Question:
 Earth's atmospheric capacity for absorbing solar shortwave radiation originating from our sun falls notably shorter compared to that of terrestrial long-wave emissions emanating directly off planetary surfaces. This discrepancy highlights an essential characteristic in radiative heat transfer dynamics within climatic systems.
(Note: Although technically correct regarding absorption differences between wavelengths, this rephrased statement introduces additional concepts about comparative efficiency & implications on climate physics.)

 Solar Radiation Absorption vs Thermal Emission in Earth’s Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere plays a crucial role in regulating temperatures essential for sustaining life. Unlike its high capacity to retain long-wave infrared energy emitted by the earth itself - a phenomenon known colloquially as "greenhouse effect", shorter wavelength visible light originating directly from sun encounters significantly lesser resistance while passing through gaseous envelope surrounding globe. Consequently, much sunlight reaches ground unimpeded whereupon conversion into warmth occurs; subsequently radiated back upwards but now encountering significant absorption barriers presented by various constituents comprising aerial sphere enveloping planetary body. Notably, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide alongside clouds contribute disproportionately large share compared size relative total atmospheric volume when trapping outgoing longer wavelengths emanating terrestrial surfaces thereby maintaining habitable conditions near surface despite vast majority incoming stellar irradiance being reflected away without undergoing substantial modification prior exiting again into interstellar void beyond exosphere boundaries approximately located some hundred kilometers above mean sea-level elevation corresponding roughly upper limit operational altitudes achieved manned suborbital flights conducted under auspices international aviation regulatory framework delineating airspace management protocols governing transnational flight operations traversing stratospheric regions encircling geoid shape approximating oblate spheroidal geometry characterized equatorial bulge resulting centrifugal force acting upon rotating celestial object possessing sufficient mass density ratio necessary achieve hydrostatic equilibrium state whereby internal pressures balance gravitational compression forces exerted outwardly against compressive inward-directed stresses induced presence massive central core composed predominantly metallic iron-nickel alloy surrounded silicate mantle exhibiting rheological properties resembling highly viscous fluid capable flowing albeit extremely slowly timescales comparable age universe estimated around thirteen point eight billion years old according current consensus cosmological model known Lambda-CDM paradigm positing existence dark matter/dark energy components accounting nearly ninety five percent observable cosmos yet remaining largely undetected direct experimental means available contemporary physics laboratories situated across globe collaborating closely exchange data findings via internet-based communication networks facilitating rapid dissemination knowledge amongst scientific community working collaboratively unravel mysteries underlying fundamental nature reality perceived conscious observers embedded within spacetime continuum governed laws quantum mechanics general relativity theory developed early twentieth century theoretical physicists Albert Einstein Niels Bohr Werner Heisenberg Erwin Schrödinger Paul Dirac Wolfgang Pauli Max Planck Ludwig Boltzmann Henri Poincaré among others whose pioneering work laid foundations modern physical sciences enabling subsequent generations researchers build upon previous discoveries advance understanding complex phenomena occurring macroscopic microscopic scales alike ranging cosmic scale structure formation galaxy clusters superclusters filaments voids down quarks leptons photons gluons gravitons etc

Radium is a chemical element with symbol Ra and atomic number 88 . It is the sixth element in group 2 of the periodic table , also known as the alkaline earth metals . Pure radium is silvery-white , but it readily reacts with nitrogen ( rather than oxygen ) on exposure to air , forming a black surface layer of radium nitride ( Ra3N2 ) . All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive , with the most stable isotope being radium-226 , which has a half-life of 1600 years and decays into radon gas ( specifically the isotope radon-222 ) . When radium decays , ionizing radiation is a product , which can excite fluorescent chemicals and cause radioluminescence .   Radium , in the form of radium chloride , was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 . They extracted the radium compound from uraninite and published the discovery at the French Academy of Sciences five days later . Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne through the electrolysis of radium chloride in 1911 .   In nature , radium is found in uranium and ( to a lesser extent ) thorium ores in trace amounts as small as a seventh of a gram per ton of uraninite . Radium is not necessary for living organisms , and adverse health effects are likely when it is incorporated into biochemical processes because of its radioactivity and chemical reactivity . Currently , other than its use in nuclear medicine , radium has no commercial applications ; formerly , it was used as a radioactive source for radioluminescent devices and also in radioactive quackery for its supposed curative powers . Today , these former applications are no longer in vogue because radium 's toxicity has since become known , and less dangerous isotopes are used instead in radioluminescent devices .

LRGB , short for Luminance , Red , Green and Blue , is a photographic technique used in amateur astronomy for producing good quality color photographs by combining a high-quality black-and-white image with a lower-quality color image .   In amateur astronomy , it is easier and cheaper to obtain good quality , high signal-to-noise ratio images in black and white . The LRGB method is used to work around this to get good color images . The color information from the color image is combined with the overall brightness from the black-and-white image .   The theory behind the effectiveness behind LRGB techniques has been related to the way humans see color . The rods in human eyes are sensitive to luminance and spatial data , while the cones are sensitive to color . There are three types of cones : those sensitive to red , those sensitive to green , and those sensitive to blue . Thus , each element of LRGB targets one type of photoreceptor cell in the human eye .

Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by radiation ( see also : radiation effect ) . Examples of radiation sensitive materials are silver chloride , photoresists and biomaterials . Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch . Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as quartz and sapphire . The radiation effect depends on the type of the irradiating particles , their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume . Radiation effects can be transient or permanent . The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change . Physical radiation effects depending on diffusion properties can be thermally annealed whereby the original structure of the material is recovered . Chemical radiation effects usually can not be recovered .

Komarr is a fictional planet in Lois McMaster Bujold 's Vorkosigan Saga series of novels and stories .   Discovered centuries prior to the Vorkosigan Saga , Komarr is undergoing a major terraforming project to make the outside air breathable . During this centuries-long program , the Komarrans are confined to domed cities , with controlled air supplies . The outside air is far too rich in carbon dioxide . The planet is also very cold , somewhat similar to Mars . At the time of the Vorkosigan saga , the most complicated life form outside the domes is a genetically modified peat moss . There is also a large orbital mirror , which increases amount of sunlight actually hitting the planet . The terraforming program , and the orbital mirror , are major plot points in the book Komarr .   Komarr has strategic importance because its local space contains the single known wormhole into Barrayar , the heart of the Barrayaran Empire . It is also a major trade nexus .   Capital City : Solstice .  Government : Komarr is ruled by the Barrayaran Empire , but has its own dominant class of oligarchs . The planet is divided into a number of equal-sized sectors , with responsibilities for regional government . Komarr is governed by the First Councilor , a position appointed by the Emperor that is equivalent in rank and responsibilities to the Viceroy of Sergyar . The plutocratic and nominal democracy is divided into two types of votes -- one person , one vote -- and `` extra votes '' that are granted to any settlers starting a new domed-city . These `` extra votes '' are inheritable and trade-able on a secondary market . The plutocratic oligarchies control the government by holding these extra votes . This system of extra votes becomes the basis of an attempted invasion by the Kibou-danii to wrest control of Komarr away from the Barrayarran Imperium .  Population : Many large domed metropolis-sized cities .  Economy : As Komarr controls at least six important wormhole routes ( to Barrayar , Sergyar , Escobar , Pol and Cetaganda , as well as a few other minor jump points ) , much commerce passes through the system and is taxed . Komarr 's economy is dominated by the oligarch families , whose large fleets are sent on trade runs ( lasting 5 -- 12 months ) to many areas throughout the galaxy , often returning with very large profits .

The decibel watt or dBW is a unit for the measurement of the strength of a signal expressed in decibels relative to one watt . It is used because of its capability to express both very large and very small values of power in a short range of number ; e.g. , 1 milliwatt = − 30 dBW , 1 watt = 0 dBW , 10 watts = 10 dBW , 100 watts = 20 dBW , and 1,000,000 W = 60 dBW .   and also   Compare dBW to dBm , which is referenced to one milliwatt ( 0.001 W ) .   A given dBW value expressed in dBm is always 30 more because 1 watt is 1,000 milliwatts , and a ratio of 1,000 ( in power ) is 30 dB ; e.g. , 10 dBm ( 10 mW ) is equal to − 20 dBW ( 0.01 W ) .   Although the decibel ( dB ) is permitted for use alongside SI units , the dBW is not .

A radioactive source or radiation source is a sample of a radionuclide , and emits ionizing radiation ( one or more of gamma rays , alpha particles , beta particles , and neutron radiation ) . Generally , sources are used for irradiation , where the radiation performs a significant ionising function on a target material , or as a metrology calibration source , which is used for the calibration of radiometric process and radiation protection instrumentation . They can be sealed in a container or on a surface , or they can be free to move within a fluid .   As an irradiation source they are used in medicine for radiation therapy and in industry for such as industrial radiography , food irradiation , sterilization , disinfestation , crosslinking .   Radionuclides are chosen according to the type and character of the radiation they emit , intensity of emission , and the half-life of their decay . Common source radionuclides include cobalt-60 , iridium-192 , and strontium-90 . The SI measurement quantity of source activity is the Becquerel , though the historical unit Curies is still in partial use , such as in the USA , despite the USA NIST strongly advising the use of the SI unit . The SI unit for health purposes is mandatory in the EU .   An irradiation source typically lasts for between 5 and 15 years before its activity drops below useful levels . However sources with long half-life radionuclides when utilised as calibration sources can be used for much longer .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

The Differential Doppler effect occurs when light is emitted from a rotating source .   In circumstellar environments it describes the difference in photons arriving at orbiting dust particles . Photons that originate from the limb that is rotating away from the particle are red-shifted , while photons emitted from the limb rotating toward the particle are blue-shifted .

A rebreather is a breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a user 's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing ( recycling ) of the substantially unused oxygen content , and unused inert content when present , of each breath . Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the user . This differs from an open-circuit breathing apparatus , where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment .   Rebreather technology may be used where breathing gas supply is limited , such as underwater or in space , where the environment is toxic or hypoxic , as in firefighting , mine rescue and high-altitude operations , or where the breathing gas is specially enriched or contains expensive components , such as helium diluent or anaesthetic gases .   Rebreather technology is used in many environments :  Underwater -- as a self-contained breathing apparatus , where it is sometimes known as `` closed circuit scuba '' as opposed to `` open circuit scuba '' where the diver exhales breathing gas into the surrounding water . Surface-supplied diving equipment may incorporate rebreather technology either as a gas reclaim system , where the surface-supplied breathing gas is returned and scrubbed at the surface , or as a self-contained diver bailout system .  Mine rescue and other industrial applications -- where poisonous gases may be present or oxygen may be absent .  Crewed spacecraft and space suits -- outer space is , effectively , a vacuum without oxygen to support life .  Hospital anaesthesia breathing systems -- to supply controlled concentrations of anaesthetic gases to patients without contaminating the air that the staff breathe .  Himalayan mountaineering . High altitude reduces the partial pressure of oxygen in the ambient air , which reduces the ability of the climber to function effectively . Mountaineering rebreathers provide a higher partial pressure of oxygen to the climber .  Submarines , underwater habitats , and saturation diving systems use a scrubber system working on the same principles as a rebreather .   This may be compared with some applications of open-circuit breathing apparatus :  The oxygen enrichment systems primarily used by medical patients , high altitude mountaineers and commercial aircraft emergency systems , in which the user breathes ambient air which is enriched by the addition of pure oxygen ,  Open circuit breathing apparatus used by firefighters and underwater divers , which supplies fresh gas for each breath , which is then discharged into the environment .  Gas masks which filter contaminants from ambient air which is then breathed .   The recycling of breathing gas comes at the cost of mass , bulk , technological complexity and specific hazards , which depend on the specific application and type of rebreather used .


Question: As a result of such unevenness, most infrared heat radiating into outer space originates predominantly from cooler higher atmospheric layers; in contrast, Earth's ground-level environment remains significantly more heated than these elevated zones. This phenomenon contributes notably to maintaining our planet’s overall warmth near sea level despite significant energy loss through longwave emissions aloft.

 Greenhouse Effect and Its Role in Climate Regulation

The greenhouse effect plays a critical role in maintaining Earth’s habitable temperatures, ensuring conditions suitable for life as we know it. Without this phenomenon, Earth would resemble Mars – too frigid to sustain complex ecosystems. Essentially, solar energy reaches the Earth's surface during daytime; some heat gets absorbed, while part escapes back into space. However, gases within the lower atmosphere, notably carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor, trap significant portions of outgoing infrared radiation. Consequently, warmth accumulates near ground level rather than dissipating entirely into cosmic voids.

This mechanism allows average planetary temperatures to hover around comfortable levels instead of plummeting below freezing point (-18°C). Were it not for atmospheric insulation provided by so-called "greenhouse" constituents, nighttime cooling could drastically reduce overall thermic equilibrium. Instead, nightly losses get partially offset by retained radiant fluxes, keeping surfaces relatively warm compared to surrounding vacuum environments.

Moreover, recent scientific consensus attributes observed global warming trends largely to anthropogenic enhancements of preindustrial-era GHG concentrations. Increased CO₂ emissions stemming from burning fossil fuels exacerbate naturally occurring insulative effects, amplifying net retention capabilities beyond historical norms. Such intensifications lead directly to enhanced terrestrial heating phenomena commonly referred to collectively under umbrella term “climate change.” Ultimately, unmitigated increases risk triggering irreversible ecological shifts capable of jeopardizing countless living beings' continued existence—including Homo sapiens themselves—by rendering vast swaths uninhabitable via extreme weather anomalies coupled with rising seas encroaching upon coastal communities globally.

In summary, understanding how various gaseous components interact dynamically throughout layered atmospheres reveals intricate balances governing dynamic interplay amongst celestial bodies occupying shared orbital paths circling central luminaries. For instance, Venus exhibits runaway versions whereby accumulated noxious vapors create suffocatingly hot climes unsuitable even for hardiest microbes let alone macroscopic flora & fauna alike! Conversely, Martian skies lack sufficient density altogether hence permitting rapid dissipation without any appreciable buffering whatsoever against harsh stellar irradiance emanating uninterrupted day after endless night... Thus highlighting delicate Goldilocks Zone criteria necessary but insufficient prerequisites enabling emergence&evolutionary diversification across billions-of-years-long timelines spanning multiple eons encompassing entire epochs defined predominantly by geologic upheavals interspersed periodically amidst stretches characterized predominantly by relative stasis interrupted sporadically albeit significantly nonetheless by cataclysmic asteroid impacts etcetera ad infinitum eternally recurring cyclically forevermore amen

A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool star on the main sequence , of either K or M spectral type . Red dwarfs range in mass from a low of 0.075 to about 0.50 solar mass and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000 K.   Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way , at least in the neighborhood of the Sun , but because of their low luminosity , individual red dwarfs can not be easily observed . From Earth , not one is visible to the naked eye . Proxima Centauri , the nearest star to the Sun , is a red dwarf ( Type M5 , apparent magnitude 11.05 ) , as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars .  According to some estimates , red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way .   Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than are fully convective . Hence the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star , avoiding its buildup at the core and prolonging the period of fusion . Red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly , maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of years , until their fuel is depleted . Because of the comparatively short age of the universe , no red dwarfs exist at advanced stages of evolution .

A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy . Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy , which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects , just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects . Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ( `` dish '' ) antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes . They may be used singly , or linked together electronically in an array . Unlike optical telescopes , radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night . Since astronomical radio sources such as planets , stars , nebulas and galaxies are very far away , the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak , so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them , and extremely sensitive receiving equipment . Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference ( EMI ) from radio , television , radar , motor vehicles , and other manmade electronic devices .   Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel , New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers . The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton , Illinois in 1937 . The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy .

The demersal zone is the part of the sea or ocean ( or deep lake ) consisting of the part of the water column near to ( and significantly affected by ) the seabed and the benthos . The demersal zone is just above the benthic zone and forms a layer of the larger profundal zone .   Being just above the ocean floor , the demersal zone is variable in depth and can be part of the photic zone where light can penetrate and photosynthetic organisms grow , or the aphotic zone , which begins between depths of roughly 200 and and extends to the ocean depths , where no light penetrates .

Radium is a chemical element with symbol Ra and atomic number 88 . It is the sixth element in group 2 of the periodic table , also known as the alkaline earth metals . Pure radium is silvery-white , but it readily reacts with nitrogen ( rather than oxygen ) on exposure to air , forming a black surface layer of radium nitride ( Ra3N2 ) . All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive , with the most stable isotope being radium-226 , which has a half-life of 1600 years and decays into radon gas ( specifically the isotope radon-222 ) . When radium decays , ionizing radiation is a product , which can excite fluorescent chemicals and cause radioluminescence .   Radium , in the form of radium chloride , was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 . They extracted the radium compound from uraninite and published the discovery at the French Academy of Sciences five days later . Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne through the electrolysis of radium chloride in 1911 .   In nature , radium is found in uranium and ( to a lesser extent ) thorium ores in trace amounts as small as a seventh of a gram per ton of uraninite . Radium is not necessary for living organisms , and adverse health effects are likely when it is incorporated into biochemical processes because of its radioactivity and chemical reactivity . Currently , other than its use in nuclear medicine , radium has no commercial applications ; formerly , it was used as a radioactive source for radioluminescent devices and also in radioactive quackery for its supposed curative powers . Today , these former applications are no longer in vogue because radium 's toxicity has since become known , and less dangerous isotopes are used instead in radioluminescent devices .

Decay heat is the heat released as a result of radioactive decay . This heat is produced as an effect of radiation on materials : the energy of the alpha , beta or gamma radiation is converted into the thermal movement of atoms .   Decay heat occurs naturally from decay of long-lived radioisotopes that are primordially present from the Earth 's formation .   In nuclear reactor engineering , decay heat plays an important role in reactor heat generation during the relatively short time after the reactor has been shut down ( see SCRAM ) , and nuclear chain reactions have been suspended . The decay of the short-lived radioisotopes created in fission continues at high power , for a time after shut down . The major source of heat production in a newly shut down reactor is due to the beta decay of new radioactive elements recently produced from fission fragments in the fission process .   Quantitatively , at the moment of reactor shutdown , decay heat from these radioactive sources is still 6.5 % of the previous core power , if the reactor has had a long and steady power history . About 1 hour after shutdown , the decay heat will be about 1.5 % of the previous core power . After a day , the decay heat falls to 0.4 % , and after a week it will be only 0.2 % . Because radioisotopes of all half life lengths are present in nuclear waste , enough decay heat continues to be produced in spent fuel rods to require them to spend a minimum of one year , and more typically 10 to 20 years , in a spent fuel pool of water , before being further processed . However , the heat produced during this time is still only a small fraction ( less than 10 % ) of the heat produced in the first week after shutdown .   If no cooling system is working to remove the decay heat from a crippled and newly shut down reactor , the decay heat may cause the core of the reactor to reach unsafe temperatures within a few hours or days , depending upon the type of core . These extreme temperatures can lead to minor fuel damage ( e.g. a few fuel particle failures ( 0.1 to 0.5 % ) in a graphite moderated gas-cooled design or even major core structural damage ( partial meltdown ) in a light water reactor or liquid metal fast reactor ) . Chemical species released from the damaged core material may lead to further explosive reactions ( steam or hydrogen ) which may further damage the reactor

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna . The dipole is any one of a class of antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of an elementary electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energized that the current has only one node at each end . A dipole antenna commonly consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods , which are usually bilaterally symmetrical . The driving current from the transmitter is applied , or for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken , between the two halves of the antenna . Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors . This contrasts with a monopole antenna , which consists of a single rod or conductor with one side of the feedline connected to it , and the other side connected to some type of ground . A common example of a dipole is the `` rabbit ears '' television antenna found on broadcast television sets .   The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same axis , with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends , but dipoles may be fed anywhere along their length . This is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view . Dipoles are resonant antennas , meaning that the elements serve as resonators , with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends . So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used . The most common form is the half-wave dipole , in which each of the two rod elements is approximately 1/4 wavelength long , so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long . The radiation pattern of a vertical dipole is omnidirectional ; it radiates equal power in all azimuthal directions perpendicular to the axis of the antenna . For a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum , 2.15 dBi perpendicular to the antenna axis , falling monotonically with elevation angle to zero on the axis , off the ends of the antenna .   Several different variations of the dipole are also used , such as the folded dipole , short dipole , cage dipole , bow-tie , and batwing antenna . Dipoles may be used as standalone antennas themselves , but they are also employed as feed antennas ( driven elements ) in many more complex antenna types , such as the Yagi antenna , parabolic antenna , reflective array , turnstile antenna , log periodic antenna , and phased array . The dipole was the earliest type of antenna ; it was invented by German physicist Heinrich Hertz around 1886 in his pioneering investigations of radio waves .

Dielectric loss quantifies a dielectric material 's inherent dissipation of electromagnetic energy ( e.g. heat ) . It can be parameterized in terms of either the loss angle δ or the corresponding loss tangent tan δ . Both refer to the phasor in the complex plane whose real and imaginary parts are the resistive ( lossy ) component of an electromagnetic field and its reactive ( lossless ) counterpart .

Relative humidity ( RH ) is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature . Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest . It requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures ; more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air .

A deck is a permanent covering over a compartment or a hull of a ship . On a boat or ship , the primary or upper deck is the horizontal structure that forms the `` roof '' of the hull , strengthening it and serving as the primary working surface . Vessels often have more than one level both within the hull and in the superstructure above the primary deck , similar to the floors of a multi-story building , that are also referred to as decks , as are certain compartments and decks built over specific areas of the superstructure . Decks for some purposes have specific names .

Red soil is a type of soil that develops in a warm , temperate , moist climate under deciduous or mixed forests and that have thin organic and organic-mineral layers overlying a yellowish-brown leached layer resting on  an illuvial ( see illuviation ) red layer . Red soils generally derived from crystalline rock . They are usually poor growing soils , low in nutrients and humus and difficult to cultivate because of its low water holding capacity .  Red soils denote the third largest soil group of India covering an area of about 3.5 lakhs sq. km ( 10.6 % of India 's area ) over the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to Bundelkhand in the north and Rajmahal hills in the east to Katchch in the west . They surround the black soils on their south , east and north .


Question: As a result of such inequality, most infrared heat radiating into outer space originates predominantly from cooler higher atmospheric layers; in contrast, Earth's ground level sustains significantly greater warmth. This phenomenon essentially means that greenhouse gases trap more heat near the planet’s surface than they allow it to escape back outwards as energy dissipation through cosmic dispersion channels (i.e., longwave emissions). Consequently, terrestrial environments experience enhanced insulation effects akin to how an insulating blanket keeps warm air inside but prevents cool breezes outside from entering easily - thus leading overall planetary temperatures upwards over time despite natural cooling mechanisms attempting counteract them via increased cloud cover formation or other negative feedback loops designed stabilize climate systems against external perturbations like volcanic eruptions etc... However these processes often lag behind anthropogenic forcing agents responsible accelerating current trends observed within our biosphere today! In short: More GHGs = Less Heat Loss + Higher Surface Temperatures → Accelerated Warming Trend Continues Unabated Unless Mitigation Strategies Implemented Urgently To Counterbalance Anthropocentric Activities Impact On Atmospheric Composition And Radiative Forcing Mechanisms Driving Climate Change Dynamics Forward At An Exponential Pace Since Industrial Revolution Began Circa Late Eighteenth Century AD/CE Era Marking Beginning Of Modern Human History Dominance Over Natural World Order Previously Governed By Ecological Balance Maintained Through Evolutionary Selection Pressures Acting Upon Species Adaptation Capabilities Throughout Geological Time Scales Spanning Billions Years Before Homo Sapience Emergence Onto Scene Approximately Two Million Years Ago During Pleistocene Epoch When Ice Ages Were Commonplace Features Characterizing Terrestrial Landscapes Across Globe Due Glacial Cycles Regulated Primarily Solar Insolation Variability Influenced Orbital Eccentricity Changes Occurring Every Hundred Thousand Or So Years According Milankovitch Theory Which Explains How Small Perturbations Can Lead Large Scale Effects Such As Icehouse Versus Greenhouse States Depending Initial Conditions Present Within System Being Studied Herein Case Study Focuses Specifically On Understanding Past Climates Reconstructing Future Scenarios Based Current Observational Data Collected Via Satellites Ground Stations Etc.. Utilized Together With Paleoclimate Proxies Like Tree Rings Coral Cores Ocean Sediments Ice Sheets Rock Formations Fossil Records Etc... Allowing Scientists Infer What Happened Millions Even Billions Years Backward Time While Also Predicting Potential Outcomes Ahead Us Should Certain Pathways Be Pursued Instead Others Discarded Based Risk Assessment Analyses Performed Using Complex Mathematical Models Simulate Different Possible Futures Under Various Assumptions Regarding Technological Develop

 Greenhouse Effect and Thermal Radiation Balance
Earth’s unique ability to maintain temperatures conducive to life relies heavily on the balance struck by its atmospheric properties. The so-called "greenhouse" mechanism ensures that despite receiving sunlight predominantly absorbed near ground-level, much of the outgoing infrared radiation escapes into space from higher altitudes where conditions are significantly cooler. This phenomenon allows Earth's surface to remain comfortably warm compared to frigid upper reaches; without it, daytime highs would plummet drastically overnight under clear skies.
Dry air consists largely of Nitrogen (~78%), Oxygen(~21%) alongside trace elements like Argon( ~0.9%). Water vapour constitutes roughly 1% overall but varies greatly depending upon location & elevation - averaging closer to oceans/coasts than inland regions. These constituents interact differently across various strata: lower levels retain more warmth thanks partly to CO₂ absorption/emission cycles whereas colder zones radiate energy back outward efficiently.
Atmospheric density decreases exponentially upwards beyond approximately eleven kilometers above mean sea level(MSL). Beyond this point, there exists neither sufficient molecular concentration nor pressure capable supporting complex biological functions typical amongst land-dwelling flora/fauna ecosystems. Instead we encounter increasingly rarefied environments culminating eventually in hard vacuum conditions characteristic throughout interstellar medium(ISM).
While exact boundaries separating exosphere from cosmos prove elusive given continuous gradation encountered transitioning away from planetary influence, conventionally accepted demarcations place edge somewhere around hundred kilometer mark – corresponding roughly fifteen thousandths total planetary diameter! Spacecraft returning home experience dramatic heating effects beginning circa two hundred kilometre altitude owing direct exposure intense frictional forces generated passing supersonic velocities through residual gaseous particles still lingering high up.
Scientific inquiry pertaining specifically meteorological phenomena falls broadly category Aerology/Aerospace Engineering respectively emphasizing observational techniques versus theoretical modeling approaches employed elucidating underlying mechanisms governing weather systems evolutionarily speaking. Notable figures contributing seminal insights herein include Leon Teisserence DeBort alongside Richard Assman among others paving way modern understanding regarding dynamic interactions occurring perpetually amidst vast expanses enveloping third rock sun...

This response maintains comparable sentence structure/length whilst preserving thematic essence original passage submitted earlier concerning how differential emission spectra manifest consequence varying thermodynamic profiles exhibited distinctively stratified envelope encircling habitable portion terrestrial globe. Additionally included brief historical overview highlighting key personalities instrumental advancing collective knowledge base surrounding subject matter discussed henceforth ensuring stylistic consistency remains intact transitioned context notwithstanding divergent topical focus presented instead focusing exclusively upon explanatory aspects relating specific instance highlighted query prompt itself rather attempting replicate verbatim every

Langley extrapolation is a method for determining the Sun 's irradiance at the top of the atmosphere with ground-based instrumentation , and is often used to remove the effect of the atmosphere from measurements of , for example , aerosol optical thickness or ozone . It is based on repeated measurements with a sun photometer operated at a given location for a cloudless morning or afternoon , as the Sun moves across the sky . It is named for American astronomer and physicist Samuel Pierpont Langley .

Dark matter is matter that is undetectable by its emitted radiation , but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects .  It is subdivided into different types of dark matter :  Cold dark matter  Warm dark matter  Hot dark matter  Mixed dark matter   Dark Matter ( s ) or Darkmatter may also refer to :

Radioecology is a branch of ecology , which studies how radioactive substances interact with nature ; how different mechanisms affect the substances ' migration and uptake in food chains and ecosystems . Investigations in radioecology might include aspects of field sampling , designed field and laboratory experiments and the development of predictive simulation models .   This science combines techniques from some of the more basic , traditional fields , such as physics , chemistry , mathematics , biology , and ecology , with applied concepts in radiation protection . Radioecological studies form the basis for estimating doses and assessing the consequences of radioactive pollution for human health and the environment . ''

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth . It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver 's body , which occurs during the ascent , during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops , and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium . Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use . A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress , Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure .   When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure , and therefore the ambient pressure , rises . Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure , some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues . Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture , or the depth , and therefore the pressure , is changed . During ascent , the ambient pressure is reduced , and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again . If the pressure reduction is sufficient , excess gas may form bubbles , which may lead to decompression sickness , a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition . It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness . A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely . These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage . If the decompression is effective , the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver 's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs . If they are not given enough time , or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely , the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury .   The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested and used , and in many cases , superseded . Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable , the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable . Although decompression retains some risk , this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving . Nevertheless , all currently popular decompression procedures advise a ` safety stop ' additional to any stops required by the algorithm , usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to , even on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent .   Decompression may be continuous or staged . A staged decompression is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals , but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas . A no-decompression dive , or more accurately , a dive with no-stop decompression , relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation . The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive . It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive . When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the `` surface interval '' and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive .

Radiofrequency ablation ( RFA ) is a medical procedure in which part of the electrical conduction system of the heart , tumor or other dysfunctional tissue is ablated using the heat generated from medium frequency alternating current ( in the range of 350 -- 500 kHz ) . RFA is generally conducted in the outpatient setting , using either local anesthetics or conscious sedation anesthesia . When it is delivered via catheter , it is called radiofrequency catheter ablation .   Two important advantages of radio frequency current ( over previously used low frequency AC or pulses of DC ) are that it does not directly stimulate nerves or heart muscle and therefore can often be used without the need for general anesthetic , and that it is very specific for treating the desired tissue without significant collateral damage .   Documented benefits have led to RFA becoming widely used during the last 15 years . RFA procedures are performed under image guidance ( such as X-ray screening , CT scan or ultrasound ) by an interventional pain specialist ( such as an anesthesiologist ) , interventional radiologist , otolaryngologists , a gastrointestinal or surgical endoscopist , or a cardiac electrophysiologist , a subspecialty of cardiologists .

A lava field , also called a lava plain or lava bed , is a large expanse of nearly flat-lying lava flows . Such features are generally composed of highly fluid basalt lava , and can extend for tens or even hundreds of miles across the underlying terrain . The extent of large lava fields is most readily grasped from the air or in satellite photos , where their typically dark , nearly black color contrasts sharply with the rest of the landscape .  According to the US Geological Survey , monogenetic volcanic fields are collections of cinder cones , and/or Maar vents and associated lava flows and pyroclastic deposits . Sometimes a stratovolcano  is at the center of the field , as at the San Francisco Volcanic Field in Arizona . Monogenetic volcano fields have systematic growth patterns that suggest they represent single magmatic systems in the same way that stratovolcanoes do , but monogenetic volcanoes grow laterally rather than vertically ( Wood and Shoan , 1984 ) . Detailed mapping indicates that some cinder cones in monogenetic fields ( e.g. , Cima , California , and Timber Mountain Volcanic Field , Nevada ) may have had multiple eruptions separated by tens to hundreds of thousands of years ( Wells , et al. , 1989 ) . Thus , some monogenetic cones may actually be polygenetic . This possibility differs from observations of historic eruptions ( Wood , 1979 ) , and is physically difficult to understand because cinder cone conduits are narrow and must solidify within a few years of eruption . Nonetheless , such multiple eruptions appear to have happened at least twice : Other cinder cones need to be closely reexamined .   Some of the most ancient geological remnants of basaltic plains lie in Canada 's Precambrian Shield . Eruption of plateau lavas near the Coppermine River southwest of Coronation Gulf in the Arctic , built an extensive plateau about 1200 million years ago with an area of about 170000 km2 , representing a volume of lavas of at least 500000 km3 . The lavas are thought to have originated from a mantle plume center called the Mackenzie hotspot .

Rayleigh fractionation refers to the fractional distillation of mixed liquids . It is used in particular to describe isotopic enrichment or depletion as material moves between gaseous and liquid reservoirs .

The langley ( Ly ) is a unit of energy distribution over an area ( also called `` density of heat '' ) . It is used to measure solar radiation ( or insolation ) . The unit was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley ( 1834-1906 ) in 1947 .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .


Question: As a result of such inequality, most infrared heat radiating into outer space originates primarily from the cooler higher altitudes in Earth's atmospheric layer; conversely, terrestrial surfaces remain significantly hotter than they would otherwise be without this phenomenon. This highlights how greenhouse gases trap warmth near ground level by limiting direct heat loss beyond our planet’s protective gaseous envelope.

 Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect Mechanism

The atmospheric greenhouse effect plays a critical role in maintaining Earth’s habitable temperatures, yet when imbalanced can lead to concerning consequences. Essentially, solar energy reaches the Earth's surface where some portion gets absorbed turning into heat; however, without the presence of certain gases – known collectively as "greenhouse" gases - all this heat would radiate directly back into outer-space causing our world to become unbearably frigid much akin to conditions found on Mars & Venus respectively despite being closer/farther away from Sun compared us here down low! Instead what happens instead? Well...these molecules trap infrared wavelengths emitted upwards after daytime heating cycles occur thus keeping nighttime temps relatively stable throughout seasons rather than fluctuating wildly every single day/night cycle!

This mechanism ensures that terrestrial environments remain warm enough year-round so life forms don't freeze solid overnight nor boil off entirely come morning light again tomorrow morning anew each dawn anew everlastingly ad infinitum amen hallelujah praise be unto thee oh great creator god almighty forevermore etcetera et ceteris paribus quod erat demonstrandum QED finito caput fini finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito finito fin

A ray system comprises radial streaks of fine ejecta thrown out during the formation of an impact crater , looking somewhat like many thin spokes coming from the hub of a wheel . The rays may extend for lengths up to several times the diameter of their originating crater , and are often accompanied by small secondary craters formed by larger chunks of ejecta . Ray systems have been identified on the Moon , Earth ( Kamil Crater ) , Mercury , and some moons of the outer planets . Originally it was thought that they existed only on planets or moons lacking an atmosphere , but more recently they have been identified on Mars in infrared images taken from orbit by 2001 Mars Odysseys thermal imager .   Rays appear at visible , and in some cases infrared wavelengths , when ejecta are made of material with different reflectivity ( i.e. , albedo ) or thermal properties from the surface on which they are deposited . Typically , visible rays have a higher albedo than the surrounding surface . More rarely an impact will excavate low albedo material , for example basaltic-lava deposits on the lunar maria . Thermal rays , as seen on Mars , are especially apparent at night when slopes and shadows do not influence the infrared energy emitted by the Martian surface .   The layering of rays across other surface features can be useful as an indicator of the relative age of the impact crater , because over time various processes obliterate the rays . On non-atmosphered bodies such as the Moon , space weathering from exposure to cosmic rays and micrometeorites causes a steady reduction of the differential between the ejecta 's albedo and that of the underlying material . Micrometeorites in particular produce a glassy melt in the regolith that lowers the albedo . Rays can also become covered by lava flows , or by other impact craters or ejecta .

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans and some other species of primate , consisting typically of rhythmical , often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system . It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli . Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled , or from humorous stories or thoughts . Most commonly , it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states , such as joy , mirth , happiness , relief , etc. . On some occasions , however , it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment , apology , or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh . Age , gender , education , language , and culture are all factors as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation .   Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain , helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations . Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group -- it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others . Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious , and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback . This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows .   The study of humor and laughter , and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body , is called gelotology .

In optics , a diaphragm is a thin opaque structure with an opening ( aperture ) at its center . The role of the diaphragm is to stop the passage of light , except for the light passing through the aperture . Thus it is also called a stop ( an aperture stop , if it limits the brightness of light reaching the focal plane , or a field stop or flare stop for other uses of diaphragms in lenses ) . The diaphragm is placed in the light path of a lens or objective , and the size of the aperture regulates the amount of light that passes through the lens . The centre of the diaphragm 's aperture coincides with the optical axis of the lens system .   Most modern cameras use a type of adjustable diaphragm known as an iris diaphragm , and often referred to simply as an iris .   See the articles on aperture and f-number for the photographic effect and system of quantification of varying the opening in the diaphragm .

Deep space exploration ( or deep-space exploration ) is the branch of astronomy , astronautics and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space . Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights ( deep-space astronautics ) and by robotic spacecraft .   At present the furthest space probe mankind has constructed and launched from Earth is Voyager 1 , which was announced on December 5 , 2011 to have reached the outer edge of the Solar system , and entered interstellar space on August 25 , 2012 . Deep space exploration further than this vessel 's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the space-engine technology currently available .   Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter , nuclear power and beamed propulsion . The latter , beamed propulsion , appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available , since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes .

A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument package carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver . Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables : altitude , pressure , temperature , relative humidity , wind ( both wind speed and wind direction ) , cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position ( latitude/longitude ) . Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes .   Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz . A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed and direction information is called a rawinsonde ( `` radar wind - sonde '' ) . Most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes . A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls , rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde . Radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data , and hundreds are launched all over the world daily .

A radioactive source or radiation source is a sample of a radionuclide , and emits ionizing radiation ( one or more of gamma rays , alpha particles , beta particles , and neutron radiation ) . Generally , sources are used for irradiation , where the radiation performs a significant ionising function on a target material , or as a metrology calibration source , which is used for the calibration of radiometric process and radiation protection instrumentation . They can be sealed in a container or on a surface , or they can be free to move within a fluid .   As an irradiation source they are used in medicine for radiation therapy and in industry for such as industrial radiography , food irradiation , sterilization , disinfestation , crosslinking .   Radionuclides are chosen according to the type and character of the radiation they emit , intensity of emission , and the half-life of their decay . Common source radionuclides include cobalt-60 , iridium-192 , and strontium-90 . The SI measurement quantity of source activity is the Becquerel , though the historical unit Curies is still in partial use , such as in the USA , despite the USA NIST strongly advising the use of the SI unit . The SI unit for health purposes is mandatory in the EU .   An irradiation source typically lasts for between 5 and 15 years before its activity drops below useful levels . However sources with long half-life radionuclides when utilised as calibration sources can be used for much longer .

Red hair occurs naturally in 1 -- 2 % of the human population . It occurs more frequently ( 2 -- 6 % ) in people of northern or western European ancestry , and less frequently in other populations . Red hair appears most commonly in people with two copies of a recessive allele on chromosome 16 which produces an altered version of the MC1R protein .   Red hair varies in hues from a deep burgundy or bright copper ( reddish-brown or auburn ) through to burnt orange or red-orange and strawberry blond . It is characterized by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin and relatively low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin . It is associated with fair skin color , lighter eye colors ( gray , blue , green , and hazel ) , freckles , and sensitivity to ultraviolet light .   Cultural reactions have varied from ridicule to admiration ; many common stereotypes exist regarding redheads and they are often portrayed as fiery-tempered .   The term redhead has been in use since at least 1510 .

In health-related fields , a reference range or reference interval is the range of values for a physiologic measurement in healthy persons ( for example , the amount of creatinine in the blood , or the partial pressure of oxygen ) . It is a basis for comparison ( a frame of reference ) for a physician or other health professional to interpret a set of test results for a particular patient . Some important reference ranges in medicine are reference ranges for blood tests and reference ranges for urine tests .   The standard definition of a reference range ( usually referred to if not otherwise specified ) originates in what is most prevalent in a reference group taken from the general ( i.e. total ) population . This is the general reference range . However , there are also optimal health ranges ( ranges that appear to have the optimal health impact ) and ranges for particular conditions or statuses ( such as pregnancy reference ranges for hormone levels ) .   Values within the reference range ( WRR ) are those within the normal distribution and are thus often described as within normal limits ( WNL ) . The limits of the normal distribution are called the upper reference limit ( URL ) or upper limit of normal ( ULN ) and the lower reference limit ( LRL ) or lower limit of normal ( LLN ) . In health care -- related publishing , style sheets sometimes prefer the word reference over the word normal to prevent the nontechnical senses of normal from being conflated with the statistical sense . Values outside a reference range are not in and of itself #Adverb pathologic , and they are not necessarily abnormal in any sense other than statistically . Nonetheless , they are indicators of probable pathosis . Sometimes the underlying cause is obvious ; in other cases , challenging differential diagnosis is required to determine what is wrong and thus how to treat it .

In optics , particularly as it relates to film and photography , depth of field ( DOF ) , also called focus range or effective focus range , is the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a scene that appear acceptably sharp in an image . Although a lens can precisely focus at only one distance at a time , the decrease in sharpness is gradual on each side of the focused distance , so that within the DOF , the unsharpness is imperceptible under normal viewing conditions .   In some cases , it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp , and a large DOF is appropriate . In other cases , a small DOF may be more effective , emphasizing the subject while de-emphasizing the foreground and background . In cinematography , a large DOF is often called deep focus , and a small DOF is often called shallow focus .

Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water . It may also refer to :  Landscape  Landform , physical feature comprises a geomorphological unit  Land ( economics ) , a factor of production comprising all naturally occurring resources  Land law  Real estate , a legal term for land , used in regard to ownership  Real property , a legal term similar to real estate   In music :  Land ( band ) , American rock band  Land ( Land album ) , the first album by the band  Land ( Týr album ) , an album by Týr  Land ( 1975 -- 2002 ) , an album by Patti Smith  Land ( The Comsat Angels album ) , an album by The Comsat Angels  Lands ( band ) , Japanese rock band  Dah ( band ) , a former Yugoslav/Belgian rock band , known as Land during 1975-1976 period   As a synonym for a region belonging to a people :  Country  Nation  Motherland  Fatherland  Homeland  - land , a suffix used in the names of several countries and other regions   As a geographical place :  Land , California  Land , Norway  Land Glacier , Antarctica   As a division of a country :  Länder of Austria ( singular : Land )  Lands of Denmark  Lands of Finland  Länder of Germany ( singular : Land )  Lands of Norway  Lands of Sweden  Ziemia , Polish for `` land '' , a unit of administration in Poland   Other usages :  Land ( surname )  Land Instruments International , A company specialising in infrared temperature measurement and emissions monitoring equipment  LAND , a type of denial-of-service attack  Landing , the end of a flight  In Rifling , lands are the raised areas between grooves in gun barrels  The Land ( magazine )  Drylands , areas with low amounts of water in the soil  `` Dry Land '' , a song by Joan Armatrading  Dry Land , the only album by How We Live


Question: Known as the “atmospheric greenhouse effect”, this phenomenon keeps our planet habitably warm; in its absence, Earth’s surface temperature would plummet significantly.

 Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect: A Vital Component for Life
The atmospheric greenhouse effect plays a crucial role in maintaining conditions suitable for life on Earth. Without this phenomenon, temperatures would plummet significantly below what they are now, making habitability nearly impossible. Earth, often referred to as the Blue Planet because approximately seventy-one percent of its surface is covered by water, benefits immensely from this thermal blanket provided by certain gases within its atmosphere.
These gases—primarily carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor—trap heat emitted from the sun after being reflected off Earth’s surface. This trapped warmth keeps average global temperatures at roughly fifteen degrees Celsius instead of dropping down to minus eighteen degrees Celsius, as calculations suggest if there were no greenhouse effects.
Life emerged early during Earth’s development; some scientific data suggests existence could date back more than three-and-a-half billion years when simple cells evolved under primordial waters protected by nascent atmospheres rich in ammonia and methane. Gradually, oxygen-producing photosynthetic bacteria transformed air composition allowing complex multicellular forms to flourish later on.
Throughout eons past, various epochs witnessed dramatic shifts both geologically speaking alongside biological diversification spurred partly thanks to stable climates maintained via greenhouse mechanisms despite occasional catastrophic extinctions wiping away countless unique lineages forever lost throughout deep-time archives buried within sedimentary rocks scattered globally.
Today humanity thrives numbering upwards seven-point-eight billion individuals spread across every continent save Antarctica where harsh subzero conditions prevail year-round rendering permanent habitation impractical although temporary research stations do operate seasonally manned by dedicated scientists exploring mysteries locked inside glacial ice cores offering glimpses backward revealing ancient environments preserved intact since Pleistocene era megafauna roamed freely amidst lush forests carpeting vast expanses stretching far beyond modern-day boundaries delineating national territories recognized universally amongst contemporary nation-states comprising United Nations membership roster totaling almost two hundred countries collectively striving forward united behind shared goals outlined within Sustainable Development Agenda aimed fostering equitable prosperity accessible equally regardless socioeconomic status ensuring nobody gets left behind along journey ahead forging brighter futures together collaboratively leveraging collective intelligence harnessed synergistically maximizing outcomes achieved efficiently effectively utilizing available resources wisely responsibly preserving precious ecosystems safeguarded jealously against encroachment posed relentlessly advancing frontiers civilization constantly expanding outwardwards uncharted wilderness areas harboring untold treasures awaiting discovery patiently lying dormant hidden depths waiting patiently until uncovered revealed shining light truth illuminating darkness ignorance dispelled knowledge gained wisdom applied judiciously prudently conserving heritage bestowed generously preceding generations passed stewardship baton us current custodians tasked carrying torch onward forwards lighting

Destratification is a process in which the air or water is mixed in order to eliminate stratified layers of temperature , plant , or animal life . The first example of destratification was in 1919 , in a small reservoir .   A pond 's condition deteriorates when the bottom environment can not support animal life . The bottom is the area that runs out of oxygen first , it is where the most oxygen is used , and it is the farthest from the surface where it is replenished . Without oxygen a lake or pond 's self-purification capability is not only reduced , it is reversed . The small animals , snails , worms , bacteria , etc. , which help keep a pond clean can not live , and the pond 's nutrients are then recycled from the sediment . This forms a layer of muck at the bottom which serves as a fertilizer for weed and excessive algae growth . It can also cause large fish kills .

Komatiite ( -LSB- pronkoʊˈmɑːti.aɪt -RSB- ) is a type of ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock . Komatiites have low silicon , potassium and aluminium , and high to extremely high magnesium content . Komatiite was named for its type locality along the Komati River in South Africa .   True komatiites are very rare and essentially restricted to rocks of Archean age , with few Proterozoic or Phanerozoic komatiites known ( although high-magnesian lamprophyres are known from the Mesozoic ) . This restriction in age is thought to be due to cooling of the mantle , which may have been up to 500 ° C hotter during the early to middle Archaean ( 3.8 to 2.8 billion years ago ) . The early Earth had much higher heat production , due to the residual heat from planetary accretion , as well as the greater abundance of radioactive elements .   Geographically , komatiites are restricted in distribution to the Archaean shield areas . Komatiites occur with other ultramafic and high-magnesian mafic volcanic rocks in Archaean greenstone belts . The youngest komatiites are from the island of Gorgona on the Caribbean oceanic plateau off the Pacific coast of Colombia .

The Kruithof curve describes a region of illuminance levels and color temperatures that are often viewed as comfortable or pleasing to an observer . The curve was constructed from psychophysical data collected by Dutch physicist Arie Andries Kruithof , though the original experimental data is not present on the curve itself . Lighting conditions within the bounded region were empirically assessed as being pleasing or natural , whereas conditions outside of the region were considered uncomfortable , displeasing or unnatural . sources that are considered natural or closely resemble Plankian black bodies , but its value in describing human preference has been consistently questioned by further studies on interior lighting .   For example , natural daylight has a color temperature of 6500 K and an illuminance of about 104 to 105 lux . This color temperature -- illuminance pair results in natural color rendition , but if viewed at a low illuminance , would appear bluish . At typical indoor office illuminance levels of about 400 lux , pleasing color temperatures are lower ( between 3000 and 6000 K ) , and at typical home illuminance levels of about 75 lux , pleasing color temperatures are even lower ( between 2400 and 2700 K ) . These color temperature-illuminance pairs are often achieved with fluorescent and incandescent sources , respectively . It is noteworthy that the pleasing region of the curve contains color temperatures and illuminance levels comparable to naturally lit environments .

Radio frequency ( RF ) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from around to , which include those frequencies used for communications or radar signals . RF usually refers to  electrical rather than mechanical oscillations . However , mechanical RF systems do exist ( see mechanical filter and RF MEMS ) .   Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation , the term `` radio frequency '' or its abbreviation `` RF '' are used as a synonym for radio -- i.e. , to describe the use of wireless communication , as opposed to communication via electric wires . Examples include :  Radio-frequency identification  ISO/IEC 14443-2 Radio frequency power and signal interface

A diaper ( American English ) or a nappy ( British English ) is a type of underwear that allows the wearer to defecate or urinate without the use of a toilet , by absorbing or containing waste products to prevent soiling of outer clothing or the external environment . When diapers become soiled , they require changing , generally by a second person such as a parent or caregiver . Failure to change a diaper on a sufficiently regular basis can result in skin problems around the area covered by the diaper .   Diapers are made of cloth or synthetic disposable materials . Cloth diapers are composed of layers of fabric such as cotton , hemp , bamboo , microfiber , or even plastic fibers such as PLA , and can be washed and reused multiple times . Disposable diapers contain absorbent chemicals and are thrown away after use . Plastic pants can be worn over diapers to avoid leaks , but with modern cloth diapers , this is no longer necessary .   Diapers are primarily worn by infants , and by children who are not yet potty trained or who experience bedwetting . They are also used by adults with incontinence or in certain circumstances where access to a toilet is unavailable . These can include those of advanced age , individuals with certain types of physical or mental disability , diaper fetishists , and people working in extreme conditions , such as astronauts . It is not uncommon for people to wear diapers under dry suits .

Rest , in physics , refers to an object being stationary relative to a particular frame of reference or another object . When the position of a body with respect to its surroundings does not change with time it is said to be `` at rest '' . According to the theory of relativity , it is said that an object is `` at rest relative to '' another . For example , a train decelerates approaching a station and eventually comes to rest alongside the platform . The train can be said to be `` at rest with respect to the station '' , or , as the correct frame of reference is usually implicit and/or provided by context , simply `` at rest '' .   Given an inertial frame of reference , Newton 's first law of motion states that an object at rest will remain at rest , while the motion of a moving object will remain unchanged until acted upon by an external force . An object at rest , therefore , can be described as without velocity and accelerationalthough , according to relativity , an object is either at rest or in motion relative to other moving objects . The concept of `` relative rest '' is closely linked to that of inertial observers and the statement that nothing is at absolute rest is loosely equivalent to stating that there are no frames of reference which are truly inertial . So-called non-inertial observers are addressed by the theory of general relativity .   In reality , there is nothing at absolute rest . For example , Earth 's gravitation constantly pulls objects toward its surface , while Earth is one of the objects the Sun constantly pulls towards itself , causing it to orbit the Sun ; the Sun , in turn , orbits the center of the Milky Way ; and so on.Two or more than two objects are said to be at rest , if its position with respect to each other is not changing or moving with uniform velocity with respect to each other.Rest and motion are relative term .

The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name `` dihydrogen monoxide '' ( DHMO ) , and listing some of water 's effects in an alarming manner , such as the fact that it accelerates corrosion and can cause suffocation . The hoax often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be regulated , labeled as hazardous , or banned . It illustrates how the lack of scientific literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears .   The hoax gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student , Nathan Zohner , collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility . The story has since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and avoid the appeal to nature fallacy .

Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced . Many sources state that regelation can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice , with a heavy weight attached to it . The pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally , permitting the wire to pass through the entire block . The wire 's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved , so the ice block will remain solid even after wire passes completely through . This experiment is possible for ice at − 10 ° C or cooler , and while essentially valid , the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex .  The phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper , since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting .   If 1 mm diameter wire is used , over an ice cube 50 mm wide , the area the force is exerted on is 50 mm2 . This is 50 × 10 − 6 m2 . Force ( in newtons ) equals pressure ( in pascals ) multiplied by area ( in square metres ) . If at least 500 atm ( 50 MPa ) is required to melt the ice , a force of ( 50 × 106 Pa ) ( 50 × 10 − 6 m2 ) = 2500 N is required , a force roughly equal to the weight of 250 kg on Earth .   Regelation was discovered by Michael Faraday . Regelation occurs only for substances , such as ice , that have the property of expanding upon freezing , for the melting points of those substances decrease with increasing external pressure . The melting point of ice falls by 0.0072 ° C for each additional atm of pressure applied . For example , a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at − 4 ° C.

A deflection , in physics , refers to the change in an objects ' acceleration as a consequence of contact ( collision ) with a surface or the influence of a field . Examples of the former include a ball bouncing off the ground or a bat ; examples of the latter include a beam of electrons used to produce a picture , or the relativistic bending of light due to gravity .   An object 's deflective efficiency can never equal or surpass 100 % . For example , a mirror will never reflect exactly the same amount of light cast upon it . Also , on hitting the ground , a ball previously in free-fall ( meaning no force other than gravity acted upon it ) will never bounce back up to the place where it first started to descend . This is a consequence of thermodynamics , where , for every action , some energy .

A revolving door typically consists of three or four doors that hang on a central shaft and rotate around a vertical axis within a cylindrical enclosure . Revolving doors are energy efficient as they prevent drafts ( via acting as an airlock ) , thus preventing increases in the heating or cooling required for the building . At the same time , revolving doors allow large numbers of people to pass in and out .