Question:
 The decline in thermal conditions followed an unusual period of elevated heat that persisted for approximately sixty years, as documented by National Geographic. This stark contrast highlights the fluctuating nature of climate patterns over time.

In this transformation:
- "That drop" becomes "The decline", maintaining subject reference while changing phrasing slightly.
- "in temperature" remains unchanged but could be replaced with synonyms like "thermal conditions".
- "came after" changes to "followed", keeping temporal sequence intact.
- "what was described...as" transforms into "...that persisted...", preserving description through alternative wording.
- "'Six decades' of..." evolves to "approximately sixty years," retaining duration specificity differently.
- "abnormal warmth" shifts to "elevated heat", conveying equivalent meaning via synonymous terms.
- Additional context about source credibility ("National Geographic") and implication on climate variability has been included at the end without altering sentence structure significantly or increasing word count excessively beyond original parameters (aiming not exceed more than five additional words). Overall coherence and message equivalence remain consistent between both sentences despite modifications made throughout their composition process here presented above clearly step-by-step so you can easily follow along!

 Six Decades of Abnormal Warmth Preceding Recent Cold Snap
The recent plunge in temperatures has been starkly contrasted against six decades of unusually mild weather, a phenomenon highlighted by National Geographic. Just as a tropical cyclone disrupts typical weather patterns, so too did this extended period of warmth stand out before giving way to colder conditions.
Tropical cyclones, known variously as hurricanes, typhoons, tropical storms, cyclonic storms, tropical depressions, or just plain cyclones depending upon geographic region, serve here merely as a metaphor. These massive swirling storms, powered by evaporated seawater condensing back into precipitation, thrive across vast expanses of warmer oceans. Their formation requires specific conditions: lower pressure centers encircled by tightly wound bands of powerful winds; towering cumulonimbus clouds producing torrential downpours; all revolving around an eye of relative calm.
These tempests take different names based on locale — hurricanes rage over both the Atlantic Basin plus northeast Pacific waters while typhoons dominate northwest Pacific skies, whereas generic "cyclones" wreak havoc throughout southern reaches of those two oceans alongside much of India’s backyard sea lanes. Yet regardless moniker chosen, each shares common traits born aloft atop thermally active marine surfaces wherein moisture-rich gusts ascend cooling until saturated enough precipitate falls again as raindrops.
Unlike extratropical counterparts energized predominantly via lateral thermal disparities – think Nor’easters battering New England coastlines during winter months – tropical brethren harness latent caloric output derived straightaway courtesy sunlit aqueous expanse belowfoot. Angular momentum conserved thanks planetary spin dictates rotational orientation whereby northern hemisphere whirlwinds twirl anticlockwise contrariwise southern cousins gyrate clockwise instead. Moreover, neither variety tends manifest closer than five degrees latitude either side celestial equatorial plane owing dearth requisite convective instability thereinabouts.
Ranging anywhere upwards hundred miles wide, these titanic disturbances unleash fierce gales accompanied copious rainfall totals along with attendant hazards comprising towering swells, destructive inundations, even sporadic mini-twisters spawned intermittently amidst eyewall convection cells. Upon making terrestrial contact though, rapid dissipation ensues bereft access erstwhile plentiful maritime vapor reservoirs whence drawn sustenance hitherto. Hence why littoral communities invariably suffer disproportionately greater losses vis-a-vis interior locales situated farther removed from immediate shoreline environs. Nevertheless, abundant deluges sometimes prove beneficial mitigating chronic hydrological deficits plaguing certain areas otherwise prone recurrent drought episodes. Additionally, perhaps playing pivotal

Lanthanide contraction is a term used in chemistry to describe the greater-than-expected decrease in ionic radii of the elements in the lanthanide series from atomic number 57 , lanthanum , to 71 , lutetium , which results in smaller than otherwise expected ionic radii for the subsequent elements starting with 72 , hafnium . The term was coined by the Norwegian geochemist Victor Goldschmidt in his series `` Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente '' .

... Not ! is a grammatical construction in the English language that became a sardonic catchphrase in North America and elsewhere in the 1990s . A declarative statement is made , followed by a pause , and then an emphatic `` not ! '' adverb is postfixed . The result is a negation of the original declarative statement .   According to the above , the phrase , `` He is a nice guy ... not ! '' is synonymous to `` He is not a nice guy '' . Whereas the latter structure is a neutral observation , the former expresses rather an annoyance , and is most often used jocularly .   Popularized in North America in the 1990s by a Saturday Night Live skit and subsequent movie Wayne 's World , it can be found earlier in print in an 1893 Princeton Tiger ( March 30 ) 103 : `` An Historical Parallel -- Not . '' A 1905 usage is in Dream of the Rarebit Fiend by Winsor McCay . It was selected as the 1992 Word of the Year by the American Dialect Society .   The `` Not ! '' catchphrase was the basis of a scene in the 2006 movie Borat where a lecturer in humour attempted to explain the grammatical construction to Borat with limited success .   The comedic utility of the word became apparent , again , in February 2011 in Canada , when a minister of the Crown , Bev Oda , was implicated in a scandal that saw her deny knowledge of the insertion of the word `` not '' on a legal document denying funding to a respected non-profit organization and offer no explanation as to how her signature appeared on the document . Normal procedure would have been not to sign the approval document . She later told a Committee of Canada 's House of Commons that she had no idea where the insertion of the word `` not '' came from . Weeks later , she claimed that she ordered its insertion . The minister underwent considerable fire , with opposition parties demanding her resignation . She resigned on July 3 , 2012 .

Devils Tower ( also Bear Lodge Butte ) is a laccolithic butte composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Mountains ( part of the Black Hills ) near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County , northeastern Wyoming , above the Belle Fourche River . It rises dramatically 1,267 feet ( 386 m ) above the Belle Fourche River , standing 867 feet ( 265 m ) from summit to base . The summit is 5,112 feet ( 1,559 m ) above sea level .   Devils Tower was the first declared United States National Monument , established on September 24 , 1906 , by President Theodore Roosevelt . The Monument 's boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres ( 545 ha ) .   In recent years , about 1 % of the Monument 's 400,000 annual visitors climbed Devils Tower , mostly using traditional climbing techniques .

The Richter magnitude scale ( also Richter scale ) assigns a magnitude number to quantify the size of an earthquake . The Richter scale , developed in the 1930s , is a base-10 logarithmic scale , which defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary , minor amplitude , as recorded on a standardized seismograph at a standard distance .   As measured with a seismometer , an earthquake that registers 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times greater than an earthquake that registered 4.0 at the same distance . As energy release is generally proportional to the shaking amplitude raised to the 3/2 power , an increase of 1 magnitude corresponds to a release of energy 31.6 times that released by the lesser earthquake . This means that , for instance , an earthquake of magnitude 5 releases 31.6 times as much energy as an earthquake of magnitude 4 .   Magnitude 3 = 2 gigajoules  Magnitude 4 = 63 gigajoules  Magnitude 5 = 2 terajoules  Magnitude 6 = 63 terajoules  Magnitude 7 = 2 petajoules   The Richter scale built on the previous , more subjective Mercalli scale by offering a quantifiable measure of an earthquake 's size .   In the United States , the Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the moment magnitude scale . The moment magnitude scale is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes .

-- Last lines from William Shakespeare 's Sonnet 18 , published this year and , four centuries later , still `` eternal lines ''   Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation 's poetry or literature ( for instance , Irish or France ) .

Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power is a book published in 1824 by French physicist Sadi Carnot .   The 118-page book 's French title was Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance . It is a significant publication in the history of thermodynamics about a generalized theory of heat engines .   The book is considered the founding work of thermodynamics . It contains the preliminary outline of the second law of thermodynamics . Carnot stated that motive power is due to the fall of caloric ( heat ) from a hot to a cold body .   The work was unnoticed until 1834 when French mining engineer Émile Clapeyron put it on a graphical footing in his Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat . Through Clapeyron 's paper , German physicist Rudolf Clausius learned of Carnot 's theory of heat and through a modification of Carnot 's suppositions on heat , Clausius put the second law in mathematical form with his introduction of the concept of entropy .   By 1849 , thermo-dynamic , as a functional term , was used in William Thomson 's paper An Account of Carnot 's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat .   The Reflections contain a number of principles such as the Carnot cycle , the Carnot heat engine , Carnot 's theorem , thermodynamic efficiency . Similar to how the Reflections was the precursor to the second law , English physicist James Joule 's 1843 paper Mechanical equivalent of heat was the precursor to the first law of thermodynamics .   Despite the fact that the caloric theory of heat was incorrect , Carnot 's work brought together three insights that remain relevant and was used by his successors that lead to the concept of entropy :  The `` fall of heat '' from a high temperature to a lower temperature is where the work comes from .  Analyzing a cycle , rather than an open system , is the correct way to analyze a heat engine .  The concept of a reversible process .


Question: The decline in thermal conditions followed an unusual period of elevated heat that persisted for six decades, as chronicled by National Geographic."

 Fluctuations in Temperature Trends: An Analysis
Earth’s climate undergoes periodic shifts influenced by both natural phenomena and human actions. After experiencing six decades of unusual warmth documented extensively within historical meteorological data, recent observations indicate a slight cooling trend in certain regions—a phenomenon noted even amidst overarching concerns regarding global warming. This variability highlights the complex interplay between short-term fluctuations and longer-term trends in planetary temperatures.
Historical records reveal periods where Earth experienced warmer conditions compared to baseline averages established through extensive research spanning several centuries. Such deviations can often result from various contributing elements including volcanic eruptions, solar radiation alterations, and atmospheric composition modifications induced by human industries releasing substantial quantities of greenhouse gases into the environment.
Intriguingly enough, despite these prolonged intervals characterized predominantly by increased thermal readings across diverse ecosystems globally; localized instances showcasing reduced ambient air temperatures emerged unexpectedly challenging prevailing hypotheses surrounding uniform escalation attributed solely to anthropogenic sources. Scientists emphasize however that isolated cooler spells do not negate overwhelming empirical proof endorsing man-made contributions exacerbating overall planetary heating dynamics.
Climate models predict divergent outcomes depending upon projected scenarios encompassing low versus high emission trajectories envisaged throughout remainder current millennium. Lower estimates suggest marginal increments hovering approximately half degree Celsius whereas upper bounds forecast potentially catastrophic jumps exceeding four degrees under business-as-usual assumptions lacking stringent regulatory frameworks curbing unabated pollution discharges emanating chiefly via combustion fossil fuels powering modern economic enterprises.
Geographical disparities dictate differential exposure vulnerability manifesting heterogeneous consequences ranging widely from intensified frequency intensity hydro-meteorological extremes impacting agricultural productivity coastal integrity, upsurge desertification encroaching fertile lands diminishing habitability prospects, alongside accelerated glacial recession threatening freshwater availability mountainous catchments jeopardizing livelihoods dependent thereof.
Mitigation strategies entail drastic reductions greenhouse gas outputs coupled adaptive measures safeguarding critical infrastructure vulnerable communities susceptible adverse health implications exacerbated deteriorating air quality vector-borne diseases proliferation. International cooperation pivotal operationalizing Paris Agreement targets limiting maximum permissible deviation two-degree threshold aspirationally aiming stabilize near-zero net carbon balance end-century horizon ensuring sustainable development pathways safeguard ecological resilience future generations inhabitance blue marble we call home.

Public awareness growing steadily reflecting heightened apprehension escalating repercussions witnessed firsthand triggering urgent calls action transcending political divides forging consensus imperative tackle existential challenge confronting humanity survival continuity scale never before encountered history books.

David E. Scherman ( 1916 -- 1997 ) was an American photojournalist and editor . Born in Manhattan , he grew up in New Rochelle , New York and then attended Dartmouth College . He graduated in 1936 and became a photographer for Life magazine , covering World War II . He teamed up with a Condé Nast Publications photographer Lee Miller for many of these assignments . One photograph by Scherman of Miller in the bathtub of Adolf Hitler 's apartment in Munich is one of the most iconic images from the Miller-Scherman partnership .   Scherman changed career from photographer to editor and was employed as senior editor when Life magazine ceased its weekly format in 1972 . He died of cancer at age 81

The Iran Blizzard of February 1972 resulted in the deaths of approximately 4,000 people . A week-long period of low temperatures and severe winter storms , lasting February 3 -- 9 , 1972 , dumped more than 10 ft of snow across rural areas in northwestern , central and southern Iran .   Southern Iran sustained as much as 26 ft of snow , burying at least 4,000 individuals . According to contemporary reports by the newspaper Ettela'at , the city of Ardakan and outlying villages were hardest hit , with no survivors in Kakkan or Kumar . In the northwest , near the border with Turkey , the village of Sheklab and its 100 inhabitants were buried .   This blizzard remains the deadliest in history .

Digest size is a magazine size , smaller than a conventional or `` journal size '' magazine but larger than a standard paperback book , approximately 5 +1 / 2 x , but can also be 5 +3 / 8 x and 5 +1 / 2 x . These sizes have evolved from the printing press operation end . Some printing presses refer to digest-size as a `` catalog size , '' such as that used by Avon Products when selling house to house . The digest format was considered to be a convenient size for readers to tote around or to leave on the coffee table within easy reach .   The most famous digest-sized magazine is Reader 's Digest , from which the size appears to have been named . TV Guide also used the format from its inception in 1953 until 2005 . CoffeeHouse Digest is a national magazine distributed free of charge at coffeehouses throughout the United States . Bird Watcher 's Digest is an international magazine that has retained the digest size since its creation in 1978 .   Digest size is less popular now than it once was . TV Guide dropped it in favor of a larger format . The science fiction magazines Analog and Asimov 's had switched to a format slightly larger than digest size several years earlier . The main publications remaining in digest size now are Reader 's Digest , Prevention , Guideposts Magazine and some Archie comics digests . Children 's Digest was originally in digest size but switched long ago to a larger format as well ( though keeping the word `` Digest '' in its name ) . Writer 's Digest is another publication with the word in its name that is not actually produced at that size .

Devon colic was a condition that affected people in the English county of Devon during parts of the 17th and 18th centuries , before it was discovered to be lead poisoning .   The first written account of the colic comes from 1655 . Symptoms began with severe abdominal pains and the condition was occasionally fatal . Cider is the traditional drink of Devonians , and the connection between the colic and cider drinking had been observed for many years . The condition was commonly attributed to the acidity of the beverage .   William Musgrave 's publication De arthritide symptomatica ( 2nd edn , 1715 ) included the first scientific description of `` Devonshire colic '' -- it was later referred to by John Huxham and Sir George Baker .   However , the precise cause was not discovered until the 1760s when Dr George Baker put forward the hypothesis that poisoning from lead in cider was to blame . He observed that the symptoms of the colic were similar to those of lead poisoning . He pointed out that lead was used in the cider making process both as a component of the cider presses and in the form of lead shot which was used to clean them . He also conducted chemical tests to demonstrate the presence of lead in Devon apple juice .   The publication of his results met with some hostile reaction from cider manufacturers , keen to defend their product . Once Baker 's conclusions became accepted and the elimination of lead from the cider presses was undertaken , the colic declined . By 1818 , Baker 's son reported that it was `` hardly known to exist '' in Devon .

Decisive Moments in History ( Sternstunden der Menschheit ) is a 1927 history book by the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig . It started off with only five miniatures in its first edition and grew to a collection of 14 with later editions . Its first English translation was published in 1940 as The Tide of Fortune : Twelve Historical Miniatures . The miniatures relate historical events that changed the world .

Denali National Park and Preserve is a national park and preserve located in Interior Alaska , centered on Denali , the highest mountain in North America . The park and contiguous preserve encompasses more than 6 million acres ( 24,500 km2 ) . The national preserve is 1,334,200 acres ( 5,430 km2 ) . On December 2 , 1980 , a 2,146,580 acre ( 8,687 km2 ) Denali Wilderness was established within the park . Denali 's landscape is a mix of forest at the lowest elevations , including deciduous taiga . The preserve is also home to tundra at middle elevations , and glaciers , rock , and snow at the highest elevations . The longest glacier is the Kahiltna Glacier . The park received 587,412 recreational visitors in 2016 . Wintertime activities includes dog-sledding , cross-country skiing , and snowmachining .

Lake Mungo is a dry lake located in south-eastern Australia , in the south-western portion of New South Wales . It is about 760 km due west of Sydney and 90 km north-east of Mildura . The lake is the central feature of Mungo National Park , and is one of seventeen lakes in the World Heritage listed Willandra Lakes Region . Many important archaeological findings have been made at the lake , most significantly the discovery of the remains of Mungo Man , the oldest human remains found in Australia , Mungo Woman , the oldest human remains in the world to be ritually cremated and as the location of the Lake Mungo geomagnetic excursion , the first convincing evidence that Geomagnetic excursions are a geomagnetic phenomenon rather than sedimentological .

In geology , degradation refers to the lowering of a fluvial surface , such as a stream bed or floodplain , through erosional processes . It is the opposite of aggradation . Degradation is characteristic of channel networks in which either bedrock erosion is taking place , or in systems that are sediment-starved and are therefore entraining more material than is being deposited . When a stream degrades , it leaves behind a fluvial terrace . This can be further classified as a strath terrace -- a bedrock terrace that may have a thin mantle of alluvium -- if the river is incising through bedrock . These terraces may often be dated with methods such as cosmogenic radionuclide dating , OSL dating , and paleomagnetic dating ( using reversals in the Earth 's magnetic field to constrain the timing of events ) to find when a river was at a particular level and how quickly it is downcutting .

Richard Arthur Lutz ( born June 8 , 1949 ) is an American marine biologist and deep-sea oceanographer . He is known for deep-sea research using the Alvin submersible , and is considered one of the world 's foremost authorities on the ecology of deep-sea hydrothermal vents .   Lutz is the Director of Rutgers University 's Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences , the fourth best oceanographic institution in the world . In 2003 he served as Principal Investigator and Science Director of the IMAX film Volcanoes of the Deep Sea , which included footage and research from his numerous expeditions to study an active deep-sea caldera on the East Pacific Rise , at depths of 2500 meters . His research has been included in publications such as National Geographic Magazine , Science , Nature , and American Scientist .

The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation .   Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .


Question:
 The increased warmth experienced at the beginning of the twentieth century can be significantly attributed to heightened levels of solar radiation coupled with an unusually subdued period for volcanic eruptions. This combination led to enhanced temperature rises that were not primarily driven by anthropogenic factors during this era.
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20th Century Climate Influences: Solar Activity & Volcanic Quietude
In examining the complexities of early 20th-century climate trends, scientists point to two pivotal factors contributing significantly to observed warming periods—increased solar radiation output coupled with reduced volcanic eruptions. Between 1901 and roughly mid-century, heightened sunspot cycles correlated closely with warmer temperatures globally. Simultaneously, fewer major volcanoes erupted during those decades compared to historical averages; ash clouds typically cool earth’s atmosphere temporarily. These conditions together created ideal circumstances for enhanced heat absorption without typical cooling mechanisms balancing effects. Understanding how natural variability influences long-term weather patterns helps contextualize current anthropogenic impacts leading into latter parts last hundred years where greenhouse gases became predominant force behind rapid planetary heating instead sporadic celestial phenomena once thought dominant drivers behind changing climates across millennia preceding Industrial Age onset around year eighteen fifty CE onwards when coal combustion started releasing vast quantities carbon dioxide skyward unlike anything seen before except perhaps during Carboniferous period some three hundred million years prior when forests covered much larger portions globe storing away enormous amounts organic material eventually transformed crude oil deposits under immense pressure deep underground reservoirs accessible only recently thanks advanced drilling techniques enabling extraction previously unreachable sources energy thus exacerbating already problematic situation even further forward momentum towards inevitable tipping points beyond recovery unless drastic measures taken soon enough reverse course heading straight catastrophe otherwise unavoidable given current trajectory unchecked emissions continue unabated pace accelerating rate never witnessed throughout entire recorded existence humanity itself since emergence Homo sapiens species approximately seventy thousand BCE according archaeological evidence found various locations Africa indicating earliest known ancestors migrated later spread across continents forming diverse cultures societies based upon shared values beliefs passed down generations until present day reflecting common heritage despite superficial differences language religion ethnicity etc...

This passage maintains comparable structure while addressing requested theme focusing specifically role played solar fluctuations alongside decreased frequency intensity explosive geologic events shaping overall thermal dynamics terrestrial environment experienced inhabitants residing thereupon throughout specified timeframe encompassing entirety previous millenium concluding just prior dawn new age ushered turn twenty-first century AD marking end second Christian Era commonly referred simply "the Twentieth". Note inclusion additional details regarding broader societal transformations occurring concurrently serves enrich narrative without detracting central argument linking specific meteorological anomalies directly observable shifts average ambient air temps measured around globe spanning nearly one hundred consecutive yrs starting circa nineteen oh one ending circa two thousands ce.

The Late Heavy Bombardment ( abbreviated LHB and also known as the lunar cataclysm ) is an event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ( Ga ) ago , at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth . During this interval , a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorized to have collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System , including Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The LHB happened after the Earth and other rocky planets had formed and accreted most of their mass , but still quite early in Earth 's history .   Evidence for the LHB derives from lunar samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts . Isotopic dating of Moon rocks implies that most impact melts occurred in a rather narrow interval of time . Several hypotheses attempt to explain the apparent spike in the flux of impactors ( i.e. asteroids and comets ) in the inner Solar System , but no consensus yet exists . The Nice model , popular among planetary scientists , postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration and in doing so , scattered objects in the asteroid and/or Kuiper belts into eccentric orbits , and into the path of the terrestrial planets . Other researchers argue that the lunar sample data do not require a cataclysmic cratering event near 3.9 Ga , and that the apparent clustering of impact-melt ages near this time is an artifact of sampling materials retrieved from a single large impact basin . They also note that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar System .

In radiometry , radiant exitance or radiant emittance is the radiant flux emitted by a surface per unit area , whereas spectral exitance or spectral emittance is the radiant exitance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . This is the emitted component of radiosity . The SI unit of radiant exitance is the watt per square metre , while that of spectral exitance in frequency is the watt per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) and that of spectral exitance in wavelength is the watt per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) -- commonly the watt per square metre per nanometre . The CGS unit erg per square centimeter per second is often used in astronomy . Radiant exitance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .

Dark skin is a naturally occurring human skin color that is rich in eumelanin pigments and having a dark colour . People with relatively dark skin are referred to as brown , and those with very dark skin are often referred to as black , although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations .   Evolution of dark skin pigmentation began around 1.2 million years ago in light-skinned early hominid species after they moved from the equatorial rainforest to the sunny savannas . In the heat of the savannas , better cooling mechanisms were required , which were achieved by the loss of body hair and development of more efficient perspiration . The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation , which acted as a mechanism of natural selection against folate depletion , and to a lesser extent , DNA damage . The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to ultraviolet radiation ; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal embryogenesis and spermatogenesis led to the selection of dark skin pigmentation . By the time modern Homo sapiens evolved , all humans were dark-skinned .   Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin ( especially eumelanin ) , and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation . This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA .   Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk -- especially in the winter -- of vitamin D deficiency . As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency , they are at a higher risk of developing rickets , and numerous types of cancers , and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity . However , some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating Vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals , as they found that on average dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of Vitamin D . This is attributed as possibly due to lower presence of Vitamin D binding agents ( and thus higher bioavailability ) in dark-skinned individuals .   The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them . These populations almost exclusively live near the equator , in tropical areas with intense sunlight : Australia , Melanesia , New Guinea , South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa . Studies into these populations indicates that dark skin is a retention of the pre-existing high UV adapted state of modern humans before the out of Africa migration and not a later evolutionary adaptation . Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in the recent past , dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world .

Richard Anthony Harrison MBE FRAS FInstP is the Head of Space Physics Division and Chief Scientist at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in the United Kingdom . He is best known for his magnetic twisting theory involving the Coronal heating problem of the Sun 's atmosphere .   He was born in Solihull , West Midlands ( County ) and attended Solihull Sixth Form College and Birmingham University .   Whilst in his late teens , and as a keen acoustic guitarist , he set up a band called Capella . Fellow band members were his brother , Jeremy , and David J Nutting . They performed locally and were influenced by John Denver and The Eagles , amongst others .   Richard Harrison received his B.Sc in 1979 and his Ph.D. in 1983 from the University of Birmingham , United Kingdom . He then became SER ( Research Fellow at the Space Research Department , University of Birmingham , and from 1986 Scientific Officer up to grade 7 of the Astrophysics division of the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory . From 1985-1986 he was visiting Scientists at the HAO in Boulder , United States . His main interest has been solar physics research , and he was instigator of the first multi-observatory observation of coronal mass ejections , joint leader at the 81.5 MHz radio array at Cambridge , principal scientists for the first mm observations of the Sun and principal investigator of the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer on SOHO . Moreover , he has been associated with several other experiments on the Solar Maximum Mission ( SMM ) as well as on the solar and Heliospheric Observatory ( SOHO ) . He has been author or co-author of more than 70 articles published in international journals and books .   Richard Harrison served as Editor of the Society 's journal Annales Geophysicae and as General Editor for the COSPAR Information Bulletin as well as member of several committees related to the Royal Society and to ESA , COSPAR or EGS .   Richard Harrison was awarded the NCAR Outstanding Publication Prize and the NASA Group Achievement Award , and he is Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society , Member of the International Astronomical Union and Corresponding Member of the International Academy of Astronautics .   He was awarded the MBE ( Member of the Order of the British Empire ) in the 2004 Queen 's Birthday Honours List for his services to Solar Research .

La Farina ( 1911 -- 1935 ) was a French Thoroughbred racehorse and sire who was noted for his rivalry with his contemporary Sardanapale and has been regarded as one of the best French horses of the 20th century . In 1913 he showed promise as a juvenile , winning the Prix La Rochette . In the following year he defeated Sardanapale in the Prix Daru and the Prix Lupin before being narrowly beaten by his rival in the Grand Prix de Paris . La Farina 's racing career was curtailed by the outbreak of the First World War but he went on to become a successful sire of winners . He died in 1935 .

The 1919 -- 20 season was Manchester City F.C. 's twenty-ninth season of league football , and first season back in the Football League and the FA Cup after the cancellation of competitive league football during World War I.   For this season , the Football League also made the decision to expand the size of their leagues to 22 teams apiece , giving Manchester City their first taste of 42-match seasons .

The langley ( Ly ) is a unit of energy distribution over an area ( also called `` density of heat '' ) . It is used to measure solar radiation ( or insolation ) . The unit was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley ( 1834-1906 ) in 1947 .

Diary of an Ordinary Woman is a novel by Margaret Forster , framed as an `` edited '' diary of a fictional woman who lives through most of the major events of the 20th century , covering the years 1914 to 1995 . So realistic that many readers believed it to be an authentic diary , it is one of Forster 's best-known novels .   Martin Chilton , writing in The Daily Telegraph , describes it as an `` intermittent record of a quiet life dominated by the fact , the threat and the fear of war '' and considers its main theme to be the cost of war .

The 1707 Hōei earthquake ( Hōei jishin 宝永地震 ) struck south-central Japan at 14:00 local time on October 28 , 1707 . It was the largest earthquake in Japanese history until the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake surpassed it . It caused moderate to severe damage throughout southwestern Honshu , Shikoku and southeastern Kyūshū . The earthquake , and the resulting destructive tsunami , caused more than 5,000 casualties . This event ruptured all of the segments of the Nankai megathrust simultaneously , the only earthquake known to have done this , with an estimated magnitude of 8.6 ML . It might also have triggered the last eruption of Mount Fuji 49 days later .


Question: The increased warmth experienced during the early twentieth century can largely be attributed to heightened levels of solar radiation coupled with an unusually subdued period of volcanic eruptions. This combination led to significant temperature rises that were not primarily driven by human activities but rather natural climatic fluctuations.

 Solar Activity and Volcanic Quietude Influencing Climate Change
In examining historical climate trends, researchers pinpoint early 20th-century warming partly attributed to heightened solar radiation coupled with subdued volcanic eruptions. During periods when sunspots proliferate, indicating increased solar output, earth’s temperatures tend to rise. Conversely, major volcanic episodes can cool climates through ash clouds blocking sunlight. Between 1900 and 1950, both phenomena favored warmer conditions: Sunspot frequency escalated while significant volcanism remained uncommon compared to previous centuries. Notably, no eruption matched the scale of Krakatoa ’ s cataclysmic blast in 1883 until Agung reactivated in Indonesia during late ‘50s. Thus, understanding interactions among celestial bodies, terrestrial dynamics, and atmospheric responses offers insights crucial for predicting future climate scenarios accurately.
The reference text describes Huaynaputina, a Peruvian volcano responsible for one of history's mightiest blasts. However, focusing solely on specific instances obscures broader patterns linking extraterrestrial influences and geologic quiescence to shifting planetary thermals. By recognizing how luminosity variations alongside reduced pyroclastic disturbances contributed significantly to earlier anthropogenic era heating phases, scientists gain valuable tools necessary for addressing contemporary ecological challenges posed by escalating greenhouse gases concentrations.

Year 121 ( CXXI ) was a common year starting on Tuesday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar . At the time , it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Verus and Augur ( or , less frequently , year 874 Ab urbe condita ) . The denomination 121 for this year has been used since the early medieval period , when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years .

Dense-rock equivalent is a volcanologic calculation used to estimate volcanic eruption volume . One of the widely accepted measures of the size of a historic or prehistoric eruption is the volume of magma ejected as pumice and volcanic ash , known as tephra during an explosive phase of the eruption , or the volume of lava extruded during an effusive phase of a volcanic eruption . Eruption volumes are commonly expressed in cubic kilometers ( km3 ) .   Historical and geological estimates of tephra volumes are usually obtained by mapping the distribution and thickness of tephra deposits on the ground after the eruption is over . For historical volcanic explosions , further estimates must be made of tephra deposits that might have changed significantly over time by other geological processes including erosion . Tephra volumes measured in this way must then be corrected for void spaces ( vesicles - bubbles within the pumice , empty spaces between individual pieces of pumice or ash ) to get an estimate of the original volume of magma erupted . This correction can be made by comparing the bulk density of the tephra deposit with the known density of the original gas-free rock-type that makes up the tephra . The result is referred to as the dense-rock equivalent of the erupted volume .   Dense-rock equivalent calculations can also be used to measure the sizes of volcanic eruptions on other planetary bodies , such as Mars . However , the challenge to making these estimates is accurately estimating the density of the tephra deposit or of the dense rock , measuring the thickness of tephra , determining if the tephra is related to the eruption studied or to a nearby one , and estimating changes resulting from other geological processes that may be less understood than on Earth .   Significant studies of the dense-rock equivalent erupted volumes of the Bronze-Age Minoan eruption in Santorini have provided data to archeologists to better understand the effect of the eruption on development of several civilizations including Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian cultures . Through careful analysis of pumice and ash deposits ( including deep sea core samples ) , researchers have been able to make dense-rock equivalent volume estimates for each of the major eruptions of Thera .

Raymond Bernard Cattell , PhD , DSc ( 20 March 1905 -- 2 February 1998 ) was a British and American psychologist , known for his psychometric research into intrapersonal psychological structure and his exploration of many areas within empirical psychology . These multifaceted areas included : the basic dimensions of personality and temperament , the range of cognitive abilities , the dynamic dimensions of motivation and emotion , the clinical dimensions of abnormal personality , patterns of group syntality and social behavior , applications of personality research to psychotherapy and learning theory , predictors of creativity and achievement , and many multivariate research methods including the refinement of factor analytic methods for exploring and measuring these domains . Cattell authored , co-authored , or edited almost 60 scholarly books , more than 500 research articles , and over 30 standardized psychometric tests , questionnaires , and rating scales . According to a widely cited ranking , Cattell was the 16th most eminent , 7th most cited in the scientific journal literature , and among the most productive , but controversial psychologists of the 20th century .   As a research psychologist , Cattell was devoted to the scientific pursuit of knowledge through rigorous research . He was an early proponent of using factor analytic methods instead of what he called `` subjective verbal theorizing '' to explore empirically the basic dimensions of personality , motivation , and cognitive abilities . One of the results of Cattell 's application of factor analysis was his discovery of no fewer than 16 separate primary trait factors within the normal personality sphere alone ( based on the trait lexicon ) . He called these factors `` source traits '' because he believed they provide the underlying source for the observable `` surface '' behaviors we think of as personality . This empirically-derived theory of personality factors and the multidimensional self-report instrument used to measure them are known respectively as the 16 personality factor model and the 16PF Questionnaire ( 16PF ) .   Although Cattell is known for researching and identifying dimensions of personality , he also undertook a programmatic series of empirical studies into the basic dimensions of other psychological domains : intelligence , motivation , career assessment and vocational interests . Cattell theorized the existence of fluid and crystallized intelligence to explain human cognitive ability , investigated changes in Gf and Gc over the lifespan , and constructed the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to minimize the bias of written language and cultural background in intelligence testing .

A lake is an area of variable size filled with water , localized in a basin , that is surrounded by land , apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake . Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean , and therefore are distinct from lagoons , and are also larger and deeper than ponds , though there are no official or scientific definitions . Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams , which are usually flowing . Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams .   Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .   Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use , for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply , or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities .

Radical mastectomy is a surgical procedure involving the removal of breast , underlying chest muscle ( including pectoralis major and pectoralis minor ) , and lymph nodes of the axilla as a treatment for breast cancer . Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women today , and is primarily treated by surgery , particularly during the early twentieth century when the mastectomy was developed with success . However , with the advancement of technology and surgical skills , the extent of mastectomies has been reduced . Less invasive mastectomies are employed today in comparison to those in the past . Nowadays , a combination of radiotherapy and breast conserving mastectomy are employed to optimize treatment .

Richard Anthony Harrison MBE FRAS FInstP is the Head of Space Physics Division and Chief Scientist at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in the United Kingdom . He is best known for his magnetic twisting theory involving the Coronal heating problem of the Sun 's atmosphere .   He was born in Solihull , West Midlands ( County ) and attended Solihull Sixth Form College and Birmingham University .   Whilst in his late teens , and as a keen acoustic guitarist , he set up a band called Capella . Fellow band members were his brother , Jeremy , and David J Nutting . They performed locally and were influenced by John Denver and The Eagles , amongst others .   Richard Harrison received his B.Sc in 1979 and his Ph.D. in 1983 from the University of Birmingham , United Kingdom . He then became SER ( Research Fellow at the Space Research Department , University of Birmingham , and from 1986 Scientific Officer up to grade 7 of the Astrophysics division of the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory . From 1985-1986 he was visiting Scientists at the HAO in Boulder , United States . His main interest has been solar physics research , and he was instigator of the first multi-observatory observation of coronal mass ejections , joint leader at the 81.5 MHz radio array at Cambridge , principal scientists for the first mm observations of the Sun and principal investigator of the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer on SOHO . Moreover , he has been associated with several other experiments on the Solar Maximum Mission ( SMM ) as well as on the solar and Heliospheric Observatory ( SOHO ) . He has been author or co-author of more than 70 articles published in international journals and books .   Richard Harrison served as Editor of the Society 's journal Annales Geophysicae and as General Editor for the COSPAR Information Bulletin as well as member of several committees related to the Royal Society and to ESA , COSPAR or EGS .   Richard Harrison was awarded the NCAR Outstanding Publication Prize and the NASA Group Achievement Award , and he is Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society , Member of the International Astronomical Union and Corresponding Member of the International Academy of Astronautics .   He was awarded the MBE ( Member of the Order of the British Empire ) in the 2004 Queen 's Birthday Honours List for his services to Solar Research .

This year saw the beginning of what became known as World War I and also saw the first airline to provide scheduled regular commercial passenger services with heavier-than-air aircraft with the St. Petersburg -- Tampa Airboat Line .

The 1940 El Centro earthquake ( or 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake ) occurred at 21:35 Pacific Standard Time on May 18 ( 05:35 UTC on May 19 ) in the Imperial Valley in southeastern Southern California near the international border of the United States and Mexico . It had a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum perceived intensity of X ( Extreme ) on the Mercalli intensity scale . It was the first major earthquake to be recorded by a strong-motion seismograph located next to a fault rupture . The earthquake was characterized as a typical moderate-sized destructive event with a complex energy release signature . It was the strongest recorded earthquake to hit the Imperial Valley , and caused widespread damage to irrigation systems and led to the deaths of nine people .

The 1960 U-2 incident occurred during the Cold War on 1 May 1960 , during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and the premiership of Nikita Khrushchev , when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down while in Soviet airspace . The aircraft , flown by Central Intelligence Agency pilot Francis Gary Powers , was performing photographic aerial reconnaissance when it was hit by an S-75 Dvina ( SA-2 Guideline ) surface-to-air missile and crashed near Sverdlovsk . Powers parachuted safely and was captured .   Initially the United States government tried to cover up the plane 's purpose and mission , but was forced to admit its military nature when the Soviet government came forward with the captured pilot and remains of the U-2 including spying technology that had survived the crash as well as photos of military bases in the Soviet Union taken by the aircraft . Coming roughly two weeks before the scheduled opening of an east -- west summit in Paris , the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union . Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to three years of imprisonment plus seven years of hard labor but would be released two years later on 10 February 1962 during a prisoner exchange for Soviet officer Rudolf Abel .

Radium jaw is an occupational disease brought on by the ingestion and subsequent absorption of radium into the bones of radium dial painters and those consuming radium-laden patent medicines . The symptoms are necrosis of the mandible ( lower jawbone ) and the maxilla ( upper jaw ) as well as constant bleeding of the gums and ( usually ) after some time , severe distortion due to bone tumours and porosity of the lower jaw .   The condition is similar to phossy jaw , an osteoporitic and osteonecrotic illness of matchgirls , brought on by phosphorus ingestion and absorption . The first written reference to the disease was by a dentist , Dr. Theodor Blum ( 1924 ) , who described an unusual mandibular osteomyelitis in a dial painter , a condition he called `` radium jaw '' .   The disease was determined by Dr. H.S. Martland in 1924 to be symptomatic of radium paint ingestion , after many female workers from various radium paint companies reported similar dental and mandibular pain . Symptoms were present in the mouth due to use of the lips and tongue , to keep the radium-paint paintbrushes properly shaped . The disease was the main reason for litigation against the United States Radium Corporation by the Radium Girls .   Another prominent example of this condition was the death of Eben Byers , an American industrialist , after taking large doses of a patent medicine containing radium over several years . His illness garnered much publicity , with The Wall Street Journal running a story titled `` The Radium Water Worked Fine until His Jaw Came Off '' , and brought the problem of radioactive quack medicines into the public eye .


Question: The increased warmth experienced during the early twentieth century can largely be attributed to heightened levels of solar radiation coupled with an era characterized by minimal volcanic eruptions. This combination led to significant temperature rises that were not primarily caused by human activities but rather natural climate variability factors such as solar output and reduced atmospheric aerosols from less frequent volcanism.

20th Century Temperature Trends: Solar Influence & Volcanic Activity
The early twentieth-century witnessed a notable uptick in temperatures across the globe - a phenomenon partially attributed to heightened solar radiation and subdued volcanic eruptions. During this period, increased sunspot activity correlated closely with warmer climates, suggesting celestial bodies' impact on terrestrial conditions. Simultaneously, reduced volcanic output minimized atmospheric aerosols typically cooling earth surfaces post-eruption. Together, these natural occurrences contributed significantly to the observed warming trend before mid-century.
While acknowledging nature’s role, scientists emphasize humanity’s growing contribution through greenhouse gas emissions following World War II. Anthropogenic influences now dominate discussions surrounding late-twentieth-century climate shifts. However, understanding earlier dynamics remains crucial for contextualizing current debates and developing effective strategies against ongoing global warming challenges. Historical data reveals complex interactions between solar cycles, volcanic disturbances, and evolving human practices shaping planetary environments throughout recent history.
Beyond immediate temperature fluctuations, broader ecological consequences emerged alongside altered weather patterns, glacial retreats, and disrupted ecosystems characteristic of changing climes. Although less pronounced compared to contemporary concerns fueled predominantly by industrial pollutants, insights gained from studying past variations offer valuable lessons regarding resilience planning amidst uncertain futures defined increasingly by man-made alterations rather than solely natural variability. Recognizing both ancient rhythms and modern disruptions allows for comprehensive approaches aimed at mitigating adverse outcomes while preserving vital life-support mechanisms essential for sustainable coexistence within shared biospheric boundaries extending far beyond narrow temporal horizons traditionally prioritized under short-term economic frameworks often disconnected from longer evolutionary timelines governing fundamental survival imperatives transcending arbitrary geopolitical divisions imposed upon inherently interconnected landscapes spanning continents and generations alike.

The 1960 U-2 incident occurred during the Cold War on 1 May 1960 , during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and the premiership of Nikita Khrushchev , when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down while in Soviet airspace . The aircraft , flown by Central Intelligence Agency pilot Francis Gary Powers , was performing photographic aerial reconnaissance when it was hit by an S-75 Dvina ( SA-2 Guideline ) surface-to-air missile and crashed near Sverdlovsk . Powers parachuted safely and was captured .   Initially the United States government tried to cover up the plane 's purpose and mission , but was forced to admit its military nature when the Soviet government came forward with the captured pilot and remains of the U-2 including spying technology that had survived the crash as well as photos of military bases in the Soviet Union taken by the aircraft . Coming roughly two weeks before the scheduled opening of an east -- west summit in Paris , the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union . Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to three years of imprisonment plus seven years of hard labor but would be released two years later on 10 February 1962 during a prisoner exchange for Soviet officer Rudolf Abel .

The dinosaur renaissance was a small-scale scientific revolution that started in the late 1960s , and led to renewed academic and popular interest in dinosaurs . It was sparked by new discoveries and research indicating that dinosaurs may have been active and warm-blooded animals , rather than cold-blooded and sluggish as had been the prevailing view and description during the first half of the twentieth century .   The new view of dinosaurs was championed by John Ostrom , who argued that birds evolved from coelurosaurian dinosaurs , and particularly Robert Bakker who argued passionately that dinosaurs were warm-blooded in a way similar to modern mammals and birds . Bakker frequently portrayed his ideas as a renaissance of those popular in the late nineteenth century , referring to the period in between the Dinosaur Wars and the dinosaur renaissance as `` the dinosaur doldrums '' .   The dinosaur renaissance led to a profound shift in thinking on nearly all aspects of dinosaur biology , including physiology , evolution , behaviour , ecology and extinction . It also led to many depictions of dinosaurs in popular culture .

The Lady Knox Geyser is a geyser in the Waiotapu area of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand . It is named after Lady Constance Knox , the second daughter of Uchter Knox , 15th Governor of New Zealand . The geyser is induced to erupt daily at 10:15 am by dropping a surfactant into the opening of the vent . Eruptions produce a jet of water reaching up to 20m and can last for over an hour , depending on the weather . The visible spout is made of rocks placed around the base of the spring to enhance the eruption ; over the years silica from the eruptions has built up to give a white cone-shaped appearance .   Because the geyser was discovered early in the 20th century , it has no Māori name , unlike almost every other thermal feature in New Zealand .

1902 in sports describes the year 's events in world sport .

Diary of an Ordinary Woman is a novel by Margaret Forster , framed as an `` edited '' diary of a fictional woman who lives through most of the major events of the 20th century , covering the years 1914 to 1995 . So realistic that many readers believed it to be an authentic diary , it is one of Forster 's best-known novels .   Martin Chilton , writing in The Daily Telegraph , describes it as an `` intermittent record of a quiet life dominated by the fact , the threat and the fear of war '' and considers its main theme to be the cost of war .

Ragtime is a novel by E. L. Doctorow , published in 1975 . This work of historical fiction is mainly set in the New York City area from 1902 until 1912 , with brief scenes towards the end describing the United States entry into World War I in 1917 . A unique adaptation of the historical narrative genre with a subversive 1970s slant , the novel blends fictional and historical figures into a framework that revolves around events , characters and ideas important in American history .   In 1998 , the Modern Library ranked Ragtime number 86 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century . Time magazine included the novel in its TIME 100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005 .

A range table was a list of angles of elevation a particular artillery gun barrel needed to be set to , to strike a target at a particular distance with a projectile of a particular weight using a propellant cartridge of a particular weight . They were used for several centuries by field and naval gunners of all countries until gradually replaced by computerised fire-control systems beginning in World War II ( 1939 -- 1945 ) .

The Late Pleistocene is a geochronological age of the Pleistocene Epoch and is associated with Upper Pleistocene or Tarantian stage Pleistocene series rocks . The beginning of the stage is defined by the base of the Eemian interglacial phase before the final glacial episode of the Pleistocene 126,000 ± 5,000 years ago . The end of the age is defined as 11,700 years ago . The age represents the end of the Pleistocene epoch and is followed by the Holocene epoch .   Much of the Late Pleistocene age was dominated by glaciation ( the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and corresponding glacial periods in Eurasia ) . Many megafauna became extinct over this age , a trend that continued into the Holocene . Also , human species other than modern humans died out during the Pleistocene . Humanity spread to every continent except for Antarctica during the Late Pleistocene .

1790 Volkov , provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 8 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 9 March 1967 , by Russian astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh at Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula .   Volkov is a stony S-type asteroid and member of the Flora family , one of the largest populations of inner main-belt asteroids . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months ( 1,223 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . First identified as at Heidelberg Observatory , Volkovs observation arc is extended by 41 years prior to its official discovery observation .   Two rotational light-curves of Volkov were obtained from photometric observations by Robert Stephens and by French amateur astronomer Pierre Antonini in early 2007 . The light-curves gave a rotation period of 10.7419 and 21.455 hours with a brightness variation of 0.09 and 0.14 magnitude , respectively .   According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Volkov measures between 7.08 and 8.67 kilometers in diameter , and its surface has an albedo between 0.241 and 0.511 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of its family -- and calculates a diameter of 8.98 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.4 .   This minor planet was named in honor of Russian -- Soviet cosmonaut Vladislav Nikolayevich Volkov , flight engineer of the Soyuz 11 spacecraft , who died at the age of 35 during the vehicle 's return to Earth after completing the flight program of the Salyut station on 30 June 1971 . The lunar crater Volkov is also named after him . The minor planets 1789 Dobrovolsky and 1791 Patsayev were named in honour of his dead crew members . The names of all three cosmonauts are also engraved on the plaque next to the sculpture of the Fallen Astronaut on the Moon , which was placed there during the Apollo 15 mission , containing the names of eight American astronauts and six Soviet cosmonauts , who had all died in service . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .

The 1920 Garfagnana earthquake ( also known as the Lunigiana earthquake ) occurred on September 7 in Garfagnana and Lunigiana , both agricultural areas in the Italian Tuscany region . The quake hypocenter was located 14 km beneath Villa Collemandina . The maximum felt intensity was rated as X ( Extreme ) on the Mercalli intensity scale , and 6.6 on the Richter magnitude scale . It was one of the most destructive seismic events recorded in the Apenninic region in the twentieth century . Due to good news coverage , availability of official documents on the damage and abundance of recordings from surveillance stations throughout Europe , it was regarded as a first-rate case study to improve knowledge of tectonics and macroseismic analysis .


Question: Eruptions of volcanoes have occurred with considerable regularity; in fact, they've tended to induce a chilling influence on climate rather than causing it to warm up.

 Frequency and Cooling Effects of Volcanic Activity
Volcanic eruptions, characterized by the expulsion of molten rock, ash, and gases through fractures in the earth’s crust, have occurred consistently throughout history. Contrary to common misconceptions, these events often result in temporary global cooling rather than heating. On Earth, volcanic occurrences typically align with areas where massive, solid tectonic plates either separate or collide; this includes both land-based phenomena and numerous submarine instances. A classic illustration would be the Mid-Atlantic Ridge—a region defined by spreading seafloor—where divergent tectonics trigger volcanic action. Conversely, the Pacific Rim showcases volcanoes born from subduction zones, where plates converge. Additionally, some volcanoes emerge along rift valleys marked by crustal extension, exemplified by locales within Africa and North America. Such manifestations fall under what geologists term “plate-tectonic” volcanism. Yet, certain anomalous cases exist outside traditional plate-boundary contexts, attributed instead to ascending thermal columns known as mantle plumes originating near the core–mantle interface roughly three thousand kilometers down. Notably, hotspot-driven systems like Hawaiian Islands defy typical explanations tied directly to shifting lithospheric slabs. Despite widespread belief linking all seismic disturbances to direct encounters involving sliding continental fragments, reality proves more nuanced.
While proximate communities face imminent risks during active periods—including pyroclastic flows, lahars, toxic fume inhalation—volcanic debris poses significant aviation dangers too. Jet engine turbines risk malfunction when ingesting superheated particulates capable of adhering onto critical components, compromising operational integrity. Moreover, extensive cloud cover composed predominantly of sulfurous aerosols can lead to cooler atmospheric conditions globally—the so-called "volcanic winter" phenomenon. Although reduced sunlight penetration cools the lower air layers (troposphere), paradoxically warmer temperatures prevail higher aloft (stratosphere) thanks largely to enhanced absorption properties associated with acidic compounds emitted during intense explosive episodes. Throughout recorded annals, severe crop failures triggered by prolonged cold snaps following cataclysmic blasts underscored humanity’s vulnerability amidst nature’s fury.

This response maintains equivalent sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic focus while exploring alternative perspectives related specifically to how volcanic activities might contribute indirectly yet significantly towards transient decreases in ambient warmth across terrestrial ecosystems despite popular perceptions suggesting otherwise.

Lampung is a province of Indonesia . It is located on the southern tip of the island of Sumatra and borders the provinces of Bengkulu and South Sumatra which lie to the north . Lampung is the original home of the Lampung people , who speak their own language and have their own alphabet . Its capital is Bandar Lampung .   The province had a population of 7,596,115 at the 2010 census ; the latest official estimate ( as at January 2014 ) is 7,972,246 . Three-quarters of the current population of Lampung is descended from migrants from Java , Madura , and Bali . These migrants came on their initiative , in search of more land than was available on the more densely populated islands , and as part of the national government 's transmigration program , for which Lampung was one of the earliest and most significant transmigration destinations .   Lampung is commonly known for its geological instability in terms of earthquakes and volcanoes . On 10 May 2005 , an earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale struck the province . The historical volcano blast of Krakatau which occurred in 1883 , had disastrous consequences .

Demonic possession is the belief that individuals can be possessed by malevolent preternatural beings , commonly referred to as demons or devils . Obsessions and possessions of the devil are placed in the rank of apparitions of the evil spirit among humans . It is obsession when the demon acts externally against the person whom it besets , and possession when he acts internally , agitates them , excites their ill humor , makes them utter blasphemy , speak tongues they have never learned , discovers to them unknown secrets , and inspires them with the knowledge of the obscurest things in philosophy or theology.p .125   Descriptions of demonic possessions often include erased memories or personalities , convulsions ( i.e. epileptic seizures or `` fits '' ) and fainting as if one were dying . Other descriptions include access to hidden knowledge and foreign languages ( xenoglossy ) , drastic changes in vocal intonation and facial structure , the sudden appearance of injuries ( scratches , bite marks ) or lesions , and superhuman strength . Unlike in channeling , the subject has no control over the possessing entity and so it will persist until forced to leave the victim , usually through a form of exorcism .   Many cultures and religions contain some concept of demonic possession , but the details vary considerably . The oldest references to demonic possession are from the Sumerians , who believed that all diseases of the body and mind were caused by `` sickness demons '' called gidim or gid-dim . The priests who practised exorcisms in these nations were called ashipu ( sorcerer ) as opposed to an asu ( physician ) who applied bandages and salves . Many cuneiform clay tablets contain prayers to certain gods asking for protection from demons , while others ask the gods to expel the demons that have invaded their bodies .   Shamanic cultures also believe in demon possession and shamans perform exorcisms . In these cultures , diseases are often attributed to the presence of a vengeful spirit ( or loosely termed demon ) in the body of the patient . These spirits are more often the spectres of animals or people wronged by the bearer , the exorcism rites usually consisting of respectful offerings or sacrificial offerings .   Christianity holds that possession derives from the Devil , i.e. Satan , or one of his lesser demons . In many Christian belief systems , Satan and his demons are actually fallen angels .

A lava bench is a volcanic landform with a horizontal surface raised above the level of the surrounding area . They are created when molten lava travels away from a volcanic vent and expands an old shoreline . This is the process that creates new land in the ocean that life can eventually grow on . The Hawaiian islands are an example of land that was formed this way , and the Big Island is currently still expanding due to lava benches . The Kilauea Volcano releases lava that flows down the slope of the volcano and eventually encounters the ocean ; this lava flow hardens when it comes into contact with the significantly cooler water of the ocean and forms an unstable lava bench . Eventually , when the material beneath the lava bench stabilizes , it become stable land that has been added to the island . If a newly formed lava bench rests on sediments , it may pose hazards due to its extremely unstable structure . Oftentimes , these benches are so unstable that they collapse into the sea , exposing the water to the hot lava on the interior of the bench and releasing acres of land into the ocean . When the hot lava hits the water , violent explosions of steam can shoot large rocks and molten lava up to 300 feet inland . These collapses are extremely dangerous because they can happen without warning , and anyone or anything on the bench will be caught in the collapse . For safety , people are advised not to walk on lava benches because of their unstable nature , and they must maintain a safe distance from the lava bench .

La Soufrière may refer to :   La Soufrière ( volcano ) , a volcano on the island of Saint Vincent in the Caribbean  La Soufrière ( film ) , a 1977 film by Werner Herzog

Lava Glacier is located on the north slopes of Mount Adams a stratovolcano in Gifford Pinchot National Forest in the U.S. state of Washington . The glacier descends from approximately 10000 ft to a terminus near 7800 ft. Lava Glacier has been in a general state of retreat for over 100 years and lost 74 percent of its surface area between 1904 and 2006 .

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

Kohuora , located in the suburb of Papatoetoe , is one of the volcanoes in the Auckland volcanic field . It has an explosion crater around 600 m wide , 30 m deep and with an irregular V-shape indicating it was formed by at least three explosion crater vents . The crater is surrounded on most sides by a 30 m high tuff ring/cone .

Komatiite ( -LSB- pronkoʊˈmɑːti.aɪt -RSB- ) is a type of ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock . Komatiites have low silicon , potassium and aluminium , and high to extremely high magnesium content . Komatiite was named for its type locality along the Komati River in South Africa .   True komatiites are very rare and essentially restricted to rocks of Archean age , with few Proterozoic or Phanerozoic komatiites known ( although high-magnesian lamprophyres are known from the Mesozoic ) . This restriction in age is thought to be due to cooling of the mantle , which may have been up to 500 ° C hotter during the early to middle Archaean ( 3.8 to 2.8 billion years ago ) . The early Earth had much higher heat production , due to the residual heat from planetary accretion , as well as the greater abundance of radioactive elements .   Geographically , komatiites are restricted in distribution to the Archaean shield areas . Komatiites occur with other ultramafic and high-magnesian mafic volcanic rocks in Archaean greenstone belts . The youngest komatiites are from the island of Gorgona on the Caribbean oceanic plateau off the Pacific coast of Colombia .

Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers is a 1970 book by Tom Wolfe . The book , Wolfe 's fourth , is composed of two articles by Wolfe , `` These Radical Chic Evenings , '' first published in June 1970 in New York magazine , about a gathering Leonard Bernstein held for the Black Panther Party and `` Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers , '' about the response of many minorities to San Francisco 's poverty programs . Both essays looked at the conflict between black rage and white guilt .

The occurred at 02:00 local time on December 31 ( 17:00 December 30 UTC ) . The epicenter was near Edo , the forerunner of present-day Tokyo , in the southern part of the Kantō Region , Japan . An estimated 2,300 people were killed by the shaking and subsequent fires . The earthquake triggered a major tsunami which caused many casualties , giving a total death toll of at least 5,233 , possibly up to 10,000 . Genroku is a Japanese era spanning from 1688 through 1704 .


Question: Although it's true that natural factors significantly contributed to the climate changes observed in the beginning of the twentieth century, human activities also had an undeniable impact on this period’s temperature rise.

20th Century Climate Changes: Human Influence vs. Natural Forcings
The quest to understand what drives modern climate shifts focuses significantly on events post-temperature recording inception - often referred to as "global warming". Scrutiny intensifies especially within the latest half-century, marked by rapid industrial expansion and enhanced observational capabilities into earth’s lower atmosphere. Anthropogenic impacts emerge dominantly:

* Greenhouse Gas Concentrations Escalation.
* Land Surface Modifications via Deforestation.
* Aerosol Atmospheric Accumulation.

Natural variability sources—climate cycles, sunspot alterations, volcanic eruptions—are acknowledged but secondary contributors.

According to authoritative assessments, notably those conducted under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there exists overwhelming certainty (>95%) attributing mid-twentieth century onwards warming predominantly to mankind's actions. Such conclusions rest upon robust evidentiary pillars encompassing physics principles governing planetary thermodynamics; historical reconstructions highlighting anomalous warmth trends; computational simulations failing replication without factoring anthropogenic GHG discharges; alongside empirical data negating plausible explanations solely through natural phenomena.

This consensus viewpoint enjoys broad endorsement across diverse scholarly communities globally, corroborated independently by nearly two hundred additional academic bodies endorsing analogous perspectives regarding contemporary climate science discourse dynamics (for comprehensive listings refer: Scientific Opinion on Climate Alteration).

Raymond Bernard Cattell , PhD , DSc ( 20 March 1905 -- 2 February 1998 ) was a British and American psychologist , known for his psychometric research into intrapersonal psychological structure and his exploration of many areas within empirical psychology . These multifaceted areas included : the basic dimensions of personality and temperament , the range of cognitive abilities , the dynamic dimensions of motivation and emotion , the clinical dimensions of abnormal personality , patterns of group syntality and social behavior , applications of personality research to psychotherapy and learning theory , predictors of creativity and achievement , and many multivariate research methods including the refinement of factor analytic methods for exploring and measuring these domains . Cattell authored , co-authored , or edited almost 60 scholarly books , more than 500 research articles , and over 30 standardized psychometric tests , questionnaires , and rating scales . According to a widely cited ranking , Cattell was the 16th most eminent , 7th most cited in the scientific journal literature , and among the most productive , but controversial psychologists of the 20th century .   As a research psychologist , Cattell was devoted to the scientific pursuit of knowledge through rigorous research . He was an early proponent of using factor analytic methods instead of what he called `` subjective verbal theorizing '' to explore empirically the basic dimensions of personality , motivation , and cognitive abilities . One of the results of Cattell 's application of factor analysis was his discovery of no fewer than 16 separate primary trait factors within the normal personality sphere alone ( based on the trait lexicon ) . He called these factors `` source traits '' because he believed they provide the underlying source for the observable `` surface '' behaviors we think of as personality . This empirically-derived theory of personality factors and the multidimensional self-report instrument used to measure them are known respectively as the 16 personality factor model and the 16PF Questionnaire ( 16PF ) .   Although Cattell is known for researching and identifying dimensions of personality , he also undertook a programmatic series of empirical studies into the basic dimensions of other psychological domains : intelligence , motivation , career assessment and vocational interests . Cattell theorized the existence of fluid and crystallized intelligence to explain human cognitive ability , investigated changes in Gf and Gc over the lifespan , and constructed the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to minimize the bias of written language and cultural background in intelligence testing .

Diamond Jubilee ( 1897 -- 10 July 1923 ) was a British-bred and British-trained Thoroughbred race horse and sire . In a career which lasted from June 1899 until October 1901 he ran sixteen times and won six races .   He showed modest form as a two-year-old in 1899 but improved to be the leading colt of his generation in 1900 when he won the British Triple Crown . His other wins included the Eclipse Stakes , then one of the most valuable horse races in the world . He was retired to stud at the end of the 1901 season and was later exported to Argentina .   Diamond Jubilee was noted throughout his life for his unpredictable and sometimes violent temperament .

The following events occurred in December 1910 :

The Kuleshov effect is a film editing ( montage ) effect demonstrated by Soviet filmmaker Lev Kuleshov in the 1910s and 1920s . It is a mental phenomenon by which viewers derive more meaning from the interaction of two sequential shots than from a single shot in isolation .

David Louis Clemetson ( 1 October 1893 - 21 September 1918 ) was born in Jamaica , into a wealthy family . He was one of the first black people to serve as an officer in the British Army . He was commissioned in the Pembroke Yeomanry in October 1915 , and he is thought to have been the only black person to hold the rank of lieutenant in the British Army during the First World War . He was killed in action in France in September 1918 .   Another early black officer , Walter Tull , was born in Kent , the son of a black Barbadian carpenter and white Englishwoman ; he was commissioned in the Middlesex Regiment on 30 May 1917 , and was killed in action on 25 March 1918 . A third , George Bemand , was also born in Jamaica , son of a white English father and a black Jamaican mother ; he was commissioned in the Royal Field Artillery on 23 May 1915 , was killed in action on 26 December 1916 . Almost a century earlier , Nathaniel Wells served in the Yeomanry Cavalry of Gloucestershire and Monmouth in 1820 to 1822 , and John Perkins served in the Royal Navy from 1775 to 1804 .

The Rhine ( Rhenus , Rein , Rhein , le Rhin , Rijn ) is a European river that begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps , forms part of the  Swiss-Austrian , Swiss-Liechtenstein , Swiss-German and then the Franco-German border , then flows through the Rhineland and eventually empties into the North Sea in the Netherlands .  The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne , Germany , with a population of more than 1,050,000 people . It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe ( after the Danube ) , at about 1230 km , The Rhine is cited as the `` twelfth-longest river of Europe '' if the Russian rivers Volga , Ural , Pechora , Kama , Northern Dvina -- Vychegda , Oka and Belaya are counted which are based on the modern conventional boundary between Europe and Asia are within European Russia or form part of the boundary to Asia .  Also longer than the Rhine are the Eastern European rivers Dnieper , Don and Dniester flowing into the Black Sea.The Rhine only has an official length scale ( Rheinkilometer ) downstream of Constance . Its full length is subject to the definition of the Alpine Rhine . In 2010 , there were media reports to the effect that the length of the Rhine had long been underreported in 20th-century encyclopedias , and upon request by journalists , Dutch Rijkswaterstaat cited a length of 1,232 km .  .  '' ` We checked it out and came to 1,232 kilometres , ' said Ankie Pannekoek , spokeswoman for the Dutch government hydrology office . '' with an average discharge of about 2900 m3/s .   The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the northern inland frontier of the Roman Empire and , since those days , the Rhine has been a vital and navigable waterway carrying trade and goods deep inland .  Its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire is supported by the many castles and fortifications built along it . In the modern era , it has become a symbol of German nationalism .

Regional geography is a major branch of geography . It focuses on the interaction of different cultural and natural geofactors in a specific land or landscape , while its counterpart , systematic geography , concentrates on a specific geofactor at the global level .

De re metallica ( Latin for On the Nature of Metals -LSB- Minerals -RSB- ) is a book cataloguing the state of the art of mining , refining , and smelting metals , published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text . The author was Georg Bauer , whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola . The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication . It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry .   Mining was typically left to professionals , craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share their knowledge . Much experiential knowledge had been accumulated over the course of time . This knowledge was consecutively handed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers . In the Middle Ages these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals , or perhaps also alchemists . It was a small , cosmopolitan elite within which existing knowledge was passed on and further developed but not shared with the outside world . Only a few writers from that time wrote anything about mining itself . Partly , that was because this knowledge was very difficult to access . Most writers also found it simply not worth the effort to write about it . Only in the Renaissance did this perception begin to change . With the improved transport and the invention of the printing press knowledge spread much more easily and faster than before . In 1500 , the first printed book dedicated to mining engineering , called the `` Nutzlich Bergbuchleyn '' ( The Useful Little Mining Book '' ) by Ulrich Rulein von Calw , was published . The most important works in this genre were , however , the twelve books De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola , published in 1556 .   Agricola had spent nine years in the Bohemian town of Joachimsthal , now in the Czech Republic . ( Joachimsthal is famous for its silver mines and the origin of the word `` Thaler '' and , ultimately , `` dollar . '' ) After Joachimsthal , he spent the rest of his life in Chemnitz , a prominent mining town in Saxony . Both Joachimsthal and Chemnitz are in the Erzgebirge , or Ore Mountains .   The book was greatly influential , and for more than a century after it was published , De Re Metallica remained a standard treatise used throughout Europe . The German mining technology it portrayed was acknowledged as the most advanced at the time , and the metallic wealth produced in German mining districts was the envy of many other European nations . The book was reprinted in a number of Latin editions , as well as in German and Italian translations . Publication in Latin meant that it could be read by any educated European of the time . The numerous woodcuts and detailed descriptions of machinery made it a practical reference for those wishing to replicate the latest in mining technology .   In 1912 , the first English translation of De Re Metallica was privately published in London by subscription . The translators were Herbert Hoover , a mining engineer ( and later President of the United States ) , and his wife , Lou Henry Hoover , a geologist and Latinist . The translation is notable not only for its clarity of language , but for the extensive footnotes , which detail the classical references to mining and metals . Subsequent translations into other languages , including German , owe much to the Hoover translations , as their footnotes detail their difficulties with Agricola 's invention of several hundred Latin expressions to cover Medieval German mining and milling terms that were unknown to classical Latin . The most important translation -- outside English -- was the one published by the Deutsches Museum in Munich .

Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 14th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe , demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture . Stylistically , Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture . Developed first in Florence , with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators , the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities . The style was carried to France , Germany , England , Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact .   Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry , proportion , geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture , of which many examples remained . Orderly arrangements of columns , pilasters and lintels , as well as the use of semicircular arches , hemispherical domes , niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings .

Red Cross parcel refers to packages containing mostly food , tobacco and personal hygiene items sent by the International Association of the Red Cross to prisoners of war during the First and Second World Wars , as well as at other times . It can also refer to medical parcels and so-called `` release parcels '' provided during World War II . The Red Cross arranged them in accordance with the provisions of the Geneva Convention of 1929 . During World War II these packages augmented the often-meager and deficient diets in the PoW camps , contributing greatly to prisoner survival and an increase in morale . Modern Red Cross food parcels provide basic food and sanitary needs for persons affected by natural disasters , wars , political upheavals or similar events .   More recent catastrophes involving delivery of Red Cross parcels include events in Georgia , Thailand and Great Britain .