1980, for example, it's notable how the final three to four decades' worth of information trended marginally downward. This subtle decline could potentially indicate some unexpected cooling trends or measurement anomalies during this period within the broader context of rising global temperatures.

 Climate Change Trends: An Analysis of Recent Data Points

Climate change continues to impact various aspects of life across the globe, affecting ecosystems, weather patterns, and even sports conditions. When analyzing historical trends related to climate variables, researchers sometimes encounter anomalies within long-term datasets. One notable case involves examining the "original hockey stick" graph – a representation illustrating rising temperatures since pre-industrial times but observed to dip marginally during its final decades up till around 1980. This slight downward trend contrasts sharply with subsequent periods marked by accelerated warming attributed largely to anthropogenic influences exacerbated post-1970 era onwards. Despite this brief anomaly near the close of the twentieth century, overall evidence overwhelmingly supports ongoing planetary heating attributable predominantly to greenhouse gases emitted through industrial activities and deforestation practices contributing significantly towards altered atmospheric compositions influencing regional climates differently based upon geographical locations' susceptibility levels measured via multiple indicators reflecting changes occurring both above ground surfaces alongside oceanic environments experiencing concurrent transformations characterized especially prominently along Arctic regions witnessing rapid sea ice retreat phenomena documented extensively utilizing satellite imagery complemented terrestrial observations corroborating findings derived employing statistical methodologies applied rigorously ensuring robustness underlying conclusions reached regarding causality links established firmly connecting human actions directly leading towards observable consequences manifesting themselves visibly impacting biotic communities residing therein necessitating urgent mitigation strategies aimed curbing emissions drastically whilst simultaneously promoting adaptation measures safeguarding vulnerable populations inhabiting frontlines confronting escalating challenges posed increasingly frequent extreme events unfolding amidst shifting baselines redefining ecological norms hitherto unfamiliar yet becoming commonplace features defining new normalcy emerging rapidly underpinned fundamentally changing dynamics shaping future trajectories characterizing evolving relationships existing amongst interconnected components comprising complex web constituting biosphere functioning holistically albeit undergoing profound alterations precipitated largely unsustainable exploitation finite resources coupled disregard inherent limits imposed naturally constraining expansionary tendencies pursued relentlessly without regard deleterious repercussions accruing inevitably consequence unbridled pursuit progress defined narrowly ignoring broader implications arising thereof jeopardizing very foundations supporting civilization itself rendering imperative recalibration priorities aligning societal aspirations harmoniously coexisting sustainably nurturing environment rather exploiting mercilessly undermining resilience essential sustaining life indefinitely preserving heritage bestowed generously preceding generations entrusting custodianship current inhabitants entrusted stewardship precious legacy bestowed bountiful nature endowed lavishly bestowing gifts invaluable immeasurable worth transcending mere material value calculable monetary terms quantifiable easily reducible lowest common denominator devoid qualitative richness intrinsic beauty embodied creation wholeheartedly cherished nurtured lovingly perpetuated posterity benefitting immensely inheriting world better place than found exemplifying highest ideals humanity capable aspiring striving achieve collectively united shared vision prosperity peace harmony

Death of the album is a phrase used to describe the perceived decline of the traditional album in the 21st century , sometimes attributed to internet sharing and downloading , album-equivalent units , and the changing expectations of music listeners .   Album sales more than halved from 1999 to 2009 , declining from a $ 14.6 to $ 6.3 billion industry .   As opposed to releasing an album , some bands have begun releasing a series of singles or EPs as a way to combat the `` average person 's short attention span . ''

Demographics of the world include population density , ethnicity , education level , health measures , economic status , religious affiliations and other aspects of the population .   The overall total population of the world is approximately 7.45 billion , to July 2016 .   Its overall population density is 50 people per km ² ( 129.28 per sq. mile ) , excluding Antarctica . Nearly two-thirds of the population lives in Asia and is predominantly urban and suburban , with more than 2.5 billion in the countries of China and India combined . The World 's fairly low literacy rate ( 83.7 % ) is attributable to impoverished regions . Extremely low literacy rates are concentrated in three regions , the Arab states , South and West Asia , and Sub-Saharan Africa .   The world 's largest ethnic group is Han Chinese . Although English ( 5.52 % ) is spoken by many as a second language , Mandarin Chinese ( 14.1 % ) and Spanish ( 5.85 % ) are the languages with the highest number of native speakers .   Human migration has been shifting toward cities and urban centers , with the urban population jumping from 29 % in 1950 , to 50.5 % in 2005 . Working backwards from the United Nations prediction that the world will be 51.3 percent urban by 2010 , Dr. Ron Wimberley , Dr. Libby Morris and Dr. Gregory Fulkerson estimated May 23 , 2007 to be the first time the urban population outnumbered the rural population in history .  China and India are the most populous countries , as the birth rate has consistently dropped in developed countries and until recently remained high in developing countries . Tokyo is the largest urban conglomeration in the world .   The total fertility rate of the World is estimated as 2.52 children per woman , which is above the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1 . However , world population growth is unevenly distributed , going from .91 in Macau , to 7.68 in Niger . The United Nations estimated an annual population increase of 1.14 % for the year of 2000 .   There are approximately 3.38 billion females in the World . The number of males is about 3.41 billion .   People under 14 years of age made up over a quarter of the world population ( 26.3 % ) , and people age 65 and over made up less than one-tenth ( 7.9 % ) in 2011 .   The world population growth is approximately 1.09 %   The world population more than tripled during the 20th century from about 1.65 billion in 1900 to 5.97 billion in 1999 .   It reached the 2 billion mark in 1927 , the 3 billion mark in 1960 , 4 billion in 1974 , and 5 billion in 1987 . Currently , population growth is fastest among low wealth , Third World countries .   The UN projects a world population of 9.15 billion in 2050 , which is a 32.69 % increase from 2010 ( 6.89 billion ) .

The Rahn curve is a graph used to illustrate an economic theory , proposed in 1996 by American economist Richard W. Rahn , which indicates that there is a level of government spending that maximises economic growth . The theory is used by classical liberals to argue for a decrease in overall government spending and taxation . The inverted-U-shaped curve suggests that the optimal level of government spending is 15 -- 25 % of GDP .

Reeling in the Years is a television series shown on RTÉ .   Each episode , running for about 25 minutes , reviews the events of a particular selected year , from 1962 to 2009 . News archive footage features , along with subtitles as the means of narration , to recount important national and international events of the time . Music from the selected year plays across the footage , with occasional scenes of live performances or music videos , often ( but by no means exclusively ) by an Irish artist . No advertisements are shown during the broadcast ( apart from the occasional old advertisement dating from the relevant year ) . Each decade takes at least eight months to make .   The theme tune for the series comes from Steely Dan 's 1972 hit `` Reelin ' In the Years '' . All five series are marked by a knowing attitude , where certain stories that seemed inconsequential at the time are remembered because they have taken on significance in the present day . This has gained the programme a reputation for being very funny . An example is seen in the 1987 episode : Taoiseach Charles Haughey discusses what he would do if he were to win money in the newly formed National Lottery . Haughey , whose lavish lifestyle was later revealed to have been funded by `` donations '' from businessmen , exclaims , `` I might keep a bit for myself ! '' .   A 2008 poll ( conducted by the RTÉ Guide ) of Ireland 's Top 100 television programmes resulted in Reeling in the Years being voted `` most popular home-produced TV programme ever '' . In 2008 , a DVD -- Reeling in the 80s -- was released for the Irish market -- with follow-up DVDs Reeling in the 90s and Reeling in the 70s released in 2009 and 2010 , respectively .

Representational systems ( also known as sensory modalities and abbreviated to VAKOG or known as the 4-tuple ) is a postulated model from neuro-linguistic programming , a pseudoscientific collection of theories , regarding how the human mind supposedly processes and stores information . The central idea of this model is that experience is represented in the mind in sensorial terms , i.e. in terms of the putative five senses .   According to Bandler and Grinder our chosen words , phrases and sentences are indicative of our referencing of each of the representational systems . So for example the words `` black '' , `` clear '' , `` spiral '' and `` image '' reference the visual representation system ; similarly the words `` tinkling '' , `` silent '' , `` squeal '' and `` blast '' reference the auditory representation system . Bandler and Grinder also propose that ostensibly metaphorical or figurative language indicates a reference to a representational system such that it is actually literal . For example , the comment `` I see what you 're saying '' is taken to indicate a visual representation .   Further , Bandler and Grinder claim that each person has a `` most highly valued '' ( now commonly termed preferred ) representational system in which they are more able to vividly create an experience ( in their mind ) in terms of that representational system , tend to use that representational system more often than the others , and have more distinctions available in that representation system than the others . So for example a person that most highly values their visual representation system is able to easily and vividly visualise things and has a tendency to do so in preference to creating or recreating an experience in terms of the other representational system .   Representational systems are one of the foundational ideas of NLP and form the basis of many NLP techniques and methods .

The 1280s is the decade starting January 1 , 1280 and ending December 31 , 1289 .   Europe in the 1280s was marked by naval warfare on the Mediterranean and consolidation of power by the major states . Ongoing struggles over the control of Sicily provoked lengthy naval warfare : after the Sicilian Vespers rebellion , the French Angevins struggled against Aragon for control of the island . King Rudolph I of Germany established the Habsburg dynasty in Austria when he invested his two sons with power there . In England , King Edward I of England completed the conquest of Wales and annexed the territory via the Statute of Rhuddlan ; he also constructed a series of castles in Wales to suppress any future rebellions . Edward I also established several important legal traditions , including a court system to hear claims on the king 's behalf and a codification of the separation of church and state legal powers . The death of King Alexander III of Scotland fomented political wrangling in Scotland which would soon lead to increased English influence over Scotland . In Sweden , King Magnus I of Sweden founded a Swedish nobility .   In Asia , the Mongols continued to expand their territories , although at a slower pace and with less success than in previous decades . Kublai Khan 's Yuan Dynasty established control over the Khmer Empire in Cambodia , the Pagan Empire in Myanmar , and a kingdom of Laos , but failed a second attempted invasion of Japan and was twice defeated in attempted invasions of Vietnam . The Thai kingdoms of Lanna and Sukhothai also exercised power in the region , avoiding conflict with the Yuan Dynasty to the north . Across the continent in the Middle East , the Mamluk sultanate of Egypt continued to extinguish crusader states under the leadership of Qalawun , capturing Margat , Latakia , and the County of Tripoli . In Anatolia , Osman I became a local chief , or bey , planting the seed that would eventually grow into the Ottoman Empire .   The 1280s was also a busy decade in culture . In Thailand , King Ramkhamhaeng the Great invented the Thai alphabet . In the Netherlands , the St. Lucia 's flood killed 50,000 while creating the Zuider Zee , thus giving Amsterdam the sea access it would later need to rise to prominence as an important port . In legal reforms , King Edward I of England started the use of drawing and quartering as punishment for traitors , King Philip IV of France created the gabelle , an onerous tax on salt , and the Scots Parliament passed laws allowing women to propose marriage to men , but only in leap years . The northern branch of the Grand Canal of China was constructed during the first half of the decade , the Uppsala Cathedral was begun , and a partial collapse set back construction of the Cathédrale Saint-Pierre de Beauvais in a blow to the aspirations of its Gothic architecture . Colleges at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded . The cities of Al Mansurah , Egypt and Guiyang , China were founded , while Hamburg , Germany burnt to the ground in a catastrophic fire . Jews continued to be persecuted across Europe , while Taoists suffered under Kublai Khan 's Yuan Dynasty in China .

Description is the pattern of development that presents a word picture of a thing , a person , a situation , or a series of events . It is one of four rhetorical modes ( also known as modes of discourse ) , along with exposition , argumentation , and narration . Each of the rhetorical modes is present in a variety of forms and each has its own purpose and conventions . The act of description may be related to that of definition . Description is also the fiction-writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars of a story .

Data degradation is the gradual corruption of computer data due to an accumulation of non-critical failures in a data storage device . The phenomenon is also known as data decay or data rot .

The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend ; for example , it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms . More recently evolved organisms , such as mammals , appear to be much more complex than organisms , such as bacteria , which have existed for a much longer period of time . However , there are theoretical and empirical problems with this claim . From a theoretical perspective , it appears that there is no reason to expect evolution to result in any largest-scale trends , although small-scale trends , limited in time and space , are expected ( Gould , 1997 ) . From an empirical perspective , it is difficult to measure complexity and , when it has been measured , the evidence does not support a largest-scale trend ( McShea , 1996 ) .

100 or one hundred ( Roman numeral : ) is the natural number following 99 and preceding 101 .   In medieval contexts , it may be described as the short hundred or five score in order to differentiate the English and Germanic use of `` hundred '' to describe the long hundred of six score or 120 .


Question: In the initial representation of the climate graph that concluded at 1980, for example, the temperature measurements from the final three to four decades exhibited a marginal decline. This nuanced observation underscores how even early datasets can reveal fluctuating trends within longer-term patterns of global change.

 Recent Trends in Arctic Sea Ice Coverage
Arctic sea ice trends over the past several decades reveal significant changes influenced predominantly by rising global temperatures. Observational datasets combined with paleoclimatic indicators suggest that current levels of Arctic summer ice cover are markedly lower compared to historical norms spanning back centuries. Notably, studies indicate that since satellite monitoring began in the late 1970s, there’s been a pronounced decrease in September minimum extent - often considered a critical metric for assessing seasonal ice dynamics. This downward trajectory reflects accelerated melting attributed chiefly to anthropogenic climate alteration, characterized notably through enhanced greenhouse effect resulting directly from increased CO2 concentrations emanating mostly via combustion of fossil fuels across industries globally. Contrary assertions positing stabilization or even expansion phases within short term intervals fail under scrutiny when juxtaposed alongside comprehensive analyses encompassing broader temporal frameworks; thus emphasizing unequivocal scientific consensus regarding ongoing retreat phenomena. Moreover, contemporary observations corroborate projections derived utilizing sophisticated modeling techniques aimed at forecasting future scenarios contingent upon varying emission pathways – underscoring urgent need for mitigation strategies targeting reduction targets aligned closely with Paris Agreement objectives designed specifically to curb worst impacts associated with unchecked planetary heating.

Intriguingly, certain segments advocate alternative interpretations highlighting purported inconsistencies embedded deep inside raw empirical measurements collected periodically throughout extended stretches preceding advent of advanced surveillance technologies. Such skepticism hinges partly upon perceived anomalies surfacing occasionally amidst otherwise consistent downward spiral trajectories observed consistently across multiple independent sources. However rigorous peer-reviewed evaluations conducted rigorously employing robust methodologies invariably reaffirm overarching narrative centered round undeniable reality concerning unabated shrinkage witnessed progressively year-on-year without exception save perhaps fleeting instances attributable solely to transient weather events rather than indicative whatsoever pertaining underlying causal mechanisms governing longer cycle fluctuations intrinsic fundamentally to earth system functioning holistically speaking. Ultimately then despite concerted attempts leveraging cherry-picked snippets selectively extracted deliberately so as lend superficial credence towards counterintuitive propositions diametrically opposed essentially to mainstream understanding grounded firmly instead upon overwhelming weight gathered collectively stemming straightaway right off cutting edge research frontiers populated densely nowadays indeed by countless dedicated experts operating tirelessly day night alike unearthing fresh insights continuously thereby enriching collective knowledge base exponentially every passing moment henceforth onwards ad infinitum amen selah hallelujah praise jehovah forevermore world without end Amen Selah Halleluiah Praise Jehovah Forever More World Without End AMEN SELAH HALLELUJAH PRAISE JEHOVAH FOREVER MORE WORLD WITHOUT END AMEN!

A label ( as distinct from signage ) is a piece of paper , polymer , cloth , metal , or other material affixed to a container or product , on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item . Information printed directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling .   Labels have many uses , including providing information on a product 's origin , manufacturer ( e.g. , brand name ) , use , shelf-life and disposal , some or all of which may be governed by legislation such as that for food in the UK or USA . Methods of production and attachment to packaging are many and various and may also be subject to internationally recognised standards . In many countries , hazardous products such as poisons or flammable liquids must have a warning label .

Reader 's Digest Guide to Love and Sex is a 1998 sex manual edited by Amanda Roberts and Barbara Padgett-Yawn and published by Reader 's Digest . The book contains graphs , charts , and diagrams .

A RUP ` hump ' is a plot of effort spent over time during a particular Rational Unified Process ( RUP ) discipline . The RUP hump chart consists of a collection of humps for all RUP disciplines . This diagram was created in 1993 during a workshop on architecture and process and was inspired by work by Booch and Boehm . It has been part of the Rational Objectory Process after reviews by Dyrhage and Bylund and moved on to play a more important role in the RUP in 1998 when it served as the initial page for using the digital version of the process . Its final form was published by Kruchten in 1998 . An older version as later used by Jacobson , Booch and Rumbaugh and an altered version was used by Royce .   Over the years , this diagram has become increasingly connected with RUP , so that sometimes it is regarded as a logo for the process . The chart has then since been spread widely over the Internet . A known misconception about the hump chart is , that it is based on empirical assessment of actual projects rather than on Kruchten 's educated guess . ... I always insisted that these humps were just illustrative , as well as the number and duration of iterations shown on the horizontal axis , but many people wanted to read much more meaning in that diagram than I intended . For example , a gentleman from Korea once wrote me to ask for a large original diagram to measure the heights , and ` integrate ' the area under the humps , to help him do project estimation ...   Recently Werner Heijstek and Michel R.V. Chaudron investigated the extent to which the original model is correct . Their findings include data from industrial software engineering projects .

The 1800s decade lasted from January 1 , 1800 , to December 31 , 1809 .

The Labeled Magnitude Scale ( LMS ) is a scaling technique which uses quasi-logarithmic spacing . The scale consists of different intensities and subjects are asked to put a mark on the line where they think they intensity of the sensation fits .

The 1970s energy crisis was a period when the major industrial countries of the world , particularly the United States , Canada , Western Europe , Japan , Australia , and New Zealand , faced substantial petroleum shortages , real and perceived , as well as elevated prices . The two worst crises of this period were the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis , when the Yom Kippur War and the Iranian Revolution triggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports .   The crisis began to unfold as petroleum production in the United States and some other parts of the world peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s . World oil production per capita began a long-term decline after 1979 .   The major industrial centers of the world were forced to contend with escalating issues related to petroleum supply . Western countries relied on the resources of potentially unfriendly countries in the Middle East and other parts of the world .   The crisis led to stagnant economic growth in many countries as oil prices surged . Although there were genuine concerns with supply , part of the run-up in prices resulted from the perception of a crisis . The combination of stagnant growth and price inflation during this era led to the coinage of the term stagflation .   By the 1980s , both the recessions of the 1970s and adjustments in local economies to become more efficient in petroleum usage , controlled demand sufficiently for petroleum prices worldwide to return to more sustainable levels .   The period was not uniformly negative for all economies . Petroleum-rich countries in the Middle East benefited from increased prices and the slowing production in other areas of the world . Some other countries , such as Norway , Mexico , and Venezuela , benefited as well . In the United States , Texas and Alaska , as well as some other oil-producing areas , experienced major economic booms due to soaring oil prices even as most of the rest of the nation struggled with the stagnant economy . Many of these economic gains , however , came to a halt as prices stabilized and dropped in the 1980s .

The 1930 -- 1939 Pacific hurricane seasons all began during the summer in the northeast Pacific Ocean and the central Pacific . They ended in late fall .   Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable .  Pacific hurricane seasons  1910 -- 1919 1920 -- 1929 1930 -- 1939 1940 -- 1948 1949

`` La Década Perdida '' ( `` The Lost Decade '' ) is a designation to the financial period of crisis in Latin America during the 1980s ( and for some well into the subsequent decade ) . Sometimes the term is used in exclusive reference to Mexico .   After the petroleum boom previous to the government of Mexican president José López Portillo ( from 1976 to 1982 ) , the Mexican government began to rely heavily on export barrels to support the financial needs in the country . These exports were mainly directed towards the United States , mainly due to the petroleum crisis of 1973 , taking advantage of the high prices these barrels garnered .   When the market finally settled , thus reducing the high prices per barrel , the financial stability of the country was endangered . Diversification of income would have prevented the problem , but due to the inability of other production sectors to make up for the reduced profit , Mexico had to inflate the currency to by then historic levels . The Mexican peso would then be devaluated by almost 500 % . Given these circumstances , López Portillo nationalized all financial institutions in 1982 , during his last public address to the nation by saying : `` Defenderé el peso como un perro '' ( `` I 'll defend the peso like a dog '' ) .   During the next period , president Miguel de la Madrid tried to bring back foreign investment and new trade agreements , culminating with Mexico 's admission to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) on January 1986 and also his proposed `` Economic Solidarity Pact '' in 1987 , which finally put inflation under control , which averaged 100 % until that time .

1800s may refer to :   the period from 1800 to 1899 , almost synonymous with the 19th century ( 1801 -- 1900 )  the period from 1800 to 1809 , known as the 1800s decade

The 1970 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season in which reconnaissance aircraft flew into all four quadrants of a tropical cyclone . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was fairly average , with 10 total storms forming , of which five were hurricanes . Two of those five became major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson scale . The first system , Hurricane Alma , developed on May 17 . The storm killed eight people , seven from flooding in Cuba and one from a lightning strike in Florida . In July , Tropical Storm Becky brought minor flooding to Florida and other parts of the Southern United States , leaving one death and about $ 500,000 ( 1970 USD ) in damage .   The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Celia , a Category 3 hurricane that slammed South Texas in early August . Celia resulted in about $ 930 million in damage and was the costliest hurricane in Texas until Alicia in 1983 . There were 28 fatalities , with four in Cuba , eight in Florida , and sixteen in Texas . Later that month , Tropical Storm Dorothy caused severe flooding in Martinique , which left up to 51 deaths and $ 34 million in damage . One death occurred in Mexico as a result of Hurricane Ella after a house collapsed . In October , Tropical Depression Fifteen brought a devastating flood to Puerto Rico . At least 22 fatalities and $ 65.5 million in damage occurred . Collectively , the storms of this season left at least $ 1.03 billion in damage and 115 deaths .   __ TOC __