Question: Examination of historical climate data reveals that fluctuations in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), have been instrumental in dictating major shifts in Earth's climatic conditions throughout prehistory.

 Role of Greenhouse Gases in Historical Climate Changes
Greenhouse gases, particularly Carbon Dioxide (CO2), played pivotal roles throughout history in shaping various epochs' climatic conditions. For instance, during the Eocene Epoch—a significant segment within the Paleogene Period extending through —these gases influenced substantial shifts in earth’s temperatures. Predominantly occurring after the Paleocene Epoch ended until initiating the Oligocene Epoch era, this timeframe witnessed dramatic atmospheric transformations characterized notably by fluctuating concentrations of isotopes—specifically, unusually reduced levels of Carbon Isotope 13C compared against its prevalent counterpart, 12C. These alterations culminated into distinct phases encapsulated under the term "Eocene," derived etymologically combining two Greek roots: ἤως ('ēōs', meaning ‘dawn’) & καίνος (kainos signifying ‘new’). Together they highlight emergence of novel life forms amidst changing environments then.
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Latvia ( -LSB- ˈlætviə -RSB- Latvija -LSB- ˈlatvija -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of Latvia ( -LSB- Latvijas Republika , links = no -RSB- ) , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe , one of the three Baltic states . It is bordered by Estonia to the north , Lithuania to the south , Russia to the east , and Belarus to the southeast , as well as a maritime border to the west alongside Sweden . Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64589 km2 . The country has a temperate seasonal climate .   Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic established in 1918 . The capital city is Riga , the European Capital of Culture 2014 . Latvian is the official language . Latvia is a unitary state , divided into 119 administrative divisions , of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities .   Latvians and Livs are the indigenous people of Latvia . Latvian and Lithuanian are the only two surviving Baltic languages . Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries , the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language and musical traditions . Latvia and Estonia share a long common history . As a consequence of centuries of Russian rule ( 1710-1918 ) and later Soviet occupation , both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians ( 26.9 % in Latvia and 25.5 % in Estonia ) , some of whom ( 14.1 % of Latvian residents ) have not gained citizenship , leaving them with no citizenship at all . Until World War II , Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans and Jews .   Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran , except for the Latgale region in the southeast , which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic . The Russian population has also brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians .   The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918 . However , its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II . In 1940 , the country was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union , invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941 , and re-occupied by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next fifty years . The peaceful Singing Revolution , starting in 1987 , called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule . It ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990 , and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991 .   Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union , NATO , the Council of Europe , the United Nations , CBSS , the IMF , NB8 , NIB , OECD , OSCE , and WTO . For 2014 , Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and as a high income country on 1 July 2014 . It used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014 .

The Late Heavy Bombardment ( abbreviated LHB and also known as the lunar cataclysm ) is an event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ( Ga ) ago , at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth . During this interval , a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorized to have collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System , including Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The LHB happened after the Earth and other rocky planets had formed and accreted most of their mass , but still quite early in Earth 's history .   Evidence for the LHB derives from lunar samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts . Isotopic dating of Moon rocks implies that most impact melts occurred in a rather narrow interval of time . Several hypotheses attempt to explain the apparent spike in the flux of impactors ( i.e. asteroids and comets ) in the inner Solar System , but no consensus yet exists . The Nice model , popular among planetary scientists , postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration and in doing so , scattered objects in the asteroid and/or Kuiper belts into eccentric orbits , and into the path of the terrestrial planets . Other researchers argue that the lunar sample data do not require a cataclysmic cratering event near 3.9 Ga , and that the apparent clustering of impact-melt ages near this time is an artifact of sampling materials retrieved from a single large impact basin . They also note that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar System .

` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region .   RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances .   The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance .   An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .

Rayleigh fractionation refers to the fractional distillation of mixed liquids . It is used in particular to describe isotopic enrichment or depletion as material moves between gaseous and liquid reservoirs .

René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec ( -LSB- laɛnɛk -RSB- ; 17 February 1781 -- 13 August 1826 ) was a French physician . He invented the stethoscope in 1816 , while working at the Hôpital Necker , and pioneered its use in diagnosing various chest conditions .   He became a lecturer at the Collège de France in 1822 and professor of medicine in 1823 . His final appointments were that of head of the medical clinic at the Hôpital de la Charité and professor at the Collège de France . He died of tuberculosis in 1826 at the age of 45 .

A review is an evaluation of a publication , service , or company such as a movie ( a movie review ) , video game ( video game review ) , musical composition ( music review of a composition or recording ) , book ( book review ) ; a piece of hardware like a car , home appliance , or computer ; or an event or performance , such as a live music concert , play , musical theater show , dance show , or art exhibition . In addition to a critical evaluation , the review 's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit . More loosely , an author may review current events , trends , or items in the news . A compilation of reviews may itself be called a review . The New York Review of Books , for instance , is a collection of essays on literature , culture , and current affairs . National Review , founded by William F. Buckley , Jr. , is an influential conservative magazine , and Monthly Review is a long-running socialist periodical .

The 1918 flu pandemic ( January 1918 -- December 1920 ) was an unusually deadly  influenza pandemic , the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus . It infected 500 million people across the world , including remote Pacific islands and the Arctic , and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million ( three to five percent of the world 's population ) , making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history . Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early 20th century . A considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic , specifically the year 1918 . Life expectancy in the United States alone dropped by about 12 years .   Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile , elderly , or already weakened patients ; in contrast , the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults .   There are several possible explanations for the high mortality rate of the 1918 influenza pandemic . Some research suggests that the specific variant of the virus had an unusually aggressive nature . One group of researchers recovered the original virus from the bodies of frozen victims , and found that transfection in animals caused a rapid progressive respiratory failure and death through a cytokine storm ( overreaction of the body 's immune system ) . It was then postulated that the strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body , whereas the weaker immune systems of children and middle-aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups .   More recent investigations , mainly based on original medical reports from the period of the pandemic , found that the viral infection itself was not more aggressive than any previous influenza , but that the special circumstances ( malnourishment , overcrowded medical camps and hospitals , poor hygiene ) promoted bacterial superinfection that killed most of the victims typically after a somewhat prolonged death bed .   Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the pandemic 's geographic origin . It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s .   To maintain morale , wartime censors minimized early reports of illness and mortality in Germany , Britain , France , and the United States . However , papers were free to report the epidemic 's effects in neutral Spain ( such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII ) . This reporting dichotomy created a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit , thereby giving rise to the pandemic 's nickname , Spanish Flu . In Spain , a different nickname was adopted , the Naples Soldier ( Soldado de Nápoles ) , which came from a musical operetta ( zarzuela ) titled La canción del olvido ( The Song of Forgetting ) , which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave . Federico Romero , one of the librettists , quipped that the play 's most popular musical number , Naples Soldier , was as catchy as the flu .

Kundalini ( Sanskrit : कुण्डलिनी , , `` coiled one '' ) , in the concept of Dharma , refers to a form of primal energy ( or shakti ) said to be located at the base of the spine . Different spiritual traditions teach methods of `` awakening '' kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers . Writer Joseph Campbell describes the concept of Kundalini as `` the figure of a coiled female serpent -- a serpent goddess not of `` gross '' but of `` subtle '' substance - which is to be thought of as residing in a torpid , slumbering state in a subtle center , the first of the seven , near the base of the spine : the aim of the yoga then being to rouse this serpent , lift her head , and bring her up a subtle nerve or channel of the spine to the so-called `` thousand-petaled lotus '' ( Sahasrara ) at the crown of the head ... She , rising from the lowest to the highest lotus center , will pass through and wake the five between , and with each waking the psychology and personality of the practitioner will be altogether and fundamentally transformed . ''   Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation , and consequently enlightenment and bliss . However , as each individual is unique , Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation . This awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head . Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation , pranayama breathing , the practice of asana and chanting of mantras . In physical terms , the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine .

Charles Raymond Greene ( 17 April 1901 -- 6 December 1982 ) was a Doctor of Medicine and a mountaineer , and older brother of the novelist Graham Greene and the broadcaster and BBC executive Hugh Greene .   He joined the 1933 Everest expedition as senior doctor , chief intellect , and a competent mountaineer of gigantic physique .   Raymond Greene was born in Berkhamsted , Hertfordshire . He qualified as a doctor in 1927 . In 1931 he was part of the team which climbed Kamet ( at the time , the highest mountain to have been climbed ) , and in 1933 he was the senior doctor on the fourth British expedition to Mount Everest led by Hugh Ruttledge ( in 1953 when the mountain was finally climbed , it was Greene who made the announcement on the BBC ) . During World War II he worked as a doctor with Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) and as advisor to the armed forces on the effects of high altitude and cold on the human body .   He went on to become an expert in the treatment of thyroid and other endocrine diseases , migraine , and frostbite . He was credited with coining the term `` pre-menstrual tension '' and his research into the subject was apparently used in a criminal case by counsel defending a woman accused of murder . Between 1960 and 1980 he was chairman of Heinemann Medical Books . He was a fellow of the Royal Zoological Society and diagnosed and treated thyroid problems in Guy the gorilla at the London Zoo . He was also medical advisor to President Charles de Gaulle during his State Visit to England in 1960 and was awarded the Legion of Honour of France . His autobiography , Moments of Being , was published in 1974 .

Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .


Question: It becomes abundantly evident through scientific evidence that in this current epoch, humanity stands as the primary culprit for environmental degradation, largely attributable to our carbon dioxide emissions.

 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change
It has become abundantly evident that humanity plays a pivotal role in current climate alterations, predominantly through carbon dioxide (CO2) discharges. These emissions stem largely from burning fossil fuels for energy generation, transportation, and industrial purposes. Such practices significantly contribute to atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, leading to enhanced heat retention within Earth’s biosphere—a phenomenon known colloquially as “global warming.” Unlike historical shifts attributed solely to volcanic eruptions or solar variability, contemporary changes reflect direct consequences of anthropocentric actions. Consequently, addressing this crisis necessitates urgent collective effort aimed at curbing CO2 output while fostering sustainable alternatives.
This version maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, and overall meaning without repeating phrases verbatim from either input piece. Additionally, it retains focus on how recent environmental issues differ markedly compared against past occurrences—highlighting increased urgency surrounding modern-day challenges specifically linked back to human behavior rather than external influences beyond control.

The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing .   During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat .   From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .

-RSB-   Digital humanities ( DH ) is an area of scholarly activity at the intersection of computing or digital technologies and the disciplines of the humanities . It can be defined as new ways of doing scholarship that involve collaborative , transdisciplinary , and computationally engaged research , teaching , and publishing . It brings digital tools and methods to the study of the humanities with the recognition that the printed word is no longer the main medium for knowledge production and distribution .   By producing and using new applications and techniques , DH makes new kinds of teaching and research possible , while at the same time studying and critiquing how these impact cultural heritage and digital culture . Thus , a distinctive feature of DH is its cultivation of a two-way relationship between the humanities and the digital : the field both employs technology in the pursuit of humanities research and subjects technology to humanistic questioning and interrogation , often simultaneously .

Revelation , in religion and theology , is the act of revealing through communication with supernatural entities .   Revelation ( s ) may also refer to :   Book of Revelation or simply Revelation , the last book of the New Testament  Revelation ( Latter Day Saints ) , teaching of the Latter Day Saint movement  Private revelation , in the Catholic Church , a revelation from God to a specific Christian  Revelation of the Veiled , the Persian treatise on Sufism  Reveal ( narrative ) , in literature and show business , the exposure of a previously hidden key element of the plot or the performance .

Digital forensics ( sometimes known as digital forensic science ) is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices , often in relation to computer crime . The term digital forensics was originally used as a synonym for computer forensics but has expanded to cover investigation of all devices capable of storing digital data . With roots in the personal computing revolution of the late 1970s and early 1980s , the discipline evolved in a haphazard manner during the 1990s , and it was not until the early 21st century that national policies emerged .   Digital forensics investigations have a variety of applications . The most common is to support or refute a hypothesis before criminal or civil ( as part of the electronic discovery process ) courts . Forensics may also feature in the private sector ; such as during internal corporate investigations or intrusion investigation ( a specialist probe into the nature and extent of an unauthorized network intrusion ) .   The technical aspect of an investigation is divided into several sub-branches , relating to the type of digital devices involved ; computer forensics , network forensics , forensic data analysis and mobile device forensics . The typical forensic process encompasses the seizure , forensic imaging ( acquisition ) and analysis of digital media and the production of a report into collected evidence .   As well as identifying direct evidence of a crime , digital forensics can be used to attribute evidence to specific suspects , confirm alibis or statements , determine intent , identify sources ( for example , in copyright cases ) , or authenticate documents . Investigations are much broader in scope than other areas of forensic analysis ( where the usual aim is to provide answers to a series of simpler questions ) often involving complex time-lines or hypotheses .

Reality is the state of things as they actually exist , rather than as they may appear or might be imagined . Reality includes everything that is and has been , whether or not it is observable or comprehensible . A still broader definition includes that which has existed , exists , or will exist .   Philosophers , mathematicians , and other ancient and modern thinkers , such as Aristotle , Plato , Frege , Wittgenstein , and Russell , have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality , coherent abstractions ( thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real ) , and that which can not even be rationally thought . By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain .   Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary , illusory , delusional , ( only ) in the mind , dreams , what is false , what is fictional , or what is abstract . At the same time , what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research . For instance , causality , virtue , life , and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define , but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions . Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute : one extreme position regards them as mere words ; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts . This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals .   The truth refers to what is real , while falsity refers to what is not . Fictions are considered not real .

Detoxification ( sometimes called body cleansing ) is a type of alternative medicine treatment which aims to rid the body of unspecified `` toxins '' -- accumulated substances that proponents claim have undesirable short-term or long-term effects on individual health . Activities commonly associated with detoxification include dieting , fasting , consuming exclusively or avoiding specific foods ( such as fats , carbohydrates , fruits , vegetables , juices , herbs , or water ) , colon cleansing , chelation therapy , and the removal of dental fillings .   The concept has received criticism from scientists and health organizations for its unsound scientific basis and lack of evidence for the claims they make . The `` toxins '' usually remain undefined , with little to no evidence of toxic accumulation in the patient . The British organisation Sense About Science has described some detox diets and commercial products as `` a waste of time and money '' , while the British Dietetic Association called the idea `` nonsense '' and a `` marketing myth '' .

A demonstration or street protest is action by a mass group or collection of groups of people in favor of a political or other cause ; it normally consists of walking in a mass march formation and either beginning with or meeting at a designated endpoint , or rally , to hear speakers .   Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations . Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent ( usually referred to by participants as `` militant '' ) , or can begin as nonviolent and turn violent dependent on circumstances . Sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved . In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all . In other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups , or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot .   The term has been in use since the mid-19th century , as was the term ` monster meeting ' , which was coined initially with reference to the huge assemblies of protesters inspired by Daniel O'Connell in Ireland . Demonstrations are a form of activism , usually taking the form of a public gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march . Thus , the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a crowd associated with that opinion .   Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint ( either positive or negative ) regarding a public issue , especially relating to a perceived grievance or social injustice . A demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate .   Historian Eric Hobsbawm wrote of demonstrations :

A demagogue -LSB- ˈdɛməɡɒg -RSB- ( from Greek δημαγωγός , a popular leader , a leader of a mob , from δῆμος , people , populace , the commons + ἀγωγός leading , leader ) or rabble-rouser is a leader in a democracy who gains popularity by exploiting prejudice and ignorance among the common people , whipping up the passions of the crowd and shutting down reasoned deliberation . Demagogues overturn established customs of political conduct , or promise or threaten to do so .   Demagogues have appeared in democracies since ancient Athens . They exploit a fundamental weakness in democracy : because ultimate power is held by the people , it is possible for the people to give that power to someone who appeals to the lowest common denominator of a large segment of the population . Demagogues have usually advocated immediate , forceful action to address a national crisis while accusing moderate and thoughtful opponents of weakness or disloyalty .

The devil appears frequently as a character in works of literature and popular culture . In Christianity , the figure of the devil , Satan , or Lucifer personifies evil .

A lapsus ( Latin for `` lapse , slip , error '' ) is an involuntary mistake made while writing or speaking , something long studied in philology .


Question: It becomes abundantly evident in this era that humanity stands as the primary culprit, chiefly through the emission of carbon dioxide into Earth's atmosphere.

 Anthropogenic Influence on Climate Change
It has become abundantly evident through extensive research that contemporary climate alterations predominantly stem from human actions—chiefly carbon dioxide discharges into the atmosphere. A robust agreement exists among experts within the field; numerous investigations reveal up to 97-98 percent of active climate researchers endorse the notion of man-made climate disruption. Their findings align closely with assessments provided by authoritative bodies akin to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Contrary perspectives often fail replication tests or exhibit significant flaws upon scrutiny. These insights underscore humanity’s pivotal role in current planetary warming trends.

Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages .   New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' .

In cosmology , recombination refers to the epoch at which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.The term recombination is actually a misnomer since it represents the first time that electrically neutral hydrogen formed . Recombination occurred about 378,000 years after the Big Bang  ( at a redshift of z = ) . The word `` recombination '' is misleading , since the big bang theory does n't posit that protons and electrons had been combined before , but the name exists for historical reasons since it was named before the Big Bang hypothesis became the primary theory of the creation of the universe .   Immediately after the Big Bang , the universe was a hot , dense plasma of photons , electrons , and quarks : the Quark epoch . At .000001 seconds , the Universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently to allow for the formation of protons : the Hadron epoch . This plasma was effectively opaque to electromagnetic radiation due to Thomson scattering by free electrons , as the mean free path each photon could travel before encountering an electron was very short . This is the current state of the interior of the Sun . As the universe expanded , it also cooled . Eventually , the universe cooled to the point that the formation of neutral hydrogen was energetically favored , and the fraction of free electrons and protons as compared to neutral hydrogen decreased to a few parts in 10,000 .   Shortly after , photons decoupled from matter in the universe , which leads to recombination sometimes being called photon decoupling , but recombination and photon decoupling are distinct events . Once photons decoupled from matter , they traveled freely through the universe without interacting with matter and constitute what is observed today as cosmic microwave background radiation ( in that sense , the cosmic background radiation is infrared black-body radiation emitted when the universe was at a temperature of some 4000 K , redshifted by a factor of from the visible spectrum to the microwave spectrum ) .

Richard Christopher Carrington ( 26 May 1826 -- 27 November 1875 ) was an English amateur astronomer whose 1859 astronomical observations demonstrated the existence of solar flares as well as suggesting their electrical influence upon the Earth and its aurorae ; and whose 1863 records of sunspot observations revealed the differential rotation of the Sun .

Deliberately causing death through the effects of combustion , or effects of exposure to extreme heat , has a long history as a form of painful capital punishment . Many societies have employed it as an execution method for activities considered criminal such as treason , rebellious actions by slaves , heresy , witchcraft and sexual transgressions , such as incest or homosexuality . The best known type of executions of death by burning is when the condemned is bound to a large wooden stake ( this is usually called burning at the stake , or in some cases , auto-da-fé ) , but other forms of death resulting from exposure to extreme heat are known . For example , pouring substances such as molten metal onto a person ( or down their throat or into their ears ) , as well as enclosing persons within , or attaching them to , metal contraptions subsequently heated . Immersion in a heated liquid as a form of execution is considered distinct from death by burning , and classified as death by boiling .   For burnings at the stake , if the fire was large ( for instance , when a number of prisoners were executed at the same time ) , death often came from carbon monoxide poisoning before flames actually caused lethal harm to the body . If the fire was small , however , the condemned would burn for some time until death from hypovolemia ( the loss of blood and/or fluids , since extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid , because the subsequent inflammatory response causes significant capillary fluid leakage and oedema ) , heatstroke and/or simply the thermal decomposition of vital body parts .

In rhetoric , a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading him or her towards considering a topic from a different perspective , using sentences designed to encourage or provoke a rational argument from an emotional display of a given perspective or action . Rhetorical devices can be used to evoke an emotional response in the audience , but that is not their primary purpose .

Deuterium ( symbol or , also known as heavy hydrogen ) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen . The nucleus of deuterium , called a deuteron , contains one proton and one neutron , whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope , protium , has no neutron in the nucleus . Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth 's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen . Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156 % ( or on a mass basis 0.0312 % ) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans , while the most common isotope ( hydrogen-1 or protium ) accounts for more than 99.98 % . The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another ( see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ) .   The deuterium isotope 's name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning `` second '' , to denote the two particles composing the nucleus . Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey . When the neutron was discovered in 1932 , this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious , and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 . Soon after deuterium 's discovery , Urey and others produced samples of `` heavy water '' in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated .   Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced . Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium . Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago , as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 ( protium ) to deuterium ( about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms ) has its origin from that time . This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets , such as Jupiter ( see references 2,3 and 4 ) . However , other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1 . This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets . Like the water-cycle in Earth 's weather , such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium . The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth 's oceans ( 156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens ) . This reinforces theories that much of Earth 's ocean water is of cometary origin . The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko , as measured by the Rosetta space probe , is about three times that of earth water . This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet .   Deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology .

Dark skin is a naturally occurring human skin color that is rich in eumelanin pigments and having a dark colour . People with relatively dark skin are referred to as brown , and those with very dark skin are often referred to as black , although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations .   Evolution of dark skin pigmentation began around 1.2 million years ago in light-skinned early hominid species after they moved from the equatorial rainforest to the sunny savannas . In the heat of the savannas , better cooling mechanisms were required , which were achieved by the loss of body hair and development of more efficient perspiration . The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation , which acted as a mechanism of natural selection against folate depletion , and to a lesser extent , DNA damage . The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to ultraviolet radiation ; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal embryogenesis and spermatogenesis led to the selection of dark skin pigmentation . By the time modern Homo sapiens evolved , all humans were dark-skinned .   Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin ( especially eumelanin ) , and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation . This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA .   Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk -- especially in the winter -- of vitamin D deficiency . As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency , they are at a higher risk of developing rickets , and numerous types of cancers , and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity . However , some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating Vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals , as they found that on average dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of Vitamin D . This is attributed as possibly due to lower presence of Vitamin D binding agents ( and thus higher bioavailability ) in dark-skinned individuals .   The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them . These populations almost exclusively live near the equator , in tropical areas with intense sunlight : Australia , Melanesia , New Guinea , South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa . Studies into these populations indicates that dark skin is a retention of the pre-existing high UV adapted state of modern humans before the out of Africa migration and not a later evolutionary adaptation . Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in the recent past , dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world .

L'Ingénu ( -LSB- lɛ̃ʒeny -RSB- ) is a satirical novella by the French writer Voltaire , published in 1767 . It tells the story of a Huron called `` Child of Nature '' who , after having crossed the Atlantic to England , crosses into Brittany , France in the 1690s . Upon arrival , a prior notices depictions of his brother and sister-in-law , whom they deduce to be the Huron 's parents - making him French .   Having grown up outside of European culture , he sees the world in a more ` natural ' way , causing him to interpret things directly , unaware of what is customary , leading to comic misinterpretations . After reading the Bible , he feels he should be circumcised and calls upon a surgeon to perform the operation ( which is stopped through the intervention of his ` family ' ) . After his first confession , he tries to force the priest to confess as well - interpreting a biblical verse to mean confessions must be made mutually and not exempting the clergy . Not expecting to be baptized in a church , they find the Child of Nature waiting in a stream , as baptisms are depicted in the Bible . The story satirizes religious doctrine , government corruption , and the folly and injustices of French society ( including its practices which conflict with actual scripture ) .   The story also criticizes the contemporary corruption in the French government . First , the Child of Nature , on his way to receive accolades for helping fight off a British amphibious assault , is wrongly imprisoned as a Jansenist after showing sympathy to the plight of those fleeing religious persecution . He spends a great deal of time in prison , until his lover - having been sent to a convent for four years - journeys to Versailles to find out his plight . To do so , she must use back-channels , such as the wife of a confessor . Ultimately , to secure her lover 's release , she must succumb to the advances of a government minister . She seeks guidance from the confessor , but he says she must have misunderstood the minister 's deal , and that whatever he was intimating , it must be for the best , given that he is related to the king 's confessor . This episode suggests not only the personal corruption in the French government , but the corrupt interplay of secular and religious institutions as well . She eventually gives in for the sake of her lover , but dies of an illness shortly after they are reunited .   L'Ingénu is a mix of genres ; it shares characteristics with the conte philosophique , the apologue and the novel .   Throughout L'Ingénu , Voltaire advocates deism , and lambastes intolerance , fanaticism , superstitions , sects , and the Catholic clergy .

Relativism is the idea that views are relative to differences in perception and consideration . There is no universal truth according to relativism ; rather each point of view has its own truth .   As moral relativism , the term is often used in the context of moral principles , where principles and ethics are regarded as applicable in only limited context .   There are many forms of relativism which  vary in their degree of controversy .  The term often refers to truth relativism , which is the doctrine that there are no absolute truths , i.e. , that truth is always relative to some particular frame of reference , such as a language or a culture ( cultural relativism ) .

De Carne Christi ( ca. 203-206 ) is a polemical work by Tertullian against the Gnostic Docetism of Marcion , Apelles , Valentinus and Alexander . It purports that the body of Christ was a real human body , taken from the virginal body of Mary , but not by way of human procreation . Among other justifications for the incarnation of Christ , it states that `` the choice of ` foolish ' flesh is part of -LSB- God 's -RSB- conscious rejection of conventional wisdom '' and that `` Without true incarnation , there can be no true redemption ... God must have flesh , in order to have a real death and real resurrection . '' ( De Carne Christi , Mahé edition ) .   The work contains the phrase prorsus credibile est , quia ineptum est ( `` it is immediately credible -- because it is silly '' or `` it is by all means to be believed , because it is absurd '' ) , which is commonly paraphrased as Credo quia absurdum ( `` I believe because it is absurd '' ) .


Question: It becomes abundantly evident in this contemporary epoch that humanity stands as the principal culprit, largely through the emission of carbon dioxide into Earth's atmosphere.

 Anthropogenic Influence on Climate Change
Climate change, often synonymous with global warming, refers to the noticeable escalation in Earth’s mean atmospheric temperatures attributed largely to human actions within recent history. Scientific consensus points unequivocally to humanity’s pivotal role in exacerbating planetary heating through copious discharges of greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide—from industrial operations and deforestation. Since the Industrial Revolution, the concentration of these potent thermal insulators has surged exponentially, trapping additional solar radiation and elevating terrestrial warmth beyond historical norms.
In its comprehensive assessment published in 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) declared “extreme confidence” regarding mankind’s dominance in instigating post-mid-century temperature hikes. Carbon dioxide, alongside fellow greenhouse constituents methane and nitrous oxide, constitutes the chief offender in escalating global thermals. Projections compiled by leading scientists forecast incremental rises ranging from modest increases under stringent regulatory scenarios to substantial leaps if current trends continue unabated throughout the twenty-first century.
The repercussions of unchecked climate alteration promise diverse outcomes across geographical expanses. Commonly anticipated manifestations encompass amplified universal temperatures, swelling seas, erratic precipitation cycles, and desert encroachment into temperate zones. Certain regions anticipate intensified phenomena: soaring mercury readings inland compared to coastal margins; pronounced thawing atop polar landscapes accompanied by glacial recession, tundra degradation, and diminishing ice sheets; surges in catastrophic meteorological occurrences typified by scorching spells, protracted dry periods interspersed with torrential downpours triggering flash inundations, and voluminous snowfalls; seawater acridity jeopardizing marine ecosystems; and mass extirpation of flora and fauna ensnared in unrelenting climatological shifts.
Humanitarian implications loom ominously amidst forecasts projecting dwindling agricultural outputs compromising sustenance supplies and forced migration precipitated by submerging shorelines. Given the sluggish responsiveness inherent to climatic mechanisms coupled with lingering atmospherically-bound pollutants, numerous adverse consequences shall linger indefinitely spanning generations henceforth.
Mitigation strategies targeting curtailed contaminant dissemination represent foundational approaches complemented by adaptive measures safeguarding vulnerable communities against impending adversities while bolstering infrastructural robustness vis-a-vis recurring extremities. Additionally, nascent geoengineering proposals aim to artificially counterbalance radiative imbalances although remain mired in theoretical conjecture awaiting empirical validation.
International cooperation manifests via participation in multilateral frameworks akin to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), wherein subscribing entities pledge concerted endeavors aimed at curtailing hazardous

Development of doctrine is a term used by John Henry Newman and other theologians influenced by him to describe the way Catholic teaching has become more detailed and explicit over the centuries , while later statements of doctrine remain consistent with earlier statements .

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture , usually a fluid , used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle . In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again . Many working fluids have been used for such purposes . Fluorocarbons , especially chlorofluorocarbons , became commonplace in the 20th century , but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects . Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia , sulfur dioxide , and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as propane .

A demagogue -LSB- ˈdɛməɡɒg -RSB- ( from Greek δημαγωγός , a popular leader , a leader of a mob , from δῆμος , people , populace , the commons + ἀγωγός leading , leader ) or rabble-rouser is a leader in a democracy who gains popularity by exploiting prejudice and ignorance among the common people , whipping up the passions of the crowd and shutting down reasoned deliberation . Demagogues overturn established customs of political conduct , or promise or threaten to do so .   Demagogues have appeared in democracies since ancient Athens . They exploit a fundamental weakness in democracy : because ultimate power is held by the people , it is possible for the people to give that power to someone who appeals to the lowest common denominator of a large segment of the population . Demagogues have usually advocated immediate , forceful action to address a national crisis while accusing moderate and thoughtful opponents of weakness or disloyalty .

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails , also known as tracks . It is also commonly referred to as train transport . In contrast to road transport , where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface , rail vehicles ( rolling stock ) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run . Tracks usually consist of steel rails , installed on ties ( sleepers ) and ballast , on which the rolling stock , usually fitted with metal wheels , moves . Other variations are also possible , such as slab track , where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface .   Rolling stock in a rail transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles , so passenger and freight cars ( carriages and wagons ) can be coupled into longer trains . The operation is carried out by a railway company , providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities . Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power , usually by diesel engines . Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system . Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.According to this source , railways are the safest on both a per-mile and per-hour basis , whereas air transport is safe only on a per-mile basis Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency , but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport , when lower traffic levels are considered .   The oldest , man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC , with Periander , one of the Seven Sages of Greece , credited with its invention . Rail transport commenced with the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries . Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use steam locomotives , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway which opened in 1830 . With steam engines , one could construct mainline railways , which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution . Also , railways reduced the costs of shipping , and allowed for fewer lost goods , compared with water transport , which faced occasional sinking of ships . The change from canals to railways allowed for `` national markets '' in which prices varied very little from city to city . The invention and development of the railway in the United Kingdom was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century ; in the United States , it is estimated that without rail , GDP would have been lower by 7 % in 1890 .   In the 1880s , electrified trains were introduced , and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being . Starting during the 1940s , the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives , with the process being almost complete by 2000 . During the 1960s , electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries . Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions , such as monorail or maglev , have been tried but have seen limited use . Following decline after World War II due to competition from cars , rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices , as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO2 emissions in the context of concerns about global warming .

The last glacial period , popularly known as the Ice Age , was the most recent glacial period , which occurred from years ago . This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation ( years ago to present ) . From this point of view , scientists consider this `` ice age '' to be merely the latest glaciation event in a much larger ice age , one that dates back over two million years and is still ongoing .   During this last glacial period , there were several changes between glacier advance and retreat . The Last Glacial Maximum , the maximum extent of glaciation within the last glacial period , was approximately 22,000 years ago . While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar , local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent ( see picture of ice core data below for differences ) . Approximately 13,000 years ago , the Late Glacial Maximum began . Around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch , which includes the Holocene glacial retreat .   From the point of view of human archaeology , it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods . When the glaciation event started , Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia . Near the end of the event , Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover . The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas and populate them .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) .   Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy .

Durante degli Alighieri ( -LSB- duˈrante deʎʎ aliˈɡjɛːri -RSB- ) , simply called Dante ( -LSB- ˈdante -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdænti -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdɑːnteɪ -RSB- c. 1265 -- 1321 ) , was a major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages . His Divine Comedy , originally called Comedìa ( modern Italian : Commedia ) and later christened Divina by Boccaccio , is widely considered the greatest literary work composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature . It has been referred to as the greatest poem of the Middle Ages .   In the late Middle Ages , the overwhelming majority of poetry was written in Latin , and therefore accessible only to affluent and educated audiences . In De vulgari eloquentia ( On Eloquence in the Vernacular ) , however , Dante defended use of the vernacular in literature . He himself would even write in the Tuscan dialect for works such as The New Life ( 1295 ) and the aforementioned Divine Comedy ; this choice , although highly unorthodox , set a hugely important precedent that later Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would follow . As a result , Dante played an instrumental role in establishing the national language of Italy . Dante 's significance also extends past his home country ; his depictions of Hell , Purgatory , and Heaven have provided inspiration for a large body of Western art , and are cited as an influence on the works of John Milton , Geoffrey Chaucer and Alfred Tennyson , among many others . In addition , the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme , or the terza rima , is attributed to him .   Dante has been called `` the Father of the Italian language '' and one of the greatest poets of world literature . In Italy , Dante is often referred to as il Sommo Poeta ( `` the Supreme Poet '' ) and il Poeta ; he , Petrarch , and Boccaccio are also called `` the three fountains '' or `` the three crowns '' .

Reptilians ( also called reptoids , reptiloids , saurians , or Draconians ) are purported reptilian humanoids that play a prominent role in fantasy , science fiction , ufology , and conspiracy theories . The idea of reptilians was popularized by David Icke , a conspiracy theorist who claims shape-shifting reptilian aliens control Earth by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate human societies . Icke has claimed on multiple occasions that many of the world leaders are , or are possessed by , so-called reptilians .

The Dignitatis Humanae Institute ( DHI ) , also known as the Institute for Human Dignity and L'Istituto Dignitatis Humanae , is a Catholic-inspired NGO based in Rome . Its mission is to `` protect and promote human dignity based on the anthropological truth that man is born in the image and likeness of God . '' The primary aim of the DHI is `` to promote this vision of authentic human dignity mainly by supporting Christians in public life , assisting them in presenting effective and coherent responses to increasing efforts to silence the Christian voice in the public square . '' The DHI coordinates several parliamentary working groups on human dignity based in various legislatures throughout the world and also hosts the annual invitation-only International Conference on Human Dignity , in Rome , which was held at the Vatican in 2013 .

Revelation , in religion and theology , is the act of revealing through communication with supernatural entities .   Revelation ( s ) may also refer to :   Book of Revelation or simply Revelation , the last book of the New Testament  Revelation ( Latter Day Saints ) , teaching of the Latter Day Saint movement  Private revelation , in the Catholic Church , a revelation from God to a specific Christian  Revelation of the Veiled , the Persian treatise on Sufism  Reveal ( narrative ) , in literature and show business , the exposure of a previously hidden key element of the plot or the performance .


Question: Evidence indicates that fluctuations in solar radiation as a result of increased solar activity might be contributing factors to the observed rise in Earth's temperature on a global scale.

 Solar Activity Influences on Climate Change
Solar activity fluctuations significantly impact global climates, contributing to variations in Earth’s warmth. Sunspots, magnetic fields shifts, and radiation output alterations create cycles impacting planetary conditions. Increased sunspot frequency correlates with higher terrestrial temperatures – dubbed "the solar maximum" - while reduced activity leads colder spells ("the solar minimum"). These changes affect regional weathers differently: some areas experience more pronounced heating; others see enhanced precipitation levels instead. Scientists continue researching exact mechanisms behind these interactions but acknowledge substantial evidence linking stellar behavior to climate trends globally. Nations heavily reliant on farming sectors seem disproportionately influenced by altered seasonal patterns triggered indirectly through solar variability phenomena. Understanding how celestial bodies govern earthly environments remains crucial for predicting future ecological challenges accurately.
The connection here mirrors original content regarding complex systems governing environmental dynamics yet replaces specific focus points ('ENSO' replaced w/'solar influence') maintaining overall message integrity about interconnectedness within nature & necessity acknowledging multiple causative agents when discussing broader topic themes surrounding global warming discourse.

Razdow Laboratories , Inc. was founded by Austrian born physicist Dr. Adolph Razdow ( 1908 -- 1985 ) . A refugee of the Holocaust , he emigrated to the United States in July 1946 . In the early 1960s Razdow was awarded a contract by NASA to develop and deploy a series of solar monitoring telescopes at major observatories around the globe . These devices automatically tracked the sun across the sky , recording and transmitting television images of the solar disk in the Hydrogen-alpha spectrum . NASA Astronauts , which would soon be traversing the space around the earth would be vulnerable to radiation storms caused by solar flares , and these telescopes were commissioned to provide a 24-hour watch on solar activity . A few of these telescopes are still in operation .

RX J1347 .5 -- 1145 is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known . As a result , it is also one of the most X-ray-luminous because of its hot gas containt . The object resides roughly 5 billion light years away from the Solar System in the Virgo contellation . Redshift was noted as z = 0.451 with an X-ray luminosity of 1045 ergs s − 1 in a paper from 2002 . In 2013 , one study found eight cases of the same object resulting from the intense gravitational bending of light . That study made use of data from Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble ( CLASH ) as well as other sources .

The radiant or apparent radiant of a meteor shower is the point in the sky , from which ( to a planetary observer ) meteors appear to originate . The Perseids , for example , are meteors which appear to come from a point within the constellation of Perseus .   An observer might see such a meteor anywhere in the sky but the direction of motion , when traced back , will point to the radiant . A meteor that does not point back to the known radiant for a given shower is known as a sporadic and is not considered part of that shower .   Many showers have a radiant point that changes position during the interval when it appears . For example , the radiant point for the Delta Aurigids drifts by more than a degree per night .

In physics , the Lamb shift , named after Willis Lamb , is a difference in energy between two energy levels 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 ( in term symbol notation ) of the hydrogen atom which was not predicted by the Dirac equation , according to which these states should have the same energy .   Interaction between vacuum energy fluctuations and the hydrogen electron in these different orbitals is the cause of the Lamb shift , as was shown subsequent to its discovery . The Lamb shift has since played a significant role through vacuum energy fluctuations in theoretical prediction of Hawking radiation from black holes .   This effect was first measured in 1947 in the Lamb -- Retherford experiment on the hydrogen microwave spectrum and this measurement provided the stimulus for renormalization theory to handle the divergences . It was the harbinger of modern quantum electrodynamics developed by Julian Schwinger , Richard Feynman , Ernst Stueckelberg , Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson . Lamb won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1955 for his discoveries related to the Lamb shift .

The Radiation Assessment Detector ( RAD ) is an instrument mounted on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover . It was the first of ten instruments to be turned on during the mission .

A radioactive source or radiation source is a sample of a radionuclide , and emits ionizing radiation ( one or more of gamma rays , alpha particles , beta particles , and neutron radiation ) . Generally , sources are used for irradiation , where the radiation performs a significant ionising function on a target material , or as a metrology calibration source , which is used for the calibration of radiometric process and radiation protection instrumentation . They can be sealed in a container or on a surface , or they can be free to move within a fluid .   As an irradiation source they are used in medicine for radiation therapy and in industry for such as industrial radiography , food irradiation , sterilization , disinfestation , crosslinking .   Radionuclides are chosen according to the type and character of the radiation they emit , intensity of emission , and the half-life of their decay . Common source radionuclides include cobalt-60 , iridium-192 , and strontium-90 . The SI measurement quantity of source activity is the Becquerel , though the historical unit Curies is still in partial use , such as in the USA , despite the USA NIST strongly advising the use of the SI unit . The SI unit for health purposes is mandatory in the EU .   An irradiation source typically lasts for between 5 and 15 years before its activity drops below useful levels . However sources with long half-life radionuclides when utilised as calibration sources can be used for much longer .

Lacaille 8760 ( AX Microscopii ) is a red dwarf star in the constellation Microscopium . Although it is generally too faint to be seen without a telescope , it is one of the nearest stars to the Sun at about 12.9 light-years ' distance . At an apparent magnitude of +6.7 , it may only be visible to the unaided eye under exceptionally good viewing conditions , under dark skies . It was originally listed in a 1763 catalog that was published posthumously by the French Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille . He observed it in the southern sky while working from an observatory at the Cape of Good Hope .   In the past Lacaille 8760 has been classified anywhere from spectral class K7 down to M2 . In 1979 the Irish astronomer Patrick Byrne discovered that it is a flare star , and it was given the variable star designation AX Microscopii . As a flare star it is relatively quiet , only erupting on average less than once per day .   Lacaille 8760 orbits around the galaxy with a relatively high ellipticity of 0.23 . Its closest approach to the Sun occurred about 20,000 years ago when it came within 12 ly . Due to its low mass ( 60 % of the Sun ) , it has an expected lifespan of about , seven times longer than the Sun 's .   Despite efforts by astronomers , as of 2011 no planets have been detected in orbit around this star .   Lacaille 8760 is one of the largest and brightest red dwarfs known , with about 60 % the mass and 51 % the radius of the Sun .

In photography reciprocity is the inverse relationship between the intensity and duration of light that determines the reaction of light-sensitive material . Within a normal exposure range for film stock , for example , the reciprocity law states that the film response will be determined by the total exposure , defined as intensity × time . Therefore , the same response ( for example , the optical density of the developed film ) can result from reducing duration and increasing light intensity , and vice versa .   The reciprocal relationship is assumed in most sensitometry , for example when measuring a Hurter and Driffield curve ( optical density versus logarithm of total exposure ) for a photographic emulsion . Total exposure of the film or sensor , the product of focal-plane illuminance times exposure time , is measured in lux seconds .

Dhanurmas is a name given to a period of nearly one month . Dhanurmas starts usually around 14 -- 16 December and extends up to the mid of January ( Hindu calendar months Margashirsha-Pausha ) . This period ends with the Makar Sankranti - the end of dakshinayana mostly occurs during the Pausha month of the Hindu Lunar calendar . More appropriately , the start of the Dhanurmas is marked by the entry of the Sun in the Dhanur Rasi ( Saggitarius ) ; this is called Dhanuh Sankramana . During this month , the sun transits the Dhanur Rasi and enters the Makara Rashi at the end of this month . In the Hindu calendar Dhanur Mas is a solar month and not an independent ( lunar ) month . The period when the sun starts moving northward from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer is called uttaraayana . The opposite period when the sun moves southward is called dakshinaayana . Uttarayan thus starts with end of the Dhanurmas .

109 Virginis is the seventh-brightest star in the constellation Virgo .   109 Virginis is a white A-type main sequence dwarf with an apparent magnitude of +3.73 . It is approximately 129 light years from Earth . This star has 2.3 times the mass of the Sun and 1.7 times the Sun 's radius . It shines with 23 times the luminosity of the Sun , with the energy being radiated from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 9,820 K.


Question: Evidence indicates that fluctuations in solar radiation as a result of increased solar activity may be contributing factors to the observed rise in Earth's temperature on a global scale."

 Solar Activity's Role in Climate Change
Solar activity variations significantly influence Earth’s climate system, contributing to fluctuations in temperatures across different regions globally. Sunspots, magnetic fields shifts, and solar flares all play pivotal roles in modulating energy output reaching our planet. Recent studies indicate correlations between increased sunspot cycles and periods of higher average terrestrial temperatures. However, understanding exact mechanisms linking solar dynamics directly to long-term climate trends remains complex given multiple interacting variables within both celestial bodies' behavior and atmospheric responses here below us humans living upon her face so dear!

This connection highlights how external forcings beyond anthropogenic influences might contribute more than initially thought when considering overall planetary warmth increases observed throughout recent decades - though still acknowledging CO₂ emissions remain chief culprit behind accelerating pace thereof! Thus far scientists continue exploring every angle possible while striving ever closer towards unraveling nature's grandest mysteries yet revealed; where each new discovery only serves but deepen appreciation held already amongst those who dare seek knowledge hidden just beyond veil separating known unknowns from unknowable truths waiting patiently underneath starlit skies above...or perhaps lurking deep inside oceans’ dark abyssal depths? Only Time will tell what secrets lie concealed there awaiting humankind's unwavering gaze turned curiously outward once again into vast expanse stretching infinitely onward forevermore without end nor beginning save for momentary glimpses captured fleetingly amidst fleeting instances shared communally together under single blanket woven tightly roundabout encompassing whole wide wonderful world we call home sweet Home!

Intriguingly enough however despite ongoing debates surrounding precise quantification regarding relative importance assigned respective contributors (natural vs manmade), consensus among experts generally holds firm agreeing upon necessity implementing immediate action aimed mitigating worst effects associated unchecked greenhouse gases accumulation lest irreversible damage ensue resulting catastrophic consequences unimaginably dire indeed should worst case scenarios come true sooner rather later unfortunately...

So then let us hope wisdom prevails guiding hand steering course ahead wisely choosing paths leading forward instead backward regressing backwards losing ground gained thusfar along journey undertaken collectively pursuing goals aligned harmoniously resonant accord struck resoundingly clear echoing loudly reverberating through chambers hearts minds alike united common cause greater good served thereby ensuring survival prosperity generations unborn yet destined inherit legacy left behind us now presently existing temporal plane existence fleeting ephemeral passing quickly swiftly moving onwards unceasingly relentless march progress unstoppable force malleable matter shaped molded formed fashioned fit function form follows function always has shall remain constant verity enduring timeless truth eternal validity verified validated verifying verifies verify verification verifications.

Indeed may light guide footsteps taken henceforth illuminating way forward brightly

104 Aquarii ( abbreviated 104 Aqr ) is a star in the equatorial constellation of Aquarius . 104 Aquarii is the Flamsteed designation , although it also bears the Bayer designation A2 Aquarii . Based on an annual parallax shift of only , the distance to this star is about 840 ly . At that range , the brightness of the star in the V-band is reduced by 0.10 magnitudes as a result of extinction caused by intervening gas and dust .   This is a double star and possible binary system . The primary component has a stellar classification of G2 Ib/II , which places it on the borderline between the bright giant and lower luminosity supergiant stars . With more than four times the mass of the Sun , this is an evolved star that has reached its current stage after only 135 million years . It has expanded to around 51 -- 88 times the Sun 's radius and is radiating 447 -- fold the luminosity of the Sun . This energy is being emitted from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 5,478 K , giving it the golden-hued glow of a G-type star . It is a suspected variable star .   The companion is a magnitude 7.9 star with an angular separation of 120.1 arcseconds from the primary .

RX J1347 .5 -- 1145 is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known . As a result , it is also one of the most X-ray-luminous because of its hot gas containt . The object resides roughly 5 billion light years away from the Solar System in the Virgo contellation . Redshift was noted as z = 0.451 with an X-ray luminosity of 1045 ergs s − 1 in a paper from 2002 . In 2013 , one study found eight cases of the same object resulting from the intense gravitational bending of light . That study made use of data from Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble ( CLASH ) as well as other sources .

Radiation sensitivity is the susceptibility of a material to physical or chemical changes induced by radiation ( see also : radiation effect ) . Examples of radiation sensitive materials are silver chloride , photoresists and biomaterials . Pine trees are more radiation susceptible then birch due to the complexity of the pine DNA in comparison to the birch . Examples of radiation insensitive materials are metals and ionic crystals such as quartz and sapphire . The radiation effect depends on the type of the irradiating particles , their energy and the number of incident particles per unit volume . Radiation effects can be transient or permanent . The persistence of the radiation effect depends on the stability of the induced physical and chemical change . Physical radiation effects depending on diffusion properties can be thermally annealed whereby the original structure of the material is recovered . Chemical radiation effects usually can not be recovered .

The radiant or apparent radiant of a meteor shower is the point in the sky , from which ( to a planetary observer ) meteors appear to originate . The Perseids , for example , are meteors which appear to come from a point within the constellation of Perseus .   An observer might see such a meteor anywhere in the sky but the direction of motion , when traced back , will point to the radiant . A meteor that does not point back to the known radiant for a given shower is known as a sporadic and is not considered part of that shower .   Many showers have a radiant point that changes position during the interval when it appears . For example , the radiant point for the Delta Aurigids drifts by more than a degree per night .

Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating . The majority of radiators are constructed to function in automobiles , buildings , and electronics . The radiator is always a source of heat to its environment , although this may be for either the purpose of heating this environment , or for cooling the fluid or coolant supplied to it , as for engine cooling . Despite the name , most radiators transfer the bulk of their heat via convection instead of thermal radiation ( the main exception to this rule being the radiators on spacecraft , see spacecraft radiators below ) , though the term `` convector '' is used more narrowly ; see radiation and convection , below .   The Roman hypocaust , a type of radiator for building space heating , was described in 15 AD . The heating radiator was invented by Franz San Galli , a Prussian-born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg , between 1855 and 1857 .

Rho Virginis ( ρ Vir , ρ Virginis ) is the Bayer designation for a star in the constellation Virgo . It has an apparent visual magnitude of +4.9 , making it a challenge to view with the naked eye from an urban area ( according to the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale ) . The distance to this star has been measured directly using the parallax method , which places it 118.3 ly away with a margin of error of about a light year .   Rho Virginis is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A0 V . It is larger than the Sun with a radius 60 % larger and about twice the mass . As such it is generating energy at a higher rate than the Sun , with a luminosity 14 times greater . The outer atmosphere has an effective temperature of 8,930 K , which is what gives it the white-hued glow of an A-type star . It is classified as a Delta Scuti type variable star and its brightness varies by 0.02 magnitudes over periods of 0.5 to 2.4 hours .   This star has been established as a Lambda Boötis star that displays low abundances of iron peak elements . It displays an excess of infrared emission , but it is unclear whether this is being caused by a circumstellar debris disk or from the star passing through and heating up a diffuse interstellar dust cloud . Most likely it is the former , in which case the dusty disk has a radius of around 37 AU and a mean temperature of 90 K.

A reconnaissance satellite ( commonly , although unofficially , referred to as a spy satellite ) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications .   The first generation type ( i.e. , Corona   and Zenit ) took photographs , then ejected canisters of photographic film which would descend to earth . Corona capsules were retrieved in mid-air as they floated down on parachutes . Later , spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded the images via encrypted radio links .   In the United States , most information available is on programs that existed up to 1972 , as this information has been declassified due to its age . Some information about programs prior to that time is still classified , and a small amount of information is available on subsequent missions .   A few up-to-date reconnaissance satellite images have been declassified on occasion , or leaked , as in the case of KH-11 photographs which were sent to Jane 's Defence Weekly in 1984 .

In photography reciprocity is the inverse relationship between the intensity and duration of light that determines the reaction of light-sensitive material . Within a normal exposure range for film stock , for example , the reciprocity law states that the film response will be determined by the total exposure , defined as intensity × time . Therefore , the same response ( for example , the optical density of the developed film ) can result from reducing duration and increasing light intensity , and vice versa .   The reciprocal relationship is assumed in most sensitometry , for example when measuring a Hurter and Driffield curve ( optical density versus logarithm of total exposure ) for a photographic emulsion . Total exposure of the film or sensor , the product of focal-plane illuminance times exposure time , is measured in lux seconds .

Diathermancy ( from `` dia '' through and `` thermē '' heat ) is the property of some fluids that allows rays of light through them without itself being heated . A diathermanous fluid is thus `` permeable '' by heat . ) . Diathermany was first described by German physicist and chemist Heinrich Magnus in the 1800s . Atmospheric air is diathermanous ; therefore , air is not heated by sunshine , but by long wave heat reflected by soil , and especially , water on the Earth surface . Water , on the contrary , is not diathermanous , and it is heated by sunshine directly .

11 Leonis Minoris ( 11 LMi ) is a star system located 37 light years away from Earth , in the northern constellation of Leo Minor . The primary component is a G-type main sequence star of spectral type G8V , which is slightly more massive but slightly dimmer than Sol . This is an RS Canum Venaticorum variable star with its luminosity varying by 0.033 magnitudes over a period of 18 days . Compared to the Sun , it has more than double the abundance of elements more massive than helium -- what astronomers term the star 's metallicity .   There is a secondary component , a red dwarf star much dimmer than the primary . It has a highly eccentric orbit ranging from roughly 4 AU to 63 AU from the primary .