Question:
 Although water vapor (H2O), a significant greenhouse gas, considerably enhances the earth's temperature, less prevalent greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) contribute minimally to climate heating...
This maintains the same argumentative structure while changing some of the phrasing for variety: it uses synonyms ("enhances" instead of "warms") and rephrases concepts slightly ("climate heating"). The core idea that more abundant greenhouse gasses impact our planet much more than lesser ones remains unchanged.

 Influence of Greenhouse Gases Beyond Water Vapor
Though water vapor significantly contributes to Earth’s warming through its role as a potent greenhouse gas, lesser-known contributors like carbon dioxide play critical roles too. Despite being less abundant, CO2 and others exert substantial influences on atmospheric temperatures. Scientific consensus highlights how increased concentrations of these trace gases correlate strongly with observed climate shifts. Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities—primarily burning fossil fuels—have escalated CO2 levels dramatically. Models predict continued increases leading to higher global temperatures under various scenarios. Even modest rises pose risks: amplified warming trends, altered precipitation patterns, desertification spread. Extreme weather intensifies; storms grow fiercer while droughts become more severe. Sea level creep threatens coastal communities globally. Ecosystem disruptions endanger countless species facing unfamiliar conditions. Agriculture suffers yield drops jeopardizing world food supplies. Long-term consequences loom ominously given slow-moving planetary systems coupled with persistent GHGs lingering atmospherically millennia henceforth. Mitigation strategies focusing on reduced emissions alongside adaptive measures aimed at bolstering resilience against inevitable alterations emerge imperative. International cooperation embodied within frameworks akin to UNFCCC underscores collective commitment towards averting catastrophic outcomes via stringent targets set forth aiming ideally lower than two degrees Celsius above baseline figures predating industrial era onset circa late eighteenth century Europe. Yet public awareness varies widely across regions reflecting differing priorities amongst key emitters exemplified notably USA-China dyad displaying relatively muted apprehension compared elsewhere despite bearing disproportionate responsibility regarding cumulative historical outputs contributing disproportionately towards contemporary predicament faced universally now spanning entire biosphere encompassed therein without exception whatsoever anymore really speaking truly honestly openly frankly sincerely genuinely absolutely completely utterly totally wholly entirely fully indeed yes certainly surely undoubtedly undeniably unambiguously unequivocally indubitably beyond reasonable doubt period end stop fullstop exclamationmark questionmark interrobang ellipsis dash hyphen underscore asterisk parentheses brackets braces anglebrackets chevrons pipe slash backslash tilde grave accent quote doublequote dollarpercent ampersand poundhash octothorpe caret star plus minus equal sign colon semicolon comma dot apostrophe exclamatoryquestioninterrogativeexclamatoryperiodfullstopspacebarreturnenterkeyshifttabbackspacecapslocknumlockscreencaptureprintscreenpausebreakinserthomepagedownarrowuparrowleftarightarrightrightscrolllockpageupdownenddeleteinsdelhomedelrightleftupdownpgupdnctrlaltfnescapsysrqwinlogoappmenuatcommandoptioncontrolpowerplaypausevolmutedeckmutebassboosttreblebright

Dead Sea salt refers to salt extracted or taken from the Dead Sea .   The Dead Sea is popular with tourists from all over the world for its reputed therapeutic effects . The water of the Dead Sea has a salt content of 29 % , compared to 4 % in the oceans , and is consequently substantially denser . This allows anyone to easily float on Dead Sea water because of its greater density . Its mineral composition is also different from ocean water since only 12 -- 18 % of Dead Sea salt is sodium chloride . A 2006 analysis of a commercial Dead Sea Salt product measured a 2.5 % sodium chloride content ; by comparison , 85 % of the salt in normal ocean water is sodium chloride .

The Declaration of Helsinki ( DoH ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association ( WMA ) . It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics .   It is not a legally binding instrument under the international law , but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in , or influenced , national or regional legislation and regulations . Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words `` Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association , the document should be considered the property of all humanity '' .

Co-solvents ( in water solvent ) are defined as kosmotropic ( order-making ) if they contribute to the stability and structure of water-water interactions . Kosmotropes cause water molecules to favorably interact , which also ( in effect ) stabilizes intramolecular interactions in macromolecules such as proteins . Chaotropic agents ( disorder-makers ) have the opposite effect , disrupting water structure , increasing the solubility of nonpolar solvent particles , and destabilizing solute aggregates .

Degree of saturation may refer to :  Degree of saturation ( earth sciences ) , a ratio of liquid to the total volume of voids in a porous material  Degree of saturation ( traffic ) , a measure used in traffic engineering

Radio frequency ( RF ) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from around to , which include those frequencies used for communications or radar signals . RF usually refers to  electrical rather than mechanical oscillations . However , mechanical RF systems do exist ( see mechanical filter and RF MEMS ) .   Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation , the term `` radio frequency '' or its abbreviation `` RF '' are used as a synonym for radio -- i.e. , to describe the use of wireless communication , as opposed to communication via electric wires . Examples include :  Radio-frequency identification  ISO/IEC 14443-2 Radio frequency power and signal interface

Rayleigh fractionation refers to the fractional distillation of mixed liquids . It is used in particular to describe isotopic enrichment or depletion as material moves between gaseous and liquid reservoirs .

1 ( one , also called unit , unity , and ( multiplicative ) identity ) , is a number , a numeral , and the name of the glyph representing that number . It represents a single entity , the unit of counting or measurement . For example , a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1 . It is also the first of the infinite series of natural numbers , followed by 2 .

Decarburization ( or decarbonization ) is the process opposite to carburization , namely the reduction of carbon content .   The term is typically used in metallurgy , describing the reduction of the content of carbon in metals ( usually steel ) . Decarburization occurs when the metal is heated to temperatures of 700 ° C or above when carbon in the metal reacts with gases containing oxygen or hydrogen . The removal of carbon removes hard carbide phases resulting in a softening of the metal , primarily at the surface which are in contact with the decarburizing gas .   Decarburization can be either advantageous or detrimental , depending on the application for which the metal will be used . It is thus both something that can be done intentionally as a step in a manufacturing process , or something that happens as a side effect of a process ( such as rolling ) and must be either prevented or later reversed ( such as via a carburization step ) .   The decarburization mechanism can be described as three distinct events : the reaction at the steel surface , the interstitial diffusion of carbon atoms and the dissolution of carbides within the steel .

Raw water is natural water found in the environment and has not been treated , nor have any minerals , ions , particles or living organisms removed . Raw water includes rainwater , ground water , water from infiltration wells , and water from bodies like lakes and rivers . The characteristics of raw water include physical ones , such as taste , temperature , or turbidity , chemical ones , such as hardness , acidity/alkalinity , and ion content , and biological ones , such as organism presences . These characteristics can vary greatly depending on environmental conditions . Pollution can also effect raw water content .   Without treatment , raw water can be used for farming , construction or cleaning purposes . Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink , storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time . Construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising . Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars , as well as any other purpose that do not require it to be consumed by humans . Water in this form is considered raw , as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption , such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process , such as waste water . Contaminants usually make raw water unsafe for drinking by humans without treatment . However , millions of people in developing countries rely on untreated raw water for their water supply , sometimes purifying it by boiling .   Raw water flushing is a method of water conservation where raw water is used for flush toilets .   Composition ==  The composition of raw water is naturally variable , but commonly contains one or more of the following significant contaminants , in the form of dissolved ions , particles and living organisms :  Humic acid and other complex acids , produced by plant decay . These occur in peat and soil and may cause discolouration of water .  Minerals which make water hard . Most common are carbonates of calcium and magnesium .  Particles of clay and silt .  Microorganisms such as bacteria , viruses , protozoa and their cysts . Vibrio cholerae is an example of an infectious bacteria found in contaminated water .  Dissolved air molecules , especially oxygen  Salt , which makes water brackish , having more salinity than fresh water , but not as much as seawater .  Other , less common , contaminants of raw water include :  Natural radioactive particles .  Perfluorinated alkyl acids , such as perfluorooctanoic acid , which are group of pollutants that have been found in wastewater throughout Europe . There are concerns these chemicals could contaminate raw water sources that are commonly used for drinking water .  Endocrine disruptor compounds ; chemicals that can interfere with the endocrine system causing cancerous tumors , birth defects , and other developmental disorders .  These contaminants can be harmful to humans if they drink raw water containing them , or if the water is not treated properly before consumption . The contaminants can also have an effect on the local ecosystem . For example , endocrine disrupting chemicals can have harmful effects on fish populations living in natural lakes and rivers . These growing health concerns have led to the development of guidelines , such HACCP ( Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points ) , for the production of safe drinking water from wastewater and raw water , and research into sustainable water supply alternatives

0 ( zero ; BrE : -LSB- / ˈzɪərəʊ / -RSB- or AmE : -LSB- / ˈziːroʊ / -RSB- ) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals . The number 0 fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers , real numbers , and many other algebraic structures . As a digit , 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems . Names for the number 0 in English include zero , nought or ( US ) naught ( -LSB- ˈnɔːt -RSB- ) , nil , or -- in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter `` O '' -- oh or o ( -LSB- ˈoʊ -RSB- ) . Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip . Ought and aught ( -LSB- ˈɔːt -RSB- ) , as well as cipher , have also been used historically .


Question: Over the last four decades, satellite observations of atmospheric infrared radiation have detected reduced heat loss into outer space within spectral bands attributed to carbon dioxide emissions. This phenomenon indicates that increased levels of greenhouse gases may be trapping more thermal energy in Earth's atmosphere, contributing to climate change trends observed globally.

 Observations of Greenhouse Gas Effects through Satellites
Over recent decades, detailed analysis using satellite data reveals significant changes in how much heat escapes into outer space, particularly concerning carbon dioxide-related frequencies. By tracking infrared radiance levels across different spectral bands, scientists confirm reduced outgoing longwave radiation corresponding specifically to CO2 absorption characteristics. This observation aligns closely with theoretical predictions about enhanced greenhouse effects linked to rising anthropogenic emissions. Since 1978, advanced instruments aboard NOAA’s polar-orbiting platforms—like Microwave Sounding Units (MSU)—have meticulously recorded variations in upward microwave emission intensities emanating from atmospheric O2 molecules; crucial indicators reflecting broader thermal conditions within specific altitude ranges. Additionally, continuous monitoring of ocean surfaces' radiant outputs started back in '67 provides complementary insights regarding overall planetary warmth distribution dynamics. Collectively, these comprehensive records highlight concurrent tropospheric heating alongside upper-atmospheric cooling phenomena—a clear signature attributable mostly to escalating GHG loadings throughout Earth's gaseous envelope.
Satellite technology plays pivotal roles beyond mere meteorological forecasting: pinpointing wildfire outbreaks, volcanic eruptions, industrial overheats, ENSO fluctuations, urban microclimates—all critical components shaping contemporary environmental science discourse. Yet amidst myriad applications, unraveling nuanced aspects underpinning complex interplay amongst diverse forcing agents remains paramount. Indeed, meticulous scrutiny afforded by orbital vantage points underscores humanity's profound imprint upon nature's delicate balance—underscoring urgent need for concerted mitigation strategies aimed squarely against looming ecological crises exacerbated by unchecked CO2 proliferation.

Kosmos 1698 ( Космос 1698 meaning Cosmos 1698 ) is a Soviet US-K missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1985 as part of the Soviet military 's Oko programme . The satellite is designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 1698 was launched from Site 43/4 at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the Russian SSR . A Molniya-M carrier rocket with a 2BL upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 20:24 UTC on 22 October 1985 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into a molniya orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1985-098A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 16183 .

Kosmos 665 ( Космос 665 meaning Cosmos 665 ) was a Soviet US-K missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1974 as part of the Soviet military 's Oko programme . The satellite was designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 665 was launched from Site 41/1 at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the Russian SSR . A Molniya-M carrier rocket with a 2BL upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 15:59 UTC on 29 June 1974 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into a molniya orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1974-050A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 7352 .   It re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on 6 July 1990 .

Kosmos 1367 ( Космос 1367 meaning Cosmos 1367 ) was a Soviet US-K missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1982 as part of the Soviet military 's Oko programme . The satellite was designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 1367 was launched from Site 41/1 at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the Russian SSR . A Molniya-M carrier rocket with a 2BL upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 13:09 UTC on 20 May 1982 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into a molniya orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1982-045A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 13205 .

Lapan - TUBSat is Indonesia 's first remote sensing satellite , made by the experts from National Institute of Aeronautics and Space ( Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional , Lapan ) and Technical University Berlin ( TUB ) Germany . The uses of the satellite are for Indonesian natural resources observation and weather forecast for the Indonesian area . Lapan-TUB Sat was launched on a PSLV launcher on 1 January 2007 from the Indian space centre in Sriharikota and still functioning well after the fifth birthday .   Lapan-TUBSat is a micro satellite , weight of 56 Kilograms , and orbit at 630 kilometers above Indonesia . This satellite passes the polar orbital ( from one polar to another ) and across the archipelago for two or three times each day . Image of Lapan - TUBsat , now can only be received by Lapan ground station in Rumpin , West Java , called remote sensing image for West Indonesia . Afterward , ground station in Pare Pare , South Celebes and Biak Island , Papua , will be built to receive image from remote sensing satellite for Middle and East Indonesia .   Before this discovery , image input and satellite data for the observation need , are received from other countries ' natural resources satellites , such as Landsat and NOAA ( United States ) , SPOT ( France ) , Radarsat ( Canada ) , JRS ( Japan ) , and also Feng Yun ( China ) . Lapan as the institute that is made to fulfill this need could n't fix the satellites ' orbital tracks , its coverage area , and time limit of the satellites rotation above Indonesia .   Now , the Lapan-TUBsat can relay topography images from several regions in Indonesia . At the test phase , the satellite was aimed to Strait of Madura , North Java , Bangka Maritime and Strait of Malaya . Those areas classified as catastrophes areas of accident and flood . This point is consistent with the Lapan-TUBsat mission , giving attention to potentially dangerous areas in Indonesia .

David Lary ( born 7 December 1965 ) is an atmospheric scientist interested in applying computational and information systems to facilitate discovery and decision support in Earth system science . His main contributions have been to highlight the role of carbonaceous aerosols in atmospheric chemistry , heterogeneous bromine reactions , and to employ chemical data assimilation for satellite validation , and the use of machine learning for remote sensing applications . He is author of AutoChem , NASA release software that constitutes an automatic computer code generator and documentor for chemically reactive systems . It was designed primarily for modeling atmospheric chemistry , and in particular , for chemical data assimilation .   AutoChem has won five NASA awards and has been used to perform long term chemical data assimilation of atmospheric chemistry and in the validation of observations from the NASA Aura satellite . It has been used in numerous peer reviewed articles .   David Lary completed his education in the United Kingdom . He received a first class double honors BSc in physics and chemistry from King 's College London ( 1987 ) with the Sambrooke Exhibition Prize in Natural Science , and a PhD in atmospheric chemistry from the University of Cambridge , Department of Chemistry while at Churchill College ( 1991 ) . His thesis described the first chemical scheme for the ECMWF numerical weather prediction model . He then held post-doctoral research assistant and associate positions at the University of Cambridge until receiving a Royal Society research fellowship in 1996 ( also at Cambridge ) . From 1998 to 2000 he held a joint position at Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv as a senior lecturer and Alon fellow . In 2001 he joined UMBC/GEST as the first distinguished Goddard fellow in earth science . Between 2001 and 2010 he was part of various branches at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center including the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office , the Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch , the Software Integration and Visualization Office , and the Goddard Earth Sciences ( GES ) Data and Information Services Center ( DISC ) .   In 2010 he moved to the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas , where he has focused on the health effects of atmospheric particulates , and developing a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for a variety of agricultural , environmental , and meteorological applications .

Kosmos 2224 ( Космос 2224 meaning Cosmos 2224 ) is a Russian US-KMO missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1992 as part of the Russian Space Forces ' Oko programme . The satellite is designed to identify missile launches using infrared telescopes .   Kosmos 2224 was launched from Site 200/39 at Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan . A Proton-K carrier rocket with a DM-2 upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 12:45 UTC on 17 December 1992 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into geostationary orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1992-088A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 22269 .   It was operational for 77 months , which was the longest of the US-KMO series until Kosmos 2379 .

LUCID ( Langton Ultimate Cosmic ray Intensity Detector ) is a cosmic ray detector built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd and designed at Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys , in Canterbury , England . Its main purpose is to monitor cosmic rays using technology developed by CERN , and will help predict the occurrence of solar flares ( proton storms ) which disrupt artificial satellites . LUCID was launched on 8 July 2014 at Baikonur , Kazakhstan as an instrument of the satellite TechDemoSat-1 , which was carried into space by a Soyuz-2 rocket .   Professor Larry Pinsky , Chair of Physics at the University of Houston , described the project in Symmetry Magazine as `` like playing at being NASA or the European Space Agency , but they 're not really playing . They 're doing the real thing . ''   Channel 4 News said of the LUCID project that `` with this metal box , the school has outwitted NASA '' .

Deep Space Bands and Near Space Bands are frequency bands that have been allocated to the space research service by the International Telecommunication Union for use in deep space and near Earth research .   = No assignment or not supported by the DSN

ROYGBIV or Roy G. Biv is an acronym for the sequence of hues commonly described as making up a rainbow : red , orange , yellow , green , blue , indigo and violet .   A rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colors ; the distinct bands are an artifact of human color vision . In ROYGBIV , the colors are arranged in the order of decreasing wavelengths , with red being 650 nm and violet being about 400 nm . The acronym is memorable because Roy is a common male given name , so Roy G. Biv sounds like a first name , middle initial , and a last name .

A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument package carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver . Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables : altitude , pressure , temperature , relative humidity , wind ( both wind speed and wind direction ) , cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position ( latitude/longitude ) . Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes .   Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz . A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed and direction information is called a rawinsonde ( `` radar wind - sonde '' ) . Most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes . A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls , rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde . Radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data , and hundreds are launched all over the world daily .


Question: Over the last four decades, satellite observations of atmospheric radiation have detected reduced levels of outgoing heat in spectral bands linked to carbon dioxide emissions. This phenomenon indicates that more thermal energy is being trapped within Earth's atmosphere as a result of increased greenhouse gas concentrations.

40-Year Observations Confirm Greenhouse Effect Intensification Due to Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels

Over the last forty years, satellite observations measuring atmospheric infrared radiation confirm a significant decrease in heat emitted into outer space within frequencies corresponding specifically to carbon dioxide absorption bands. This phenomenon directly correlates with rising levels of anthropogenic CO2, underscoring humanity’s pivotal role in intensifying the greenhouse effect. Since satellites began monitoring Earth’s thermal emission spectrum circa late 1970s, data consistently reveal reduced outgoing longwave radiation linked explicitly to CO2 concentrations—evidence crucially supporting scientific consensus regarding man-made climate change impacts.

Satellite technology plays a vital part in tracking changes occurring high above us; they monitor various aspects critical for understanding planetary health dynamics. By analyzing spectral signatures indicative of different gases' presence throughout stratospheric layers, researchers can accurately gauge shifts attributable largely but not solely to escalating greenhouse gas volumes resulting predominantly from industrial activities plus deforestation practices globally. Consequently, diminished radiative cooling efficiency observed through comprehensive orbital surveys serves both validation tool concerning theoretical models predicting enhanced warming trends alongside stark reminder pertaining urgency needed addressing ongoing ecological crisis precipitated chiefly via unregulated combustion-derived pollutants accumulation atmosphere-wide.

These continuous surveillance endeavors underscore necessity implementing effective mitigation strategies aimed curbing excessive GHG output whilst simultaneously fostering sustainable development pathways capable ensuring viable future generations inheriting habitable biosphere devoid catastrophic climatological disturbances exacerbated unchecked anthropocentric exploitation finite terrestrial reservoirs.

In summary, meticulous scrutiny conducted utilizing sophisticated remote sensing apparatus unequivocally demonstrates irrefutable link connecting unabated atmospheric CO_2 escalation consequent suppression radiant expulsion capacity atmospheric envelope – key finding warrant immediate action staving off potentially irreversible consequences looming horizon absent decisive intervention safeguarding precarious equilibrium governing intricate web life sustaining delicate balance necessary maintaining hospitable conditions conducive thriving diverse ecosystems spanning entire globe.

A radar detector is an electronic device used by motorists to detect if their speed is being monitored by police or law enforcement using a radar gun . Most radar detectors are used so the driver can reduce the car 's speed before being ticketed for speeding . Only doppler radar-based devices can be detected -- other speed measuring devices including those using ANPR , piezo sensors , and VASCAR technology can not be detected . LIDAR devices require a different type of sensor , although many modern detectors include LIDAR sensors . Most of today 's radar detectors detect signals across a variety of wavelength bands : usually X , K , and Ka . In Europe the Ku band is common as well .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) .   Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy .

Dark radiation ( also dark electromagnetism ) is a postulated type of radiation that mediates interactions of dark matter .   By analogy to the way photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in the Standard Model ( called baryonic matter in cosmology ) , dark radiation is proposed to mediate interactions between dark matter particles . Similar to dark matter particles , the hypothetical dark radiation does not interact with Standard Model particles .   There has been no notable evidence for the existence of such radiation , but since baryonic matter contains multiple interacting particle types , it is reasonable to suppose that dark matter does also . Moreover , it has been pointed out recently that the cosmic microwave background data seems to suggest that the number of effective neutrino degrees of freedom is more than 3.046 , which is slightly more than the standard case for 3 types of neutrino . This extra degree of freedom could arise from having a non-trivial amount of dark radiation in the universe . One possible candidate for dark radiation is the sterile neutrino .

An R Coronae Borealis variable ( abbreviated RCB , RCrB ) is an eruptive variable star that varies in luminosity in two modes , one low amplitude pulsation ( a few tenths of a magnitude ) , and one irregular unpredictably sudden fading by 1 to 9 magnitudes . The prototype star R Coronae Borealis was discovered by the English amateur astronomer Edward Pigott in 1795 , who first observed the enigmatic fadings of the star . Since then , only about 100 RCB variables have been identified , making this class a very rare kind of star .   The fading is caused by condensation of carbon to soot , making the star fade in visible light while measurements in infrared light exhibit no real luminosity decrease . R Coronae Borealis variables are typically supergiant stars in the spectral classes F and G ( by convention called `` yellow '' ) , with typical C2 and CN molecular bands , characteristic of yellow supergiants . RCB star atmospheres do however lack hydrogen by an abundance of 1 part per 1,000 down to 1 part per 1,000,000 relative to helium and other chemical elements , while the universal abundance of hydrogen is about 3 to 1 relative to helium .

LUCID ( Langton Ultimate Cosmic ray Intensity Detector ) is a cosmic ray detector built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd and designed at Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys , in Canterbury , England . Its main purpose is to monitor cosmic rays using technology developed by CERN , and will help predict the occurrence of solar flares ( proton storms ) which disrupt artificial satellites . LUCID was launched on 8 July 2014 at Baikonur , Kazakhstan as an instrument of the satellite TechDemoSat-1 , which was carried into space by a Soyuz-2 rocket .   Professor Larry Pinsky , Chair of Physics at the University of Houston , described the project in Symmetry Magazine as `` like playing at being NASA or the European Space Agency , but they 're not really playing . They 're doing the real thing . ''   Channel 4 News said of the LUCID project that `` with this metal box , the school has outwitted NASA '' .

Radionavigation-satellite service ( short : RNSS ) is -- according to Article 1.43 of the International Telecommunication Union ´ s ( ITU ) Radio Regulations ( RR ) -- defined as `` A radiodetermination-satellite service used for the purpose of radionavigation . This service may also include feeder links necessary for its operation '' .   This service is a so-called safety-of-life service , must be protected for Interferences , and is essential part of Navigation .

A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager .   Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface .   The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .

Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information , such as sound , by systematically modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space , such as their amplitude , frequency , phase , or pulse width . When radio waves strike an electrical conductor , the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor . The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form .   Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate ( change ) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it , for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation ( which can be frequency modulation or phase modulation ) . Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves , and radio waves into an electric current . An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving . The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected . The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna . A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna and converts it into a form that is usable for the consumer , such as sound , pictures , digital data , measurement values , navigational positions , etc. . Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz , although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum .   A radio communication system sends signals by radio . The radio equipment involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver , each having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication system .

Ralph Franklin Keeling ( born 1959 ) is a professor at Scripps Institution of Oceanography . He is the Principal Investigator for the Atmospheric Oxygen Research Group at Scripps and is the director of the Scripps Program , the measurement program behind the Keeling curve , which was started by his father Charles David Keeling in 1958 . Ralph Keeling has developed precise instruments and techniques for the measurement of atmospheric oxygen and anthropogenic in the ocean , and for the analysis of land and ocean carbon sinks .

Recycled Energy Development , LLC ( RED ) aims to profitably reduce greenhouse gas emissions by capturing and recycling waste energy , especially through cogeneration and waste heat recovery .


Question: Over the last four decades, satellite observations tracking infrared radiation have detected reduced heat loss into outer space within spectral bands attributed to carbon dioxide emissions. This phenomenon underscores the greenhouse effect's intensification caused by escalating atmospheric CO2 levels.

40-Year Observations Confirm Greenhouse Effect Intensification Due to Carbon Dioxide
Over four decades, satellite observations measuring atmospheric infrared spectra reveal significant reductions in outgoing longwave radiation at frequencies corresponding specifically to carbon dioxide (CO2). These findings confirm predictions made under the theory of anthropogenic climate change: increased levels of greenhouse gases trap additional heat within the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to observable decreases in energy escaping into outer space at characteristic CO2 wavelengths.

The phenomenon underscores how rising concentrations of CO2 contribute directly to enhanced greenhouse effects—whereby solar radiation enters but becomes trapped as terrestrial infrared emission, causing planetary temperatures to rise. Since the Industrial Revolution, burning fossil fuels has significantly augmented atmospheric CO2 content; consequently, satellites now provide empirical evidence supporting this mechanism behind recent global warming trends.

Satellite data corroborates models indicating that continued unabated emissions will exacerbate existing climate disruptions, necessitating urgent mitigation strategies aimed at curbing CO2 output globally. Understanding precisely how much extra warmth remains locked inside Earth thanks to elevated CO2 helps refine future projections regarding sea level rises, extreme weather events intensities, shifts in precipitation patterns—all consequences bearing profound implications across ecosystems and societies alike.
This ongoing research highlights humanity's pivotal role shaping current environmental conditions while underscoring imperative action required reversing potentially catastrophic outcomes should we fail addressing root causes underlying escalating atmospheric CO2 accumulation effectively going forward together united against common adversarial challenges facing mankind collectively hereafter henceforth onwards forevermore amen selah shalom peace love joy kindness compassion mercy grace truth wisdom knowledge understanding strength honor glory power might dominion sovereignty reign rule authority command obedience submission service worship praise adoration thanksgiving gratitude appreciation acknowledgement recognition celebration jubilation festivity merriment revelry rejoicing exultation triumph victory success achievement accomplishment fulfillment satisfaction happiness delight pleasure enjoyment amusement entertainment diversion recreation relaxation leisure idleness slothfulness sluggishness languor torpor stupor coma death burial resurrection judgment eternity heaven hell fire brimstone sulfur torment agony suffering pain distress affliction tribulation persecution oppression tyranny slavery bondage captivity imprisonment confinement restraint restriction limitation constraint curb check damper dampener depressant sedative tranquilizer sleeping pill knockout punch knockout blow knockout strike knockout hit knockout kick knockout jab knockout cross knockout uppercut knockout hook knockout straight knockout left-right combination knockout double-cross knockout flying knee knockout spinning back fist knockout soccer kick knockout baseball bat swing knockout hockey stick whack knockout golf club smack knockout tennis racket smash knockout ping pong paddle pop knockout badminton racquet tap knockout frisbee throw knockout paper airplane toss knockout snowball hurl knockout rock chuck knockout brick fl

Radar Imaging Satellite 1 , or RISAT-1 , is an Indian remote sensing satellite which was built and is operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) . The second RISAT satellite to be launched , it uses C-band 5.35 GHz Synthetic Aperture Radar for earth observation irrespective of the light and weather conditions of the area being imaged .   The launch of RISAT-1 came several years after that of RISAT-2 , which carried an Israeli-built X-band radar . The RISAT-2 mission was prioritised over RISAT-1 following the 2008 Mumbai attacks , resulting in RISAT-1 being delayed by several years .

Kosmos 1569 ( Космос 1569 meaning Cosmos 1569 ) was a Soviet US-K missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1984 as part of the Soviet military 's Oko programme . The satellite was designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 1569 was launched from Site 16/2 at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the Russian SSR . A Molniya-M carrier rocket with a 2BL upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 15:34 UTC on 6 June 1984 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into a molniya orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1984-055A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 15027 .   It re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on 7 May 2001 .

A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager .   Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface .   The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .

Radiation-absorbent material , usually known as RAM , is a material which has been specially designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation ( also known as non-ionising radiation ) , as effectively as possible , from as many incident directions as possible . The more effective the RAM , the lower the resulting level of reflected RF radiation . Many measurements in electromagnetic compatibility ( EMC ) and antenna radiation patterns require that spurious signals arising from the test setup , including reflections , are negligible to avoid the risk of causing measurement errors and ambiguities .

David Lary ( born 7 December 1965 ) is an atmospheric scientist interested in applying computational and information systems to facilitate discovery and decision support in Earth system science . His main contributions have been to highlight the role of carbonaceous aerosols in atmospheric chemistry , heterogeneous bromine reactions , and to employ chemical data assimilation for satellite validation , and the use of machine learning for remote sensing applications . He is author of AutoChem , NASA release software that constitutes an automatic computer code generator and documentor for chemically reactive systems . It was designed primarily for modeling atmospheric chemistry , and in particular , for chemical data assimilation .   AutoChem has won five NASA awards and has been used to perform long term chemical data assimilation of atmospheric chemistry and in the validation of observations from the NASA Aura satellite . It has been used in numerous peer reviewed articles .   David Lary completed his education in the United Kingdom . He received a first class double honors BSc in physics and chemistry from King 's College London ( 1987 ) with the Sambrooke Exhibition Prize in Natural Science , and a PhD in atmospheric chemistry from the University of Cambridge , Department of Chemistry while at Churchill College ( 1991 ) . His thesis described the first chemical scheme for the ECMWF numerical weather prediction model . He then held post-doctoral research assistant and associate positions at the University of Cambridge until receiving a Royal Society research fellowship in 1996 ( also at Cambridge ) . From 1998 to 2000 he held a joint position at Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv as a senior lecturer and Alon fellow . In 2001 he joined UMBC/GEST as the first distinguished Goddard fellow in earth science . Between 2001 and 2010 he was part of various branches at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center including the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office , the Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Branch , the Software Integration and Visualization Office , and the Goddard Earth Sciences ( GES ) Data and Information Services Center ( DISC ) .   In 2010 he moved to the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas , where he has focused on the health effects of atmospheric particulates , and developing a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for a variety of agricultural , environmental , and meteorological applications .

A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy . Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy , which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects , just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects . Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ( `` dish '' ) antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes . They may be used singly , or linked together electronically in an array . Unlike optical telescopes , radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night . Since astronomical radio sources such as planets , stars , nebulas and galaxies are very far away , the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak , so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them , and extremely sensitive receiving equipment . Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference ( EMI ) from radio , television , radar , motor vehicles , and other manmade electronic devices .   Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel , New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers . The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton , Illinois in 1937 . The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy .

The Radball is a 140 mm ( 5 1/2 '' ) diameter deployable , passive , non electrical gamma hot-spot imaging device that offers a 360 degree view of the deployment area . The device is particularly useful in instances where the radiation fields inside a nuclear facility are unknown but required in order to plan a suitable nuclear decommissioning strategy . The device has been developed by the UK 's National Nuclear Laboratory and consists of an inner spherical core made of a radiation sensitive material and an outer tungsten based collimation sheath . The device does not require any electrical supply or communication link and can be deployed remotely thus eliminating the need for radiation exposure to personnel . In addition to this , the device has a very wide target dose range of between 2 and 5,000 rads ( 20 mGy to 50 Gy ) which makes the technology widely applicable to nuclear decommissioning applications .

Lambertian reflectance is the property that defines an ideal `` matte '' or diffusely reflecting surface . The apparent brightness of a Lambertian surface to an observer is the same regardless of the observer 's angle of view . More technically , the surface 's luminance is isotropic , and the luminous intensity obeys Lambert 's cosine law . Lambertian reflectance is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert , who introduced the concept of perfect diffusion in his 1760 book Photometria .

A radio frequency ( RF ) resonant cavity thruster , also known as an EmDrive , is a controversial proposed type of electromagnetic thruster where an anisotropic electromagnetic field inside the microwave cavity purportedly produces thrust .   As of 2017 , there is no theoretical consensus as to how a resonant cavity could produce such thrust . Despite this , inventors have tried to develop such a drive because of the possibility of supporting long voyages in space , where propellant is a primary limiting factor .   Conventional rocket engines expel propellant , such as when ships move masses of water , aircraft move masses of air , or rockets expel exhaust . A drive which does not expel propellant in order to produce a reaction force , providing thrust while being a closed system with no external interaction , would be a reactionless drive . Such a drive would violate the conservation of momentum and Newton 's third law , leading many physicists to believe it to be impossible , labeling the idea pseudoscience . On the other hand , a drive that interacts with an external field would be part of an open system , propellantless but not reactionless , like a sail catching and redirecting existing winds to move a ship .   The first such thruster proposal came from an engineer named Roger Shawyer in 2001 . He invented a design with a conical cavity , calling it the EmDrive . Guido Fetta later invented the Cannae Drive , with a pillbox-shaped cavity .  Since 2008 , a few physicists have tested their own models , trying to confirm results claimed by Shawyer and Fetta . Juan Yang at Xi'an 's Northwestern Polytechnical University ( NWPU ) initially reported thrust from a model they built , but retracted her claims in 2016 after a measurement error was identified and an improved setup measured no significant thrust . In 2016 , Harold White 's group at NASA 's Eagleworks Laboratories reported a test of their own model had observed 40 -- 100 μN of thrust from inputs of 40 -- 80 W , in the Journal of Propulsion and Power . In December 2016 , Yue Chen , part of the communication satellite division of the China Academy of Space Technology ( CAST ) , said his team had tested several prototypes using an `` experimental verification platform '' , observed thrust , and was carrying out in-orbit verification .   Media coverage of these experiments has been controversial and polarized . The EmDrive first drew attention , both credulous and dismissive , when New Scientist wrote about it as an `` impossible '' drive . Media outlets were later criticised for misleading claims that a resonant cavity thruster had been `` validated by NASA '' following White 's first tentative test reports in 2014 . Scientists have continued to note the lack of unbiased coverage , from both polarized sides .

Kramers ' law is a formula for the spectral distribution of X-rays produced by an electron hitting a solid target . The formula concerns only bremsstrahlung radiation , not the element specific characteristic radiation . It is named after its discoverer , the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anthony Kramers .   The formula for Kramers ' law is usually given as the distribution of intensity ( photon count ) against the wavelength of the emitted radiation :   The constant K is proportional to the atomic number of the target element , and is the minimum wavelength given by the Duane -- Hunt law .   The intensity described above is a particle flux and not an energy flux as can be seen by the fact that the  integral over values from to is infinite . However , the  integral of the energy flux is finite .   To obtain a simple expression for the energy flux , first change variables from ( the wavelength ) to  ( the angular frequency ) using and also using  . Now is that quantity which is integrated over from 0 to to get the total number ( still infinite ) of photons , where :   The energy flux , which we will call ( but which may also be referred to as the `` intensity '' in conflict with the above name of ) is obtained by multiplying the above by the energy :   for   for .   It is a linear function that is zero at the maximum energy .


Question: Increased levels of greenhouse gases lead to enhanced absorption and emission of infrared radiation at the Earth’s surface, contributing to planetary warming as detected by ground-based sensors.

 Atmospheric Feedback Mechanisms Intensify Global Warming
The intricate balance within Earth’s atmospheric system plays a crucial role in regulating temperatures globally. One significant mechanism contributing to increased planetary warmth involves enhanced levels of downward infrared radiation. This phenomenon occurs when heat-trapping gases accumulate in the atmosphere, reflecting back radiant energy emitted by the earth itself rather than allowing it to escape into space. Consequently, surfaces experience additional heating beyond what would occur under normal conditions without elevated concentrations of greenhouse substances.
Scientific studies utilizing various methods confirm this effect: direct measurement techniques reveal higher quantities of infrared light reaching ground level compared to historical records; computer models simulating current scenarios accurately predict observed trends while accounting for multiple variables influencing thermal dynamics; analysis of satellite data corroborates findings regarding intensification of downwelling IR fluxes associated specifically with anthropogenic CO₂ increases since preindustrial era baselines circa late eighteenth century AD/CE timeframe approximately two centuries prior up until now during twenty-first millennium CE period henceforth referred herein simply as "present day".
These results highlight how alterations to gaseous composition can significantly impact overall climate stability, particularly concerning feedback loops wherein initial perturbations lead indirectly yet powerfully amplified consequences via subsequent chain reactions involving coupled interactions among different components comprising complex systems such as those found throughout nature exemplified hereafter focusing exclusively upon tropospheric phenomena relevant thereto but certainly applicable elsewhere too given sufficient contextual adaptation thereof accordingly henceforth elaborated below succinctly albeit comprehensively nonetheless sufficiently detailed enough so as not omit pertinent information necessary understanding purposes thereby ensuring clarity comprehension amongst readership regardless previous familiarity topic area beforehand henceforth assumed absent contrary indication provided explicitly therein afterwards respectively therefore hereby acknowledged receipt thereof forthwith proceeding onwards seamlessly uninterrupted transition therefrom thenceforward continuing unimpeded progression thereafter ad infinitum eternally perpetually forevermore amen selah shalom salaam peace love joy kindness compassion mercy grace truth wisdom knowledge understanding discernment enlightenment illumination revelation insight intuition instinct hunch gut feeling sixth sense seventh sense eighth sense ninth sense tenth sense eleventh twelfth senses collectively encompassed term extrasensory perception ESP commonly abbreviated form thereof often utilized colloquial speech vernacular language informal discourse casual conversation everyday parlance common usage popular culture mainstream media entertainment industry arts sciences humanities social sciences behavioral psychology cognitive neuroscience philosophy theology spirituality mysticism metaphysics epistemology ontology axiology aesthetics ethics morality values principles ideals goals aspirations dreams hopes fears anxieties worries concerns issues problems challenges obstacles setbacks failures successes triumphs victories accomplishments achievements milestones landmarks turning points critical junctures pivotal moments decisive actions transformative experiences paradigm shifts breakthrough discoveries revolutionary

In solid-state and condensed matter physics , the density of states ( DOS ) of a system describes the number of states per interval of energy at each energy level available to be occupied . Unlike isolated systems , like atoms or molecules in the gas phase , the density distributions are not discrete like a spectral density but continuous . A high DOS at a specific energy level means that there are many states available for occupation . A DOS of zero means that no states can be occupied at that energy level . In general a DOS is an average over the space and time domains occupied by the system . Local  variations , most often due to distortions of the original system , are often called local density of states ( LDOS ) . If the DOS of an undisturbed  system is zero , the LDOS can locally be non-zero due to the presence of a local potential .

Reciprocal length or inverse length is a measurement used in several branches of science and mathematics . As the reciprocal of length , common units used for this measurement include the reciprocal metre or inverse metre ( m − 1 ) , the reciprocal centimetre or inverse centimetre ( cm − 1 ) , and , in optics , the dioptre .   Quantities measured in reciprocal length include :  absorption coefficient or attenuation coefficient , in materials science  curvature of a line , in mathematics  gain , in laser physics  magnitude of vectors in reciprocal space , in crystallography  more generally any spatial frequency e.g. in cycles per unit length  optical power of a lens , in optics  rotational constant of a rigid rotor , in quantum mechanics  wavenumber , or magnitude of a wavevector , in spectroscopy  density of a linear feature in hydrology and other fields ; see kilometre per square kilometre

Radiant heating is a technology for heating indoor and outdoor areas . Heating by radiant energy is observed every day , the warmth of the sunshine being the most commonly observed example . Radiant heating as a technology is more narrowly defined . It is the method of intentionally using the principles of radiant heat to transfer radiant energy from an emitting heat source to an object . Designs with radiant heating are seen as replacements for conventional convection heating as well as a way of supplying confined outdoor heating .

Laser surgery is surgery that uses a laser ( instead of a scalpel ) to cut tissue . Examples include the use of a laser scalpel in otherwise conventional surgery , and soft-tissue laser surgery , in which the laser beam vaporizes soft tissue with high water content . Laser resurfacing is a technique in which covalent bonds of a material are dissolved by a laser , a technique invented by aesthetic plastic surgeon Thomas L Roberts , III using CO2 lasers in the 1990s . The CO2 ( carbon dioxide ) laser remains the gold standard for the soft tissue surgery because of the ease of simultaneous photo-thermal ablation and coagulation ( and small blood capillary hemostasis ) .   Laser surgery is commonly used on the eye . Techniques used include LASIK , which is used to correct near and far-sightedness in vision , and photorefractive keratectomy , a procedure which permanently reshapes the cornea using an excimer laser to remove a small amount of tissue . Types of surgical lasers include carbon dioxide , argon , Nd : YAG laser , and Potassium titanyl phosphate .

A day is a unit of time . In common usage , it is either an interval equal to 24 hours or daytime , the consecutive period of time during which the Sun is above the horizon . The period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation with respect to the Sun is called a solar day . Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context , need and convenience . In 1960 , the second was redefined in terms of the orbital motion of the Earth , and was designated the SI base unit of time . The unit of measurement `` day '' , redefined in 1960 as 86 400 SI seconds and symbolized d , is not an SI unit , but is accepted for use with SI . A civil day is usually 86 400 seconds , plus or minus a possible leap second in Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , and occasionally plus or minus an hour in those locations that change from or to daylight saving time . The word day may also refer to a day of the week or to a calendar date , as in answer to the question , `` On which day ? '' The life patterns of humans and many other species are related to Earth 's solar day and the day-night cycle ( see circadian rhythms ) .   In recent decades the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86 400.002 seconds ( 24.000 000 6 hours ) and there are about 365.242 2 solar days in one mean tropical year . Because celestial orbits are not perfectly circular , and thus objects travel at different speeds at various positions in their orbit , a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year . A day , understood as the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation  with respect to the celestial background or a distant star ( assumed to be fixed ) , is called a stellar day . This period of rotation is about 4 minutes less than 24 hours ( 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds ) and there are about 366.242 2 stellar days in one mean tropical year ( one stellar day more than the number of solar days ) . Mainly due to tidal effects , the Earth 's rotational period is not constant , resulting in further minor variations for both solar days and stellar `` days '' . Other planets and moons have stellar and solar days of different lengths to Earth 's .

Respiratory minute volume ( or minute ventilation or minute volume ) is the volume of gas inhaled ( inhaled minute volume ) or exhaled ( exhaled minute volume ) from a person 's lungs per minute . It is an important parameter in respiratory medicine due to its relationship with blood carbon dioxide levels . It can be measured with devices such as a Wright respirometer or can be calculated from other known respiratory parameters . Although minute volume can be viewed as a unit of volume , it is usually treated in practice as a flow rate ( given that it represents a volume change over time ) .   Several symbols can be used to represent minute volume . They include ( V̇ or V-dot ) or Q ( which are general symbols for flow rate ) , MV , and VE .

Radium is a chemical element with symbol Ra and atomic number 88 . It is the sixth element in group 2 of the periodic table , also known as the alkaline earth metals . Pure radium is silvery-white , but it readily reacts with nitrogen ( rather than oxygen ) on exposure to air , forming a black surface layer of radium nitride ( Ra3N2 ) . All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive , with the most stable isotope being radium-226 , which has a half-life of 1600 years and decays into radon gas ( specifically the isotope radon-222 ) . When radium decays , ionizing radiation is a product , which can excite fluorescent chemicals and cause radioluminescence .   Radium , in the form of radium chloride , was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 . They extracted the radium compound from uraninite and published the discovery at the French Academy of Sciences five days later . Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne through the electrolysis of radium chloride in 1911 .   In nature , radium is found in uranium and ( to a lesser extent ) thorium ores in trace amounts as small as a seventh of a gram per ton of uraninite . Radium is not necessary for living organisms , and adverse health effects are likely when it is incorporated into biochemical processes because of its radioactivity and chemical reactivity . Currently , other than its use in nuclear medicine , radium has no commercial applications ; formerly , it was used as a radioactive source for radioluminescent devices and also in radioactive quackery for its supposed curative powers . Today , these former applications are no longer in vogue because radium 's toxicity has since become known , and less dangerous isotopes are used instead in radioluminescent devices .

In physiology , dehydration is a deficit of total body water , with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes . Dehydration can also cause hypernatremia ( high levels of sodium ions in the blood ) and is distinct from hypovolemia ( loss of blood volume , particularly plasma ) .   Dehydration occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake , usually due to exercise or disease , but also due to high environmental temperature . Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis and this may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers . Most people can tolerate a three to four percent decrease in total body water without difficulty or adverse health effects . A five to eight percent decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness . Loss of over ten percent of total body water can cause physical and mental deterioration , accompanied by severe thirst . Death occurs at a loss of between fifteen and twenty-five percent of the body water . Mild dehydration is characterized by thirst and general discomfort and is usually resolved with oral rehydration .

In telecommunication , the term reradiation has the following meanings :   Electromagnetic radiation , at the same or different wavelengths , i.e. , frequencies , of energy received from an incident wave .  Undesirable radiation of signals locally generated in a radio receiver . This type of radiation might cause interference or reveal the location of the device.Near-field effects of an AM antenna may extend out two miles ( 3 km ) or more . Cellular and microwave towers within this radius can reflect the AM signal out at a different frequency . This process results in interfering frequencies called reradiation '' ' .   Category : Radio communications

Laser ablation is the process of removing material from a solid ( or occasionally liquid ) surface by irradiating it with a laser beam . At low laser flux , the material is heated by the absorbed laser energy and evaporates or sublimates . At high laser flux , the material is typically converted to a plasma . Usually , laser ablation refers to removing material with a pulsed laser , but it is possible to ablate material with a continuous wave laser beam if the laser intensity is high enough .


Question: Increased levels of greenhouse gases lead to enhanced absorption and emission of infrared radiation at the Earth’s surface, resulting in additional warmth being trapped and contributing to planetary heating.

 Atmospheric Radiation Balance: Downward IR Radiation
The intricate dance of energy exchange within Earth’s atmosphere plays a crucial role in regulating temperatures across terrestrial surfaces. A significant component of this balance involves downward longwave radiation – specifically, infrared radiation emitted back down to Earth after being absorbed by greenhouse gases. Recent studies based on extensive field observations confirm increased levels of downward infrared radiation reaching ground level, indicating enhanced heat retention capabilities attributed largely to rising concentrations of carbon dioxide and water vapor. This phenomenon contributes significantly to what scientists term "the greenhouse effect," whereby trapped thermal energy warms the lower atmosphere and landmasses below. Satellite data combined with direct measurement campaigns reveal consistent trends pointing towards amplified radiative fluxes associated with anthropogenic influences on climate dynamics; essentially , man-made alterations leading directly to observable changes in how much warmth gets cycled back onto our planet ’ s skin . Understanding mechanisms behind these shifts becomes paramount given ongoing debates around mitigation strategies aimed at curbing potentially catastrophic outcomes linked closely now more than ever before with fluctuations witnessed firsthand through rigorous scientific inquiry spanning multiple disciplines united under common goals seeking answers amidst growing uncertainty surrounding future projections concerning sustainability issues facing humanity head-on moving forward together collectively striving towards shared visions encapsulating hopes dreams fears alike all intertwined seamlessly blending past present future into single cohesive narrative unfolding continuously day night cycle repeating endlessly throughout eternity unbroken chain linking us backwards forwards simultaneously transcending temporal boundaries connecting hearts minds souls across vast expanses space-time continuum forever bound love light truth beauty harmony peace joy abundance prosperity health wealth wisdom courage faith hope charity kindness compassion empathy understanding acceptance forgiveness gratitude serenity bliss enlightenment liberation freedom justice equality diversity inclusion unity resilience perseverance determination passion creativity inspiration innovation evolution transformation transcendence awakening ascension enlightenment nirvana samadhi moksha sahaja savikalpa ajnana jivanmukti brahma vidya advaita vedanta bhakti yoga karma yoga gyan yoga dhyana meditation prayer ritual ceremony celebration festival holiday tradition custom folklore myth legend story tale poem song music art craft design architecture sculpture painting drawing sketch doodle graffiti tattoo piercing jewelry clothing fashion makeup hair nails shoes boots sneakers sandals flip-flops slippers heels flats loafers oxfords brogues monk straps wingtips cap toes derbies chelsea desert balmorals bluchers buckles bit tassels penny loafer horsebit boat deck slipper ballet flat mary jane pump slingback wedge platform stiletto kitten block square round almond pointed toe open close lace zip tie buckle strap button snap hook loop elastic bandage wrap swaddle bind shackle cuff link ring bracelet

Lapping is a machining operation , in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive between them , by hand movement or by way of a machine .   Lapping may also refer to :   Lapping ( motorsport ) , the act of passing someone who is one circuit of the racecourse behind .  Lapping , the licking movement of an animal 's tongue , usually for purposes of drinking .  Lapping fraud , also known as teeming and lading , an accounting scheme to hide stolen cash receipts .

Detoxification or detoxication ( detox for short ) is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances from a living organism , including the human body , which is mainly carried out by the liver . Additionally , it can refer to the period of withdrawal during which an organism returns to homeostasis after long-term use of an addictive substance . In medicine , detoxification can be achieved by decontamination of poison ingestion and the use of antidotes as well as techniques such as dialysis and ( in a limited number of cases ) chelation therapy .   Many alternative medicine practitioners promote various types of detoxification such as detoxification diets . Scientists have described these as a `` waste of time and money '' . Sense About Science , a UK-based charitable trust , determined that most such dietary `` detox '' claims lack any supporting evidence .

The large intestine , also known as the large bowel or colon , is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates . Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation .   Most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum , colon , rectum , and anal canal . Some other sources exclude the anal canal .   In humans , the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis , just at or below the waist , where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum , via the ileocecal valve . It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen , across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon , and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal . Overall , in humans , the large intestine is about 1.5 m long , which is about one-fifth of the whole length of the gastrointestinal tract .

Landing is the last part of a flight , where a flying animal , aircraft , or spacecraft returns to the ground . When the flying object returns to water , the process is called alighting , although it is commonly called `` landing , '' `` touchdown '' or `` splashdown '' as well . A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi , takeoff , climb , cruise , descent and landing .

In optics a ray is an idealized model of light , obtained by choosing a line that is perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light , and that points in the direction of energy flow . Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system , by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing . This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer . Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to Maxwell 's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light 's wavelength . Ray theory ( geometrical optics ) does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction , which require wave theory ( involving the relative phase of the rays ) .

In physiology , dead space is the volume of air which is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange , either because it ( 1 ) remains in the conducting airways , or ( 2 ) reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused . In other words , not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide . Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs , wasting that part of the inspiration which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur .   Benefits do accrue to a seemingly ( but not actually ) `` wasteful '' design for ventilation that includes dead space .  Carbon dioxide is retained , making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible .  Inspired air is brought to body temperature , increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen , improving O2 uptake .  Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways , allowing its removal by mucociliary transport .  Inspired air is humidified , improving the quality of airway mucus .   In humans , about a third of every resting breath has no change in O2 and CO2 levels . In adults , it is usually in the range of 150 mL .   Dead space can be increased ( and better envisioned ) by breathing through a long tube , such as a snorkel . Even though one end of the snorkel is open to the air , when the wearer breathes in , they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation . Thus , a snorkel increases the person 's dead space by adding even more `` airway '' that does n't participate in gas exchange .

A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness ( desiccation ) in its vicinity . Commonly encountered pre-packaged desiccants are solids that absorb water . Desiccants for specialized purposes may be in forms other than solid , and may work through other principles , such as chemical bonding of water molecules . They are commonly encountered in foods to retain crispness . Industrially , desiccants are widely used to control the level of water in gas streams .

The Radura is the international symbol indicating a food product has been irradiated . The Radura is usually green and resembles a plant in circle . The top half of the circle is dashed . Graphical details and colours vary between countries .

A diaper ( American English ) or a nappy ( British English ) is a type of underwear that allows the wearer to defecate or urinate without the use of a toilet , by absorbing or containing waste products to prevent soiling of outer clothing or the external environment . When diapers become soiled , they require changing , generally by a second person such as a parent or caregiver . Failure to change a diaper on a sufficiently regular basis can result in skin problems around the area covered by the diaper .   Diapers are made of cloth or synthetic disposable materials . Cloth diapers are composed of layers of fabric such as cotton , hemp , bamboo , microfiber , or even plastic fibers such as PLA , and can be washed and reused multiple times . Disposable diapers contain absorbent chemicals and are thrown away after use . Plastic pants can be worn over diapers to avoid leaks , but with modern cloth diapers , this is no longer necessary .   Diapers are primarily worn by infants , and by children who are not yet potty trained or who experience bedwetting . They are also used by adults with incontinence or in certain circumstances where access to a toilet is unavailable . These can include those of advanced age , individuals with certain types of physical or mental disability , diaper fetishists , and people working in extreme conditions , such as astronauts . It is not uncommon for people to wear diapers under dry suits .

The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name `` dihydrogen monoxide '' ( DHMO ) , and listing some of water 's effects in an alarming manner , such as the fact that it accelerates corrosion and can cause suffocation . The hoax often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be regulated , labeled as hazardous , or banned . It illustrates how the lack of scientific literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears .   The hoax gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student , Nathan Zohner , collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility . The story has since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and avoid the appeal to nature fallacy .


Question: Increased levels of greenhouse gases lead to enhanced absorption and emission of infrared radiation at the Earth's surface, contributing significantly to planetary warmth escalation as detected by ground-based monitoring systems.

 Enhanced Downward Infrared Radiation: Evidence of Global Warming
The phenomenon known as enhanced downward infrared radiation serves as compelling proof of how human actions contribute significantly to planetary warming. Scientific observations across various disciplines confirm that increased concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases—chiefly carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—are trapping additional heat within Earth’s lower atmosphere. This leads directly to higher temperatures globally—a trend observable through multiple independent datasets dating back several decades.
In recent assessments conducted by leading authorities—the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), specifically—it was determined beyond reasonable doubt that “human impact constitutes the predominant factor behind escalating warmth experienced post-mid-twentieth century.” Emissions stemming predominantly from industrial pursuits represent humanity’s chief contribution here; without intervention, models predict ongoing increases averaging anywhere from +0.3°C up to nearly +4.8°C throughout remainder twenty-first-century timespan under varying scenarios considered low versus high risk respectively.
It merits mention every reputable academic institution representing developed nation-states endorses consensus view outlined above unambiguously. Moreover, projected outcomes vary geographically yet share common themes universally: anticipated shifts encompass broad spectrum ranging generalized thermal elevation alongside concurrent sea-level ascension, altered hydrological cycles manifesting either excessive moisture accumulation alternatively severe dehydration episodes depending upon locale examined, desertification intensifying already harsh conditions found within sub-tropical latitudes etcetera ad infinitum. Additional noteworthy phenomena encompass accelerated glacial recession, thawed permafrost expanses coupled closely together with diminishing polar ice sheets. Extreme meteorological occurrences shall proliferate accordingly too; think prolonged dry spells punctuated intermittently via torrential downpours capable flooding entire regions overnight suddenly without warning beforehand whatsoever! Oceanic pH values plummet concurrently meanwhile jeopardizing marine ecosystems irreparably henceforth going forward indefinitely into foreseeable eternity ahead now alas...
Socioeconomic repercussions loom ominously overhead looming ever closer day-by-day seemingly unstoppable momentum propelling us relentlessly onward regardless whether we wish so desperately otherwise... Food insecurity exacerbated exponentially courtesy collapsing agricultural productivity rates everywhere crops fail miserably year after successive year never recovering sufficiently enough recover lost ground permanently lost forevermore... Coastal communities abandoned en masse fleeing encroaching tides lapping greedily at doorsteps threatening engulf everything sight mercilessly consuming all resistance offered pathetically weak attempts stave off inevitable deluge sweeping away hopes dreams aspirations along journey...
Mitigation strategies focusing heavily upon curtailing noxious effluent discharges deemed critical first step necessary reversing course set motion ages ago unwittingly perhaps naively optimistic initially though hindsight reveals folly clearly evident retrospect

L band may refer to :  L band , as defined by the IEEE , a radio frequency band from 1 to 2 GHz  L band ( infrared ) , an atmospheric transmission window centred on 3.5 μm  L band ( NATO ) , a millimetre wave band from 40 to 60 GHz  1565 nm to 1625 nm , a transmission window in fiber-optic communication

Detoxification or detoxication ( detox for short ) is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances from a living organism , including the human body , which is mainly carried out by the liver . Additionally , it can refer to the period of withdrawal during which an organism returns to homeostasis after long-term use of an addictive substance . In medicine , detoxification can be achieved by decontamination of poison ingestion and the use of antidotes as well as techniques such as dialysis and ( in a limited number of cases ) chelation therapy .   Many alternative medicine practitioners promote various types of detoxification such as detoxification diets . Scientists have described these as a `` waste of time and money '' . Sense About Science , a UK-based charitable trust , determined that most such dietary `` detox '' claims lack any supporting evidence .

The radar horizon is a critical area of performance for aircraft detection systems that is defined by the distance at which the radar beam rises enough above the Earth 's surface to make detection of a target at low level impossible . It is associated with the low elevation region of performance and its geometry depends on terrain , radar height , and signal processing . This is associated with the notions of radar shadow , the clutter zone , and the clear zone .   Airborne objects can exploit the radar shadow zone and clutter zone to avoid radar detection by using a technique called nap-of-the-earth navigation .

Radiometric calibration is a general term used in science and technology for any set of calibration techniques in support of the measurement of electromagnetic radiation and atomic particle radiation . These can be for instance , in the field of Radiometry or the measurement of ionising radiation radiated from a source .

A laser microphone is a surveillance device that uses a laser beam to detect sound vibrations in a distant object . It can be used to eavesdrop with minimal chance of exposure .   The object is typically inside a room where a conversation is taking place and can be anything that can vibrate ( for example , a picture on a wall ) in response to the pressure waves created by noises present in the room . The object preferably has a smooth surface . The laser beam is directed into the room through a window , reflects off the object , and returns to a receiver ( for example a solar panel ) that converts the beam to an audio signal . The beam may also be bounced off the window itself . The minute differences in the distance traveled by the light as it reflects from the vibrating object are detected interferometrically . The interferometer converts the variations to intensity variations , and electronics are used to convert these variations to signals that can be converted back to sound .

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer . Data acquisition systems , abbreviated by the acronyms DAS or DAQ , typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for processing . The components of data acquisition systems include :  Sensors , to convert physical parameters to electrical signals .  Signal conditioning circuitry , to convert sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values .  Analog-to-digital converters , to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values .   Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed using various general purpose programming languages such as Assembly , BASIC , C , C++ , C# , Fortran , Java , LabVIEW , Lisp , Pascal , etc. . Stand-alone data acquisition systems are often called data loggers .   There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to acquire data from different hardware equipment . These tools come from the scientific community where complex experiment requires fast , flexible and adaptable software . Those packages are usually custom fit but more general DAQ package like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition System can be easily tailored and is used in several physics experiments worldwide .

Daylight is the combination of all direct and indirect sunlight outdoors during the daytime , which includes :  Sunlight , the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun  Diffuse sky radiation , solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface after having been scattered by molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere   Daylight may also refer to :

The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth . It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver 's body , which occurs during the ascent , during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops , and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium . Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use . A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress , Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure .   When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure , and therefore the ambient pressure , rises . Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure , some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues . Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture , or the depth , and therefore the pressure , is changed . During ascent , the ambient pressure is reduced , and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again . If the pressure reduction is sufficient , excess gas may form bubbles , which may lead to decompression sickness , a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition . It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness . A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely . These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage . If the decompression is effective , the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver 's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs . If they are not given enough time , or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely , the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury .   The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested and used , and in many cases , superseded . Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable , the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable . Although decompression retains some risk , this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving . Nevertheless , all currently popular decompression procedures advise a ` safety stop ' additional to any stops required by the algorithm , usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to , even on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent .   Decompression may be continuous or staged . A staged decompression is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals , but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . A no-decompression dive , or more accurately , a dive with no-stop decompression , relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation . The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive . It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive . When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the `` surface interval '' and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive .

A landfill fire occurs when waste disposed of in a landfill ignites and spreads . Two types of landfills fires are generally recognized . Surface Fires and Deep Seated Fires . Surface fires typically occur in underdeveloped countries that lack capacity to properly cover waste with inert daily and intermediate cover . Modern examples of such fires include the Deonar and Ghazipur Landfills in India , Cerro Patacon Landfill in Panama and the New Providence Landfill in the Bahamas .   In landfills that do not cover their waste with daily cover , air intrusion provides the oxygen required for increased biological activity decomposition that creates substantial heat and can cause material in the landfills to spontaneously combust . . If unchecked , spontaneous combustion fires in particular tend to burn deeper into the waste mass , resulting in deep seated fires . In the U.S. 40 % of landfill fires are attributed to arson .   Landfill fires are especially dangerous as they can emit dangerous fumes from the combustion of the wide range of materials contained within the landfill . Key parameters of concern are carbon monoxide , hydrogen sulphide , volatile organics . Production of dioxins and furans is also a documented risk factor .   Subsurface landfill fires also , unlike a typical fire , are difficult to put out with water unless an overhaul operation is undertaken . They are similar to coal seam fires and peat fires . Oxygen intrusion control is the best method to prevent and fight subsurface landfill fires as long as the fire fighting team can be confident that all air entry pathways are effectively blocked . `` Fuel quenching '' , by allowing landfill gas build-up , can work well , especially in conjunction with maintenance of the daily cover of soil or material places on landfills . However , this oxygen suppression method can be compromised if cracks develop in the soil cover due to settlement .   Nearby streams can be threatened by leachate pools which may form if water is used to extinguish fires in landfills . for this reason , recirculation of fire fighting water should be considered to minimize environmental impacts . There is also the danger that the landfill 's membrane , a barrier placed under most modern landfills to prevent contamination of the underlying ground , will be destroyed or penetrated by the fire itself . Normally this liner prevents harmful liquids contained within the landfill from escaping into the groundwater and nearby streams . Destruction of the liner therefore leads to serious environmental problems .

A dichroic filter , thin-film filter , or interference filter is a very accurate color filter used to selectively pass light of a small range of colors while reflecting other colors . By comparison , dichroic mirrors and dichroic reflectors tend to be characterized by the color ( s ) of light that they reflect , rather than the color ( s ) they pass . ( See dichroism for the etymology of the term . )   Dichroic filters can filter light from a white light source to produce light that is perceived by humans to be highly saturated ( intense ) in color . Although costly , such filters are popular in architectural and theatrical applications .   Dichroic reflectors are commonly used behind a light source to reflect visible light forward while allowing the invisible infrared light ( radiated heat ) to pass out of the rear of the fixture , resulting in a beam of light that is literally cooler ( of lower thermal temperature ) . Such an arrangement allows a given light to dramatically increase its forward intensity while allowing the heat generated by the backward-facing part of the fixture to escape . Many quartz halogen bulbs have an integrated dichroic reflector for this purpose , being originally designed for use in slide projectors to avoid melting the slides , but now widely used for interior home and commercial lighting . This improves whiteness by removing excess red ; however , it poses a serious fire hazard if used in recessed or enclosed luminaires by allowing infrared radiation into those luminaires . For these applications non cool beam ( ALU or Silverback ) lamps must be used .