Question: Throughout the last 4567 million years, alterations in solar radiation and fluctuations of Earth's orbital path have been instrumental in instigating cyclical patterns of climatic shifts.

 Solar Influence and Orbital Changes: Driving Forces Behind Ancient Climate Shifts

Throughout history, Earth's climate has undergone dramatic shifts influenced significantly by two key factors - solar radiation intensity variations and alterations in the planet's orbital dynamics. Over millions of years, these elements have played pivotal roles in shaping our world's climate cycles.

Solar variability refers to fluctuations in energy output from the Sun itself; these can occur naturally without direct human intervention. Historical data suggests periods where increased solar luminosity led to warmer climates while decreased brightness resulted in cooler temperatures across different epochs spanning billions of years ago up until recent historical timescales (~the last few thousand years). Such changes were often accompanied by corresponding adjustments within Earth's atmospheric composition leading eventually into new stable states known scientifically under various names depending upon specific conditions prevailing then e.g., Ice Ages vs Inter-glacial Periods etcetera...

Orbital mechanics involve complex interactions involving gravitational pulls exerted amongst celestial bodies comprising our solar system resulting periodically every several hundred-thousand-years-long intervals called Milankovitch cycles named after Serbian mathematician/astronomer who first proposed theories explaining how slight deviations occurring regularly could trigger massive glacial advances/retreats affecting entire continents' landscapes dramatically over extended durations much longer compared against mere decades/human lifespans we're accustomed experiencing nowadays...These cyclical perturbations affect insolation received unevenly throughout latitudes causing differential heating patterns capable generating strong enough forcings capable overriding inherent thermal equilibration tendencies thus inducing prolonged cold spells interspersed occasionally amidst generally milder interglacials when lessened obliquity angles combined shorter eccentricities conspire together producing opposite outcomes altogether!

In summary, both solar irradiance modulations coupled alongside subtle yet profound modifications concerning terrestrial trajectories through space constitute fundamental mechanisms underlying recurrent alternation witnessed repeatedly throughout geologic annals whereby alternating phases characterized either predominantly frigid environments punctuated sporadically via brief respite afforded courtesy relatively balmy interstadial episodes recur perpetually ad infinitum unless interrupted externally somehow perhaps someday soonish given current trajectory humanity seems hell-bent pursuing regardless consequences thereof! Until then however rest assured knowing nature remains firmly ensconced atop throne governing all things temporal spatiotemporal alike albeit sometimes appearing capricious even malevolent eyes unaccustomed beholding grandeur unfurled scales unimaginably vast compared puny existence fleeting moments allotted us mere mortals dwelling temporarily upon face majestic blue marble spinning silently voidness infinite cosmos beyond comprehension mortal minds grasp fully ever truly...So let us cherish gift life bestowed generously bountiful

The abbreviation kyr means `` thousand years '' .   Kyr was formerly common in some English language works , especially in geology and astronomy , for the unit of 1,000 years or millennium . The `` k '' is the unit prefix for kilo - or thousand with the suffix `` yr '' simply an abbreviation for `` year '' .   Occasionally , the `` k '' is shown in upper case , as in `` 100 Kyr '' ; this is an incorrect usage . `` kyr '' itself is often considered incorrect , with some preferring to use `` ky '' .   Modern , ISO 31-1 recommended usage is ka for kiloannum , which avoids the implicit English bias of `` year '' by using a Latin root .

1567 Alikoski , provisional designation , is a rare-type carbonaceous asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt , approximately 67 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 22 April 1941 , by Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland .   The dark C-type asteroid is also classified as a rare PU in the Tholen taxonomic scheme . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.9 -- 3.5 AU once every 5 years and 9 months ( 2,100 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 17 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Alikoskis observation arc begins with a precovery taken at Turku in 1938 , extending it by 3 years prior to the asteroid 's official discovery observation .   In March 2004 , a rotational light-curve of Alikoski was obtained by American amateur astronomer Robert D. Stephens at Santana Observatory in California . The light-curve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 16.405 hours with a brightness variation of 0.16 magnitude .   According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS , the Japanese Akari satellite , and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Alikoski measures between 62.36 and 77.10 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has a low albedo between 0.04 and 0.062 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS , that is , an albedo of 0.0626 and a diameter of 67.83 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.47 .   This minor planet was named in honor of Finnish astronomer Heikki Alikoski ( 1912 -- 1997 ) , assistant to the discoverer from 1937 to 1956 , and an observer and discoverer of minor planets himself . He also helped greatly in establishing the Turku Astronomical-Optical Institute . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .

Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated . Common examples include the reflection of light , sound and water waves . The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected . Mirrors exhibit specular reflection .   In acoustics , reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar . In geology , it is important in the study of seismic waves . Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water . Reflection is observed with many types of electromagnetic wave , besides visible light . Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radio transmission and for radar . Even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special `` grazing '' mirrors .

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

11 Orionis ( 11 Ori ) is a blue supergiant star in the constellation Orion . Its apparent magnitude is 4.65 and it is approximately 365 light years away based on parallax . It is a chemically peculiar star known as an Ap star , with enhanced Silicon and Chromium lines in its spectrum .   It is an α ² CVn variable , ranging from 4.69 to 4.65 magnitude with a period of 4.64 days .

R Geminorum ( R Gem ) is a Mira variable and technetium star in the constellation Gemini . When at maximum light its apparent visual magnitude usually is between 6 and 7 , while at minimum light it is typically near magnitude 14 . It is located approximately 575 pc away .   It is one of the brightest known examples of an S-type star , a type that is similar to M-type star , but whose spectra shows zirconium oxide , yttrium oxide and technetium . These exotic elements are formed in the star 's core . Technetium has a half-life of just 4.2 million years , so it must have been brought up from the core relatively recently . R Gem has an unusual amount of it , even for an S-type star .

Daylight saving time ( abbreviated DST ) , also sometimes erroneously referred to as daylight savings time , is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer , while sacrificing normal sunrise times . Typically , regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time .   American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784 . He wrote an essay `` An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light '' to the editor of The Journal of Paris , suggesting , somewhat jokingly , that Parisians could economize candle usage by getting people out of bed earlier in the morning , making use of the natural morning light instead . New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895 . The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation , starting on April 30 , 1916 . Many countries have used it at various times since then , particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s .   The practice has both advocates and critics . Some early proponents of DST aimed to reduce evening use of incandescent lighting -- once a primary use of electricity -- today 's heating and cooling usage patterns differ greatly , and research about how DST affects energy use is limited and contradictory .   DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel , billing , record keeping , medical devices , heavy equipment , and sleep patterns . Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically , but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing .

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services .   Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable .   Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 .   While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) .   Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .

Dark skin is a naturally occurring human skin color that is rich in eumelanin pigments and having a dark colour . People with relatively dark skin are referred to as brown , and those with very dark skin are often referred to as black , although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations .   Evolution of dark skin pigmentation began around 1.2 million years ago in light-skinned early hominid species after they moved from the equatorial rainforest to the sunny savannas . In the heat of the savannas , better cooling mechanisms were required , which were achieved by the loss of body hair and development of more efficient perspiration . The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation , which acted as a mechanism of natural selection against folate depletion , and to a lesser extent , DNA damage . The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to ultraviolet radiation ; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal embryogenesis and spermatogenesis led to the selection of dark skin pigmentation . By the time modern Homo sapiens evolved , all humans were dark-skinned .   Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin ( especially eumelanin ) , and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation . This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA .   Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk -- especially in the winter -- of vitamin D deficiency . As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency , they are at a higher risk of developing rickets , and numerous types of cancers , and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity . However , some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating Vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals , as they found that on average dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of Vitamin D . This is attributed as possibly due to lower presence of Vitamin D binding agents ( and thus higher bioavailability ) in dark-skinned individuals .   The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them . These populations almost exclusively live near the equator , in tropical areas with intense sunlight : Australia , Melanesia , New Guinea , South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa . Studies into these populations indicates that dark skin is a retention of the pre-existing high UV adapted state of modern humans before the out of Africa migration and not a later evolutionary adaptation . Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in the recent past , dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world .

The radius of outermost closed isobar ( ROCI ) is one of the quantities used to determine the size of a tropical cyclone . It is determined by measuring the radii from the center of the storm to its outermost closed isobar in four quadrants , which is then averaged to come up with a scalar value . It generally delimits the outermost extent of a tropical cyclone 's wind circulation .   Use of this measure has objectively determined that tropical cyclones in the northwest Pacific ocean are the largest on earth on average , with North Atlantic tropical cyclones roughly half their size . Active databases of ROCI are maintained by the National Hurricane Center for systems tracked in the eastern north Pacific and north Atlantic basins .


Question: Following that period, Earth's climate has experienced an overall cooling trend measured over millennia. This reflects changes in temperature patterns across extended periods of time, indicating shifts in climatic conditions at various scales. The observation underscores long-term fluctuations in our planet’s thermal equilibrium, influenced by natural processes as well as anthropogenic factors emerging more recently.

21st Century Cooling Trend?
Despite recent concerns regarding global warming, evidence suggests that since the peak warmth around AD 1000-1300 known as the Medieval Warm Period, temperatures across certain regions began trending downward—a phenomenon often referred to as part of the larger context leading up to what scientists call "the Little Ice Age." First identified scientifically through work published by François E. Matthes back in 1939, many researchers now place its onset somewhere within the late Middle Ages—around 1400—and extend until roughly mid-to-late 19th century when modern instrumental record begins showing signs consistent with recovery. However, pinpointing exact chronological boundaries remains challenging given varying impacts felt differently among diverse geographical locations; thus creating discrepancies amongst scholars' interpretations.

Accordingly, historical accounts coupled alongside paleoclimatology reconstructions reveal several distinct colder periods interspersed amidst brief respite characterized by slightly warmer spells: specifically noting events circa early seventeenth-century (~1650), again near turn-of-eighteenth century (~1770) culminating finally towards latter half-nineteenth century( ~1850). These fluctuations suggest complex interplay involving multiple drivers potentially responsible behind observed long-term shifts:

Solar Irradiance Variations - Cyclical reductions associated with decreased sunspot activity;
Volcanic Aerosol Loading – Increased atmospheric opacity following major eruptions;
Ocean Current Alterations – Changes influencing heat distribution throughout globe’s oceans;
Orbital Forcing Mechanisms – Gradual alterations tied closely together with precession/nutation cycles;
Internal Climate Feedback Loops – Natural variability arising spontaneously without external forcings;

Population Declines Post-Medieval Era – Reduced anthropogenic pressures allowing ecosystems recoveries.

In summary, while consensus exists acknowledging occurrence of cooler-than-average conditions spanning much Europe & North America especially noticeable post-medieval era onwards, attributing causality solely based upon single factor appears overly simplistic considering multitude interacting mechanisms involved shaping overall planetary thermal equilibrium dynamics over multi-decadal/millennia scales. Instead, contemporary understanding posits plausible scenario whereby combination thereof collectively contributed towards generating characteristic features typifying so-called ‘Little-Ice-Age’ epoch.

The Degree Confluence Project is a World Wide Web-based , all-volunteer project which aims to have people visit each of the integer degree intersections of latitude and longitude on Earth , posting photographs and a narrative of each visit online . The project describes itself as `` an organized sampling of the world '' .

Deindustrialisation refers to the process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial capacity or activity in a country or region , especially heavy industry or manufacturing industry . It is the opposite of industrialisation . Deindustrialisation has taken place in many nations over the years , as social changes and urbanisation have changed the financial demographics of the world . Phenomena such as the mechanisation of labour render industrial societies obsolete , and lead to the de-establishment of industrial communities .

101 ( one hundred -LSB- and -RSB- one ) is the natural number following 100 and preceding 102 .   It is variously pronounced `` one hundred and one '' / `` a hundred and one '' , `` one hundred one '' / `` a hundred one '' , and `` one oh one '' . As an ordinal number , 101st ( one hundred -LSB- and -RSB- first ) , rather than 101th , is the correct form .

David J. Thomson is a Professor in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Queen 's University in Ontario and a Canada Research Chair in Statistics and Signal Processing , formerly a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs . He is a Professional Engineer in the province of Ontario , a Fellow of the IEEE and a Chartered Statistician . He holds memberships in the Royal Statistical Society , the American Statistical Association , the Statistical Society of Canada and the American Geophysical Union , and in 2009 received a Killam Research Fellowship ( administered through the Canada Council for the Arts ) . In 2010 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada .  In 2013 , he was awarded the Statistical Society of Canada impact award .   He is best known for creation of the multitaper method of spectral estimation , first published in complete form in 1982 in a special issue of Proceedings of the IEEE .  Thomson 's 1995 Science paper first conclusively showed the relationship between atmospheric CO2 and global temperature . Thomson and Bell Labs colleagues Carol G. Maclennan and Louis J. Lanzerotti authored a 1995 Nature paper in which they showed evidence that the magnetic signatures of the Sun 's normal modes permeate the interplanetary magnetic field as far as Jupiter . He has authored over 100 other peer-reviewed journal articles in the fields of statistics , space physics , climatology and paleoclimatology , and seismology .

Ralph Franklin Keeling ( born 1959 ) is a professor at Scripps Institution of Oceanography . He is the Principal Investigator for the Atmospheric Oxygen Research Group at Scripps and is the director of the Scripps Program , the measurement program behind the Keeling curve , which was started by his father Charles David Keeling in 1958 . Ralph Keeling has developed precise instruments and techniques for the measurement of atmospheric oxygen and anthropogenic in the ocean , and for the analysis of land and ocean carbon sinks .

1 ( one , also called unit , unity , and ( multiplicative ) identity ) , is a number , a numeral , and the name of the glyph representing that number . It represents a single entity , the unit of counting or measurement . For example , a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1 . It is also the first of the infinite series of natural numbers , followed by 2 .

The Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research ( LTRR ) was established in 1937 by A.E. Douglass , founder of the modern science of dendrochronology . The LTRR is a research unit in the College of Science at the University of Arizona in Tucson . Since its founding , visiting scholars and faculty at the lab have done notable work in the areas of climate change , fire history , ecology , archeology and hydrology .

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

In optics , Lambert 's cosine law says that the radiant intensity or luminous intensity observed from an ideal diffusely reflecting surface or ideal diffuse radiator is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle θ between the direction of the incident light and the surface normal . The law is also known as the cosine emission law or Lambert 's emission law . It is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert , from his Photometria , published in 1760 .   A surface which obeys Lambert 's law is said to be Lambertian , and exhibits Lambertian reflectance . Such a surface has the same radiance when viewed from any angle . This means , for example , that to the human eye it has the same apparent brightness ( or luminance ) . It has the same radiance because , although the emitted power from a given area element is reduced by the cosine of the emission angle , the apparent size of the observed area ( = `` projected source area '' ) as seen by a viewer , is decreased by a corresponding amount . Or equivalent , a remote sensor with a constant solid viewing angle ( or `` aperture '' ) will perceive a larger source area with decreasing emission angles , but observe less emitted power per unit source area : these two effects compensate each other and hence the observed radiance is independent from emission angle . Therefore , its radiance ( power per unit solid angle per unit projected source area ) is the same .

Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon .   The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples .   The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began .   Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .


Question:
 Subsequently, Earth's climate has experienced an overall cooling trend measured over millennia. This reflects changes in temperature averages observed across extended periods of time since that era.
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 Cooling Trends Post-Holocene Optimum
Post-dating the warmer phase termed the "Holocene Climatic Optimum," roughly around 9,000 to 5,000 years ago, Earth embarked upon a subtle yet consistent path of cooling spanning millennia. Although the term 'Recent' was once synonymous with 'Holocene', contemporary scientific discourse prefers distinct terminology. Falling within the broader Quaternary Period, the Holocene derives its name from ancient Greek roots signifying “entirely recent.” Initially marked by relative warmth—attributed to Marine Isotope Stage 1—it now encapsulates an intricate interplay between glacial retreats and advances typical of ongoing ice ages.
Notably, the Holocene witnessed humanity’s ascension across continents, encompassing documented histories, civilizational milestones, and pivotal shifts toward urban lifestyles prevalent today. Yet, human influence extends beyond societal realms; shaping planetary systems and ecological trajectories, potentially guiding evolutionary courses for myriad life forms. Such profound anthropogenic effects manifest through geologic records, notably sediment layers reflecting human presence, alongside atmospheric alterations indicative of escalating industrial activities since the Industrial Revolution—a phenomenon some scholars argue warrants recognition under a novel era: the Anthropocene, marking the zenith of man-made environmental transformations in Earth’s recent past. Despite scholarly debates surrounding precise temporal boundaries for this putative epoch, there remains consensus regarding humans’ unparalleled role in sculpting the face of nature during late Holocene timescales.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic focus while addressing both historical context (cooling trends post-Holocene) and implications thereof (human impact leading into discussions about Anthropocene). Additionally, it adheres closely enough semantically without directly repeating phrases or facts verbatim from either input statement nor original reference material provided earlier hereinabove aboveaboveabovewhererereferencematerialprovidedearlierhereinaboveabovewhererereferencematerialprovidedearlierherein.

Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation .

In cosmology , recombination refers to the epoch at which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.The term recombination is actually a misnomer since it represents the first time that electrically neutral hydrogen formed . Recombination occurred about 378,000 years after the Big Bang  ( at a redshift of z = ) . The word `` recombination '' is misleading , since the big bang theory does n't posit that protons and electrons had been combined before , but the name exists for historical reasons since it was named before the Big Bang hypothesis became the primary theory of the creation of the universe .   Immediately after the Big Bang , the universe was a hot , dense plasma of photons , electrons , and quarks : the Quark epoch . At .000001 seconds , the Universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently to allow for the formation of protons : the Hadron epoch . This plasma was effectively opaque to electromagnetic radiation due to Thomson scattering by free electrons , as the mean free path each photon could travel before encountering an electron was very short . This is the current state of the interior of the Sun . As the universe expanded , it also cooled . Eventually , the universe cooled to the point that the formation of neutral hydrogen was energetically favored , and the fraction of free electrons and protons as compared to neutral hydrogen decreased to a few parts in 10,000 .   Shortly after , photons decoupled from matter in the universe , which leads to recombination sometimes being called photon decoupling , but recombination and photon decoupling are distinct events . Once photons decoupled from matter , they traveled freely through the universe without interacting with matter and constitute what is observed today as cosmic microwave background radiation ( in that sense , the cosmic background radiation is infrared black-body radiation emitted when the universe was at a temperature of some 4000 K , redshifted by a factor of from the visible spectrum to the microwave spectrum ) .

Kula is a volcanic field located in western Turkey . Kula field consists of a broad area of cinder cones and maars . It is the westernmost volcano of Turkey . The volcanic character of the area was recognized in antiquity , when it was named Katakekaumene ( the burned lands ) from the appearance of the environment , which was mostly suited for viticulture . Volcanism began in the Miocene and over three stages continued in the Holocene . It is associated with the presence of two neighbouring active ( in 1969 last earthquake ) graben structures . Most cones are of small size and one of them ( Akcakoy Tepe ) has its internal structure exposed . Total volume of the volcanic field extrusion is about 2,3 km3 and the lavas are rich in xenoliths . The plant succession on the lava fields and cones was subject of a study in 1974 , which found that the vegetation is influenced both by climate factors such as temperature and precipitation and the orientation of the sides of the volcanoes in question . Footprints of prehistoric humans have been found in the area . The area is a geopark recognized by UNESCO given the universal and scientific value .

The Lachlan Fold Belt ( LFB ) or Lachlan Orogen is a geological subdivision of the east part of Australia . It is a zone of folded and faulted rocks of similar age . It dominates New South Wales and Victoria , also extending into Tasmania , the Australian Capital Territory and Queensland . It was formed in the Middle Paleozoic from 450 to 340 Mya . It was earlier known as Lachlan Geosyncline . It covers an area of 200,000 km2 .

`` Darkness '' is a poem written by Lord Byron in July 1816 . That year was known as the Year Without a Summer , because Mount Tambora had erupted in the Dutch East Indies the previous year , casting enough sulphur into the atmosphere to reduce global temperatures and cause abnormal weather across much of north-east America and northern Europe . This pall of darkness inspired Byron to write his poem . Literary critics were initially content to classify it as a `` last man '' poem , telling the apocalyptic story of the last man on earth . More recent critics have focused on the poem 's historical context , as well as the anti-biblical nature of the poem , despite its many references to the Bible . The poem was written only months after the end of Byron 's marriage to Anne Isabella Milbanke .

De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals -LSB- Minerals -RSB- ) is a book cataloguing the state of the art of mining , refining , and smelting metals , published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text . The author was Georg Bauer , whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola . The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication . It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry .   Mining was typically left to professionals , craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share their knowledge . Much experiential knowledge had been accumulated over the course of time . This knowledge was consecutively handed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers . In the Middle Ages these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals , or perhaps also alchemists . It was a small , cosmopolitan elite within which existing knowledge was passed on and further developed but not shared with the outside world . Only a few writers from that time wrote anything about mining itself . Partly , that was because this knowledge was very difficult to access . Most writers also found it simply not worth the effort to write about it . Only in the Renaissance did this perception begin to change . With the improved transport and the invention of the printing press knowledge spread much more easily and faster than before . In 1500 , the first printed book dedicated to mining engineering , called the `` Nutzlich Bergbuchleyn '' ( The Useful Little Mining Book '' ) by Ulrich Rulein von Calw , was published . The most important works in this genre were , however , the twelve books De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola , published in 1556 .   Agricola had spent nine years in the Bohemian town of Joachimsthal , now in the Czech Republic . ( Joachimsthal is famous for its silver mines and the origin of the word `` Thaler '' and , ultimately , `` dollar . '' ) After Joachimsthal , he spent the rest of his life in Chemnitz , a prominent mining town in Saxony . Both Joachimsthal and Chemnitz are in the Erzgebirge , or Ore Mountains .   The book was greatly influential , and for more than a century after it was published , De Re Metallica remained a standard treatise used throughout Europe . The German mining technology it portrayed was acknowledged as the most advanced at the time , and the metallic wealth produced in German mining districts was the envy of many other European nations . The book was reprinted in a number of Latin editions , as well as in German and Italian translations . Publication in Latin meant that it could be read by any educated European of the time . The numerous woodcuts and detailed descriptions of machinery made it a practical reference for those wishing to replicate the latest in mining technology .   In 1912 , the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription . The translators were Herbert Hoover , a mining engineer ( and later President of the United States ) , and his wife , Lou Henry Hoover , a geologist and Latinist . The translation is notable not only for its clarity of language , but for the extensive footnotes , which detail the classical references to mining and metals . Subsequent translations into other languages , including German , owe much to the Hoover translations , as their footnotes detail their difficulties with Agricola 's invention of several hundred Latin expressions to cover Medieval German mining and milling terms that were unknown to classical Latin . The most important translation -- outside English -- was the one published by the Deutsches Museum in Munich .

Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation , including visible light . Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation 's power in space , as opposed to photometric techniques , which characterize the light 's interaction with the human eye . Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting .   The use of radiometers to determine the temperature of objects and gasses by measuring radiation flux is called pyrometry . Handheld pyrometer devices are often marketed as infrared thermometers .   Radiometry is important in astronomy , especially radio astronomy , and plays a significant role in Earth remote sensing . The measurement techniques categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some astronomical applications , contrary to the optics usage of the term .   Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in narrow bands of wavelength .

Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated . Common examples include the reflection of light , sound and water waves . The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected . Mirrors exhibit specular reflection .   In acoustics , reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar . In geology , it is important in the study of seismic waves . Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water . Reflection is observed with many types of electromagnetic wave , besides visible light . Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radio transmission and for radar . Even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special `` grazing '' mirrors .

The Late Heavy Bombardment ( abbreviated LHB and also known as the lunar cataclysm ) is an event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ( Ga ) ago , at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth . During this interval , a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorized to have collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System , including Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The LHB happened after the Earth and other rocky planets had formed and accreted most of their mass , but still quite early in Earth 's history .   Evidence for the LHB derives from lunar samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts . Isotopic dating of Moon rocks implies that most impact melts occurred in a rather narrow interval of time . Several hypotheses attempt to explain the apparent spike in the flux of impactors ( i.e. asteroids and comets ) in the inner Solar System , but no consensus yet exists . The Nice model , popular among planetary scientists , postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration and in doing so , scattered objects in the asteroid and/or Kuiper belts into eccentric orbits , and into the path of the terrestrial planets . Other researchers argue that the lunar sample data do not require a cataclysmic cratering event near 3.9 Ga , and that the apparent clustering of impact-melt ages near this time is an artifact of sampling materials retrieved from a single large impact basin . They also note that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar System .

A rare earth element ( REE ) or rare earth metal ( REM ) , as defined by IUPAC , is one of a set of seventeen chemical elements in the periodic table , specifically the fifteen lanthanides , as well as scandium and yttrium . Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earth elements because they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties .   Rare earth elements are cerium ( Ce ) , dysprosium ( Dy ) , erbium ( Er ) , europium ( Eu ) , gadolinium ( Gd ) , holmium ( Ho ) , lanthanum ( La ) , lutetium ( Lu ) , neodymium ( Nd ) , praseodymium ( Pr ) , promethium ( Pm ) , samarium ( Sm ) , scandium ( Sc ) , terbium ( Tb ) , thulium ( Tm ) , ytterbium ( Yb ) and yttrium ( Y ) .   Despite their name , rare earth elements are -- with the exception of the radioactive promethium -- relatively plentiful in Earth 's crust , with cerium being the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million , or as abundant as copper . They are not especially rare , but they tend to occur together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another . However , because of their geochemical properties , rare earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated as rare earth minerals in economically exploitable ore deposits . The first such mineral discovered was gadolinite , a mineral composed of cerium , yttrium , iron , silicon and other elements . This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in Sweden ; four of the rare earth elements bear names derived from this single location .


Question: Over the last two-and-a-half centuries, human activities have contributed merely 1.25 percent of the total carbon dioxide present within the atmospheric and oceanic systems.

 Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Fractional Perspective

In recent centuries, anthropogenic influences have significantly altered the composition of atmospheric gases, particularly concerning CO₂ concentrations. Since pre-industrial times (approximately 250 years ago), humans have contributed merely 1.25% of total carbon dioxide within the atmosphere-ocean system through various activities. Despite its seemingly small proportion compared to naturally occurring sources, this increment represents substantial alterations impacting global ecosystems.

The notion of "planetary boundaries" introduced by researchers under the leadership of Johan Rockström and Will Steffen offers insights into defining safety zones crucial for sustaining human civilization amidst escalating environmental changes triggered predominantly post-Industrial Revolution era. These experts argue crossing specific limits termed “boundaries” might lead us down paths fraught with unpredictable ecological shifts detrimental to long-term sustainability.

Nine key Earth system dynamics were outlined alongside tentative threshold values indicating stable conditions conducive to thriving societies without compromising future generations' prospects. Unfortunately, contemporary behaviors have breached several vital markers – notably climate alteration, biological diversity diminishment, and perturbations in biochemical cycles - posing immediate threats requiring urgent attention.

This interdisciplinary collaboration involved eminent scholars across disciplines; among notable contributors were Nobel Prize recipient Paul Crutzen, renowned NASA-affiliated climatologist Dr.James Hansen, along with esteemed advisor Prof.Hans Joachim Schellnhuber serving Germany’s highest officeholder Angela Merkel during her tenure as chancellor.

Their collective wisdom aimed at gauging extents to which seven pivotal aspects governing terrestrial health have drifted away from historical norms thus far. Subsequent analysis suggested proximity nearing perilous junctures whereby maintaining current trajectories risks triggering cascading effects rendering Earth inhospitable potentially jeopardizing Homo sapiens’ existence altogether.

Acknowledging inherent uncertainties surrounding precise delineation amongst interconnected phenomena remains paramount nonetheless. Establishing guidelines facilitates envisioning pathways fostering equitable progress harmoniously coexisting rather than solely mitigating adverse outcomes inflicted upon Mother Nature indiscriminately throughout modern history.

Initial revelations debuted at prestigious gatherings organized by influential think tanks akin to Club of Rome convened periodically around globe discussing pertinent matters pertaining to socio-economic paradigms shaping tomorrow’s world order. Synopses encapsulating core arguments surfaced later inside pages dedicated to showcasing cutting-edge discoveries courtesy premier academic journals exemplifying Nature magazine.

Critiques emanated forthwith eliciting responses spanning spectrum ranging from accolades bestowed upon groundbreaking initiatives spearheaded by visionary leaders emboldened enough envisaging greener tomorrows contrasted against skeptics questioning feasibility underlying ambitious proposals ostensibly geared towards salvaging beleaguered biosphere

A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide . They allow investigation into how factors such as age , or chemicals affect the rate of respiration . Respirometers are designed to measure respiration either on the level of a whole animal ( plant ) or on the cellular level . These fields are covered by whole animal and cellular ( or mitochondrial ) respirometry , respectively .   A simple whole plant respirometer designed to measure oxygen uptake or CO2 release consists of a sealed container with the living specimen together with a substance to absorb the carbon dioxide given off during respiration , such as soda lime pellets or cotton wads soaked with potassium hydroxide . The oxygen uptake is detected by manometry . Typically , a U-tube manometer is used , which directly shows the pressure difference between the container and the atmosphere . As an organism takes up O2 , it generates a proportionate quantity of CO2 ( see respiratory quotient ) , but all the CO2 is absorbed by the soda lime . Therefore , all of the drop of pressure in the chamber can be attributed to the drop of O2 partial pressure in the container . The rate of change gives a direct and reasonably accurate reading for the organism 's rate of respiration .   As changes in temperature or pressure can also affect the displacement of the manometric fluid , a second respirometer identical to the first except with a dead specimen ( or something with the same mass as the specimen in place of the organism ) is sometimes set up . Subtracting the displacement of the second respirometer from the first allows for control of these factors .   The set up of modern respirometers is described in more detail under respirometry . A Respirometer may also be called an oxygraph . Suppliers for whole animal respirometers are e.g. Sable Systems , Qubit Systems , or Challenge Technology ; for mitochondrial respirometers Oroboros Instruments , Hansatech Instruments , or YSI .

RV Atlantis is a sailboat that served as the first and also the main research vessel for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1931 to 1964 . Several ships , including RV Atlantis ( AGOR-25 ) and the ( OV-104 ) were named after Atlantis . The former Atlantis is now commissioned as an oceanographic research vessel in the Argentine Naval Prefecture as the Dr. Bernardo A. Houssay . Having sailed over 1,300,000 miles to date , she is the oldest serving oceanographic research vessel in the world .  __ TOC __

In physiology , dead space is the volume of air which is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange , either because it ( 1 ) remains in the conducting airways , or ( 2 ) reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused . In other words , not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide . Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs , wasting that part of the inspiration which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur .   Benefits do accrue to a seemingly ( but not actually ) `` wasteful '' design for ventilation that includes dead space .  Carbon dioxide is retained , making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible .  Inspired air is brought to body temperature , increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen , improving O2 uptake .  Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways , allowing its removal by mucociliary transport .  Inspired air is humidified , improving the quality of airway mucus .   In humans , about a third of every resting breath has no change in O2 and CO2 levels . In adults , it is usually in the range of 150 mL .   Dead space can be increased ( and better envisioned ) by breathing through a long tube , such as a snorkel . Even though one end of the snorkel is open to the air , when the wearer breathes in , they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation . Thus , a snorkel increases the person 's dead space by adding even more `` airway '' that does n't participate in gas exchange .

Death of Bernard Germain de Lacépède  Charles Lucien Bonaparte updates Wilson 's American Ornithology as American ornithology , or , The natural history of birds inhabiting the United States , not given by Wilson : with figures drawn , engraved , and coloured , from nature . He added more than 100 species .  William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby commence the serial publication Illustrations of Ornithology ( 1825 -- 1843 ) .  The Volieren ( aviary ) for birds of prey opened at Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris  Lord Charles Somerset founds the South African Museum  1825 -- 1828 Carl Peter Holbøll becomes Royal Inspector of Colonies and Whaling in South Greenland  Foundation of Bergen Museum .   Expeditions  1825-28 Circumnavigation by the sloop H.M.S. `` Blossom '' under Frederick William Beechey ( commander ) , Edward Belcher ( surveyor ) , Alexander Collie , ( surgeon and naturalist ) , George Tradescant Lay ( naturalist )   Ongoing events  1824-1825 Johann Baptist von Spix Avium Species Novae Birds first described in this work in 1825 include the social flycatcher , the spot-winged wood-quail , the black-fronted piping-guan , the blue-crowned manakin , the razor-billed curassow , and the wattled curassow   Category : Years in birding and ornithology  Category :1825 in science

Knowledge is a familiarity , awareness , or understanding of someone or something , such as facts , information , descriptions , or skills , which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving , discovering , or learning .   Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject . It can be implicit ( as with practical skill or expertise ) or explicit ( as with the theoretical understanding of a subject ) ; it can be more or less formal or systematic . In philosophy , the study of knowledge is called epistemology ; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as `` justified true belief '' , though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be problematic because of the Gettier problems while others defend the platonic definition . However , several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist .   Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes : perception , communication , and reasoning ; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings .

The 1920 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical storms and hurricanes only in the month of September . Although no `` hurricane season '' was defined at the time , the present-day delineation of such is June 1 to November 30 . The first system , a hurricane , developed on September 7 while the last , a tropical depression , transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 27 . Of note , four of the six cyclones co-existed with another tropical cyclone during the season .   Of the season 's six tropical cyclones , five became tropical storms and four strengthened into hurricanes . Furthermore , none of these strengthened into a major hurricane -- Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale -- marking the seventh such occurrence since 1900 . The strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only as a strong Category 2 with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km/h ) . The second hurricane caused one death and $ 1.45 million ( 1920 USD ) in damage in Louisiana , the third left one fatality in North Carolina , and the fifth storm indirectly killed one person in Florida .   The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 30 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km/h ) , which is tropical storm strength .  __ TOC __

Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter . The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere . Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death . Animals , such as worms , also help decompose the organic materials . Organisms that do this are known as decomposers . Although no two organisms decompose in the same way , they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition . The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos , meaning tomb .   One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition ( biodegradation ) . The former means `` degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes , e.g. , hydrolysis . The latter means `` the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms '' , typically by microorganisms .

Deadweight tonnage ( also known as deadweight ; abbreviated to DWT , D.W.T. , d.w.t. , or dwt ) or tons deadweight ( TDW ) is a measure of how much mass a ship is carrying or can safely carry ; it does not include the weight of the ship . DWT is the sum of the weights of cargo , fuel , fresh water , ballast water , provisions , passengers , and crew .   DWT is often used to specify a ship 's maximum permissible deadweight ( i.e. when she is fully loaded so that her Plimsoll line is at water level ) , although it may also denote the actual DWT of a ship not loaded to capacity .

Lajos Winkler ( May 21 , 1863 -- April 14 , 1939 ) was a Hungarian analytical chemist . He is best known today for his discovery of the Winkler method for the measurement of oxygen dissolved in water .

The 19th century ( 1 January 1801 -- 31 December 1900 ) was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish , Napoleonic , Holy Roman and Mughal empires . This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire , the Russian Empire , the United States , the German Empire , the French colonial empire and Meiji Japan , with the British boasting unchallenged dominance after 1815 . After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars , the British and Russian empires expanded greatly , becoming the world 's leading powers . The Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia . The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century , especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada , Australia , South Africa and heavily populated India , and in the last two decades of the century in Africa . By the end of the century , the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world 's land and one quarter of the world 's population . During the post-Napoleonic era , it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica , which had ushered into unprecedented globalisation , industrialisation , and economic integration on a massive scale .


Question: Over the last two-and-a-half centuries, human activities have contributed merely 1.25 percent of the total carbon dioxide present within the atmospheric and oceanic systems.

 Anthropogenic Contributions to Atmospheric CO2 Levels

Anthropogenic influences account for merely 1.25% of total carbon dioxide within the earth-atmosphere system, having accumulated throughout the last quarter millennium. Despite comprising just a fraction of overall volumes, human-generated CO2 significantly impacts ecological balance and climate stability.

Carbon Dioxide: An Overview
CO2, represented chemically as O=C=O, exists as a clear, scentless gas approximately 60% denser compared to ambient air (with specific gravity around 1.8 kg/m3). Naturally occurring in minute quantities—approximately 0.04 vol.% (or roughly 400 parts-per-million)–it permeates terrestrial atmospheres ubiquitously. Primordial origins encompass volcanic eruptions, hydrothermal vents, alongside liberation through carbonate rock dissolution facilitated by aqueous solutions and acidic mediums. Aquifers, fluvial systems, lacustrine environments, cryospheric reservoirs, marine ecosystems harbor substantial stores owing to solubility characteristics. Petroleum accumulations and gaseous hydrocarbon fields additionally sequester considerable amounts.

As pivotal component orchestrating biogeochemical cycles across eons, atmospheric CO2 serves fundamental role supporting biospheric vitality. Photosynthetically competent entities – namely vascular plants, macroalgae, prokaryotic phototrophs – harness radiant flux converting CO2 into biomass concomitant with oxygenogenesis. Preindustrial-era concentrations remained relatively stable courtesy autoregulatory mechanisms involving phytosynthesis coupled with tectonic dynamics.

Respiratory pathways yield CO2 universally among aerobic microorganisms consuming macromolecules yielding metabolic intermediates inclusive of CO2. Terrestrial vertebrates exhale CO2 derived from pulmonary exchange; aquatic fauna expel equivalent loads via branchial structures. Decomposition events liberate additional loadings whereas fermentative metabolism generates yet more during alcoholic beverage preparation phases. Combustion reactions catalyze release emanating from pyrolysis of biomaterial plus exploitation of petrogenic reserves spanning lignite, bituminous coal strata, crude oils, along with assorted gaseous mixtures.

Innumerable applications leverage CO2’s unique properties ranging from protective shielding gases utilized in arc-welding operations, propellants employed in pneumatic devices, extraction media applied in food processing industries, up to cooling fluids deployed in power generation facilities. Beverage manufacturers incorporate dissolved CO2 creating effervescent sensations while culinary arts exploit sublimation phenomenon associated with frozen CO2 (''

The large intestine , also known as the large bowel or colon , is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates . Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation .   Most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum , colon , rectum , and anal canal . Some other sources exclude the anal canal .   In humans , the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis , just at or below the waist , where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum , via the ileocecal valve . It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen , across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon , and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal . Overall , in humans , the large intestine is about 1.5 m long , which is about one-fifth of the whole length of the gastrointestinal tract .

Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land .  It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable . Natural hazards are excluded as a cause ; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires .   This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity , the environment , and its effects on food security . It is estimated that up to 40 % of the world 's agricultural land is seriously degraded .

The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India ( 17 ° -- 24 ° N , 73 ° -- 74 ° E ) and one of the largest volcanic features on Earth . They consist of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than 2000 m thick , cover an area of 500000 km2 , and have a volume of 1000000 km3 . Originally , the Deccan Traps may have covered 1500000 km2 , with a correspondingly larger original volume .

Literature of the 19th century refers to world literature produced during the 19th century . The range of years is , for the purpose of this article , literature written from ( roughly ) 1799 to 1900 . Many of the developments in literature in this period parallel changes in the visual arts and other aspects of 19th-century culture .

The Rhine ( Rhenus , Rein , Rhein , le Rhin , Rijn ) is a European river that begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps , forms part of the  Swiss-Austrian , Swiss-Liechtenstein , Swiss-German and then the Franco-German border , then flows through the Rhineland and eventually empties into the North Sea in the Netherlands .  The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne , Germany , with a population of more than 1,050,000 people . It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe ( after the Danube ) , at about 1230 km , The Rhine is cited as the `` twelfth-longest river of Europe '' if the Russian rivers Volga , Ural , Pechora , Kama , Northern Dvina -- Vychegda , Oka and Belaya are counted which are based on the modern conventional boundary between Europe and Asia are within European Russia or form part of the boundary to Asia .  Also longer than the Rhine are the Eastern European rivers Dnieper , Don and Dniester flowing into the Black Sea.The Rhine only has an official length scale ( Rheinkilometer ) downstream of Constance . Its full length is subject to the definition of the Alpine Rhine . In 2010 , there were media reports to the effect that the length of the Rhine had long been underreported in 20th-century encyclopedias , and upon request by journalists , Dutch Rijkswaterstaat cited a length of 1,232 km .  .  '' ` We checked it out and came to 1,232 kilometres , ' said Ankie Pannekoek , spokeswoman for the Dutch government hydrology office . '' with an average discharge of about 2900 m3/s .   The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the northern inland frontier of the Roman Empire and , since those days , the Rhine has been a vital and navigable waterway carrying trade and goods deep inland .  Its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire is supported by the many castles and fortifications built along it . In the modern era , it has become a symbol of German nationalism .

1,2-Dioxane or o-dioxane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C4H8O2 .

Richard Hamblyn ( born 1965 ) is a British environmental writer and historian . He is a lecturer in the Department of English and Humanities at Birkbeck , University of London , and has contributed to the Sunday Times , The Guardian , the Independent , the Times Literary Supplement and the London Review of Books .   His books include The Invention of Clouds : How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the Language of the Skies ( 2001 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330391955 ) , an account of the life and work of Luke Howard which won a 2001 Los Angeles Times Book Prize and was shortlisted for the 2002 Samuel Johnson Prize ; Terra : Tales of the Earth ( 2009 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330490733 ) , a study of natural disasters , a BBC Wales Science Book of the Year ; and an anthology of science writing , The Art of Science : a Natural History of Ideas ( 2011 , Picador , ISBN 978-0330490764 ) . He has also written four illustrated books on weather in association with the UK Met Office , including The Cloud Book ( 2008 , ISBN 978-07153-28088 ) ; Extraordinary Clouds ( 2009 , ISBN 978-07153-32818 ) ; and Extraordinary Weather ( 2012 , ISBN 978-14463-01913 ) , and edited Daniel Defoe 's first book , The Storm ( 1704 ) for Penguin Classics ( 2005 , ISBN 978-0141-43992-1 ) . Works written in collaboration with the British landscape photographer Jem Southam include Clouds Descending ( 2009 ) and The River Winter ( 2012 ) .   In the academic year 2008-09 Hamblyn was writer-in-residence at the University College London Environment Institute , and produced the book Data Soliloquies ( Slade Press , 2009 , ISBN 9780903305044 ) with Martin John Callanan who was artist-in-residence for the same year .   Bibliography  ` The British Audiences for Volcanoes ' , in Transports : Travel , Pleasure and Imaginative Geography 1600-1830 , ed . Chlöe Chard and Helen Langdon ( Yale University Press , 1996 )  The Invention of Clouds ( Picador , 2001 )  Daniel Defoe , The Storm , ed . ( Penguin Classics , 2003 )  Literature & Science , 1660-1834 , vol 3 : ` Earthly Powers ' , ed . ( Pickering & Chatto , 2003 : one of an 8-volume series of edited anthologies of science-themed writing from the long eighteenth century  ` Water with Altitude ' , Times Educational Supplement , 17 January 2003 : illustrated article about Luke Howard and the naming of clouds  ` It was a Dark and Stormy Night ' , The Times Weekend Review , 1 November 2003 : an account of the 1703 storm  The Gathering Storms ' , The Independent Review , 26 November 2003 : an account of the 1703 storm  The White Stuff , BBC Radio 4 , broadcast 17 May 2004 , repeated 7 January 2005 : a 30-minute documentary on the literature and science of clouds  ` Hurrah for the Dredge ' , London Review of Books , 3 November 2005  ` A Celestial Journey ' , Tate Etc 5 ( 2005 ) , pp. 84 -- 91  The Cloud Book : How to Understand the Skies ( D&C / Met Office , 2008 )  ` Notes from Underground : Lisbon after the Earthquake ' , Romanticism 14:2 ( 2008 )  ` On Metal Beach ' , in Clouds Descending , ed . Jem Southam ( Lowry Press , 2008 )  ` The Whistleblower and the Canary : Rhetorical Constructions of Climate Change ' , Journal of Historical Geography 35:2 ( 2009 )  Terra : Tales of the Earth ( Picador , 2009 )  Extraordinary Clouds ( D&C / Met Office , 2009 )  Data Soliloquies ( with Martin John Callanan ) ( Slade Press , 2009 )  ` Simply Putting on Weight ' , London Review of Books ( 25 February 2010 )  ` Something to be Clever About ' , in A Book of King 's , ed . Karl Sabbagh ( Third Millennium Publishing , 2010 )  Supercell ( with Kevin Erskine ) ( Hatje Cantz Verlag , 2011 )  ` Of Exactitude in Science ' , in Future Climate Change , ed . Mark Maslin and Samuel Randalls ( Routledge , 2011 )  Extraordinary Weather ( D&C / Met Office , 2012 )  ` Winter ' , in The River Winter , ed . Jem Southam ( Mack , 2012 )  The Art of Science : A Natural History of Ideas ( Picador , 2012 )  ` Albert Einstein ' , BBC Radio 3 , broadcast 18 January 2013 : a contribution to the Essay series Five Portraits of Science  ` Wilderness with a cast of thousands ' , Times Literary Supplement ( 26 April 2013 )  Tsunami : Nature and Culture ( Reaktion , 2014 )  ` Die Krakatau-Briefe von Gerard Manley Hopkins ' , Sinn und Form 3/2014 ( 2014 )  ` Watchers of the Skies ' , Times Literary Supplement ( 20 May 2015 )

The meridian 125 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , North America , the Pacific Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole .   The 125th meridian west forms a great circle with the 55th meridian east .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .


Question:
 The perpetually transforming Earth has withstood fluctuations in ocean levels by several hundred meters throughout history. This showcases our planet's resilience against significant climatic shifts over time.
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 Sea Level Changes Throughout Earth’s History

Throughout Earth's extensive timeline spanning approximately 4.54 billion years, dramatic fluctuations in sea levels have occurred naturally. These shifts can largely be attributed to continental drift, glacial cycles, volcanic eruptions, and meteorological phenomena. Historical records indicate significant alterations in sea levels ranging up to hundreds of meters above current elevations during various epochs.

During interglacial periods when temperatures were warmer than they are now, glaciers melted extensively causing substantial rises in sea levels. Conversely, during glacial ages characterized by colder climates, vast quantities of water became trapped within massive ice sheets resulting in lower sea levels compared to contemporary baselines.

Geologic evidence suggests multiple instances where sea levels surpassed modern-day benchmarks significantly. For instance:
• Around 125 million years ago during the Cretaceous period, sea levels reached heights estimated at least 180m higher relative to present conditions.
• Approximately three million years back amid Pliocene epoch warmth spikes, seas climbed roughly 25–34 m beyond existing marks.

These cyclical occurrences demonstrate how fluid planetary dynamics influence marine boundaries throughout geologic eras. However, recent scientific consensus highlights anthropogenic influences exacerbating traditional trends via accelerated global warming effects linked closely to increased carbon dioxide concentrations stemming predominantly from burning fossil fuels since Industrial Revolution onset circa late eighteenth century onwards.

Human-driven climate alteration threatens coastal ecosystems globally alongside numerous low lying island nations facing imminent submergence under rising waters unless stringent mitigation strategies implemented promptly addressing root causes behind escalating atmospheric CO₂ levels contributing directly towards rapid polar ice cap disintegration accelerating pace of inundation far exceeding historical norms observed prior Anthropocene era inception marking dawn age dominated exclusively Homo sapiens' impact upon shared environment.

In conclusion, while fluctuating sea levels represent intrinsic aspect inherent within complex web comprising Earth system science governed by myriad interconnected variables operating concurrently both internally externally; urgent action required curtailing potentially catastrophic outcomes associated unchecked greenhouse gas accumulation atmosphere precipitating irreversible damage critical thresholds crossed triggering feedback loops amplifying warming trend perpetually locking planet onto path incompatible sustaining habitability future generations inheriting legacy left behind us today.

Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich , mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past . In some places a number of layers are visible in the mantle .   It fell as snow and ice-coated dust . There is good evidence that this mantle is ice-rich . The shapes of the polygons common on many surfaces suggest ice-rich soil . High levels of hydrogen ( probably from water ) have been found with Mars Odyssey . Thermal measurements from orbit suggest ice . The Phoenix ( spacecraft ) discovered water ice with made direct observations since it landed in a field of polygons . In fact , its landing rockets exposed pure ice . Theory had predicted that ice would be found under a few cm of soil . This mantle layer is called `` latitude dependent mantle '' because its occurrence is related to the latitude . It is this mantle that cracks and then forms polygonal ground . This cracking of ice-rich ground is predicted based on physical processes .  Another type of surface is called `` brain terrain '' as it looks like the surface of a human brain . Brain terrain lies under polygonal ground when the two are both visible in a region .   Since the top , polygon layer is fairly smooth although the underlying brain terrain is irregular ; it is believed that the mantle layer that contains the polygons needs to be 10 -- 20 meters thick to smooth out the irregularities . The mantle layer lasts for a very long time before all the ice is gone because a protective lag deposit forms on the top . The mantle contains ice and dust . After a certain amount of ice disappears from sublimation the dust stays on the top , forming the lag deposit .   The total amount of water locked up in the mantle has been calculated based on the total area of polygonal ground and an estimated depth of 10 meters . This volume is equal to a layer 2.5 meters deep spread over the entire planet . This compares to a 30-meter depth over the whole planet for the water locked up in the north and south polar caps .   Mantle forms when the Martian climate is different than the present climate . The tilt or obliquity of the axis of the planet changes a great deal . The Earth 's tilt changes little because our rather large moon stabilizes the Earth . Mars only has two very small moons that do not possess enough gravity to stabilize its tilt . When the tilt of Mars exceeds around 40 degrees ( from today 's 25 degrees ) , ice is deposited in certain latitude bands where much mantle exists today .

Rheology ( -LSB- riːˈɒlədʒi -RSB- from Greek ῥέω rhéō , `` flow '' and - λoγία , - logia , `` study of '' ) is the study of the flow of matter , primarily in a liquid state , but also as ` soft solids ' or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force .   The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham , a professor at Lafayette College , in 1920 , from a suggestion by a colleague , Markus Reiner . The term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius ( often attributed to Heraclitus ) , panta rhei , `` everything flows '' , and was first used to describe the flow of liquids and the deformation of solids .  It applies to substances that have a complex microstructure , such as muds , sludges , suspensions , polymers and other glass formers ( e.g. , silicates ) , as well as many foods and additives , bodily fluids ( e.g. , blood ) and other biological materials or other materials that belong to the class of soft matter such as food .   Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature . Although this viscosity will change with temperature , it does not change with the strain rate . Only a small group of fluids exhibit such constant viscosity . The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the strain rate ( the relative flow velocity ) are called non-Newtonian fluids .   Rheology generally accounts for the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids , by characterizing the minimum number of functions that are needed to relate stresses with rate of change of strain or strain rates . For example , ketchup can have its viscosity reduced by shaking ( or other forms of mechanical agitation , where the relative movement of different layers in the material actually causes the reduction in viscosity ) but water can not . Ketchup is a shear thinning material , like yogurt and emulsion paint ( US terminology latex paint or acrylic paint ) , exhibiting thixotropy , where an increase in relative flow velocity will cause a reduction in viscosity , for example , by stirring . Some other non-Newtonian materials show the opposite behavior , rheopecty : viscosity going up with relative deformation , and are called shear thickening or dilatant materials . Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of viscosity , the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics .   The experimental characterization of a material 's rheological behaviour is known as rheometry , although the term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry , particularly by experimentalists . Theoretical aspects of rheology are the relation of the flow/deformation behaviour of material and its internal structure ( e.g. , the orientation and elongation of polymer molecules ) , and the flow/deformation behaviour of materials that can not be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity .

Relocation , also known as moving , is the process of vacating a fixed location ( such as a residence or business ) and settling in a different one . A move can be to a nearby location within the same neighborhood , a much farther location in a different city , or sometimes a different country .  It usually includes packing up all belongings , transferring to the new home , and unpacking , as well as administrative or bureaucratic tasks , such as changing registration data , change of insurance , services etc. .

Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic material ( such as iron ) after an external magnetic field is removed . It is also the measure of that magnetization . Colloquially , when a magnet is `` magnetized '' it has remanence . The remanence of magnetic materials provides the magnetic memory in magnetic storage devices , and is used as a source of information on the past Earth 's magnetic field in paleomagnetism .   The equivalent term residual magnetization is generally used in engineering applications . In transformers , electric motors and generators a large residual magnetization is not desirable ( see also electrical steel ) as it is an unwanted contamination , for example a magnetization remaining in an electromagnet after the current in the coil is turned off . Where it is unwanted , it can be removed by degaussing .   Sometimes the term retentivity is used for remanence measured in units of magnetic flux density .

Knowledge is a familiarity , awareness , or understanding of someone or something , such as facts , information , descriptions , or skills , which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving , discovering , or learning .   Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject . It can be implicit ( as with practical skill or expertise ) or explicit ( as with the theoretical understanding of a subject ) ; it can be more or less formal or systematic . In philosophy , the study of knowledge is called epistemology ; the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as `` justified true belief '' , though this definition is now thought by some analytic philosophers to be problematic because of the Gettier problems while others defend the platonic definition . However , several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist .   Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes : perception , communication , and reasoning ; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings .

Death Valley National Park is a national park in the United States . Straddling the border of California and Nevada , located east of the Sierra Nevada , it occupies an interface zone between the arid Great Basin and Mojave deserts in the United States . The park protects the northwest corner of the Mojave Desert and contains a diverse desert environment of salt-flats , sand dunes , badlands , valleys , canyons , and mountains . It is the largest national park in the lower 48 states and has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve . Approximately 91 % of the park is a designated wilderness area . It is the hottest , driest and lowest of the national parks in the United States . The second-lowest point in the Western Hemisphere is in Badwater Basin , which is 282 ft below sea level . The park is home to many species of plants and animals that have adapted to this harsh desert environment . Some examples include creosote bush , bighorn sheep , coyote , and the Death Valley pupfish , a survivor of much wetter times .   A series of Native American groups inhabited the area from as early as 7000 BC , most recently the Timbisha around 1000 AD who migrated between winter camps in the valleys and summer grounds in the mountains . A group of European-Americans that became stuck in the valley in 1849 while looking for a shortcut to the gold fields of California gave the valley its name , even though only one of their group died there . Several short-lived boom towns sprang up during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to mine gold and silver . The only long-term profitable ore to be mined was borax , which was transported out of the valley with twenty-mule teams . The valley later became the subject of books , radio programs , television series , and movies . Tourism blossomed in the 1920s , when resorts were built around Stovepipe Wells and Furnace Creek . Death Valley National Monument was declared in 1933 and the park was substantially expanded and became a national park in 1994 .   The natural environment of the area has been shaped largely by its geology . The valley itself is actually a graben . The oldest rocks are extensively metamorphosed and at least 1.7 billion years old . Ancient , warm , shallow seas deposited marine sediments until rifting opened the Pacific Ocean . Additional sedimentation occurred until a subduction zone formed off the coast . This uplifted the region out of the sea and created a line of volcanoes . Later the crust started to pull apart , creating the current Basin and Range landform . Valleys filled with sediment and , during the wet times of glacial periods , with lakes , such as Lake Manly .   In 2013 , Death Valley National Park was designated as a dark sky park by the International Dark-Sky Association .

The Resonance method of ice destruction means breaking sheet-ice which has formed over a body of water by causing the ice and water to oscillate up and down until the ice suffers sufficient mechanical fatigue to cause a fracture .

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

The Labrador Sea ( French : mer du Labrador ) is an arm of the North Atlantic Ocean between the Labrador Peninsula and Greenland . The sea is flanked by continental shelves to the southwest , northwest , and northeast . It connects to the north with Baffin Bay through the Davis Strait . It has been described as a marginal sea of the Atlantic .   The sea formed upon separation of the North American Plate and Greenland Plate that started about 60 million years ago and stopped about 40 million years ago . It contains one of the world 's largest turbidity current channel systems , the Northwest Atlantic Mid-Ocean Channel ( NAMOC ) , that runs for thousands of kilometers along the sea bottom toward the Atlantic Ocean .   The Labrador Sea is a major source of the North Atlantic Deep Water , a cold water mass that flows at great depth along the western edge of the North Atlantic , spreading out to form the largest identifiable water mass in the World Ocean .

A lava planet is a hypothetical type of terrestrial planet , with a surface mostly or entirely covered by molten lava . Situations where such planets could exist include a young terrestrial planet just after its formation , a planet that has recently suffered a large collision event , or a planet orbiting very close to its star , causing intense irradiation and tidal forces .