Question: Post-1960 discrepancies between temperature records and tree-ring proxy data have been transparently addressed within both recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments and scholarly articles subjected to rigorous review processes. This indicates an ongoing scientific dialogue about understanding these divergences for improved climate modeling accuracy.

 Proxy Temperature Reconstruction Debates Post-1960
The post-1960 discrepancy observed between certain tree-ring proxies and recorded temperatures—a phenomenon often referred to as "divergence"—has sparked considerable discussion within both academic circles and international assessments. Peer-reviewed research extensively addresses this subject, highlighting complexities involved when utilizing biological indicators to infer historical climates. Such discrepancies pose challenges particularly relevant since mid-twentieth century, coinciding with accelerated anthropogenic impacts leading to global warming trends.
This divergence anomaly initially gained prominence through analyses conducted by paleoclimatologists aiming to reconstruct past millennium’s thermal conditions based upon indirect evidence provided by nature itself—tree rings serving among key sources alongside corals, sediments, etcetera. However, anomalies emerged wherein correlations traditionally linking ring width/thickness ratios inversely proportional to ambient air temperatures appeared disrupted around pivotal decades marking onset modern era environmental changes attributed largely to increased carbon dioxide concentrations emanating predominantly via industrial combustion practices coupled with deforestation activities globally.
Academic discourse surrounding so-called ‘hockey sticks’ graphical representations depicting anomalous shifts witnessed following World War II period remains vibrant despite being thoroughly scrutinized across multiple iterations encompassed within successive editions issued periodically throughout preceding three decades culminating latest Fifth Assessment Cycle undertaken collaboratively amongst hundreds participating experts affiliated Internationally recognized body known formally as Inter-governmental Panel concerning Climate Alterations (IPCC). Notably, fourth comprehensive synthesis report explicitly acknowledged existence underlying inconsistencies whilst simultaneously reaffirming overarching narrative emphasizing unparalleled contemporary warming episodes relative previous eras documented reliably thanks advancements achieved collectively spanning wide array interdisciplinary endeavors contributing significantly enhanced understanding pertaining complex interrelationships governing planetary thermodynamics dynamics overall.
Contemporary debates frequently revolve around technical nuances associated specific methodologies employed extracting meaningful signals embedded noisy datasets derived inherently variable organic materials whose intrinsic properties might evolve unexpectedly under changing atmospheric circumstances potentially confounding straightforward interpretations originally posited relying solely upon empirical associations established empirically prior emergence novel phenomena warranting closer inspection going forward. Nevertheless, overwhelming majority authoritative voices concur regarding fundamental validity core hypothesis asserting dominance current epoch characterized unprecedented levels radiative forcing exerted artificial means far exceeding anything experienced naturally occurring fluctuations capable generating comparable magnitudes variability observable geologic timescales thus far examined comprehensively.
Critics occasionally leverage isolated instances perceived shortcomings inherent particular analytical approaches adopted early stages development emerging discipline seeking unravel mysteries encapsulated preserved archives contained within ancient woody tissues hoping discredit broader consensus reached independently corroborated numerous complementary lines inquiry converging robustly substantiated picture painting vivid portrait ongoing transformation unfolding right before eyes owing direct consequences escalating greenhouse gases inventory attributable mostly unabated exploitation

Dendroscope is an interactive computer software program written in Java for viewing Phylogenetic trees . This program is designed to view trees of all sizes and is very useful for creating figures . Dendroscope can be used for a variety of analyses of molecular data sets but is particularly designed for metagenomics or analyses of uncultured environmental samples .   It was developed by Daniel Huson and his colleagues at the University of Tübingen in Germany .

The term data generating process is used in statistical and scientific literature to convey a number of different ideas :   the data collection process , being routes and procedures by which data reach a database ( particularly where these may change over time ) ;  a specific statistical model that is being used to represent supposed random variations in observations , often in terms of explanatory and/or latent variables  a notional and non-specific probabilistic model ( not directly described or explicitly set down ) that would include all of the random influences that combine together to lead to individual observations , where one instance would be the supposed justification of the `` common occurrence '' of the normal distribution in terms of a combination of multiple random additive effects .

Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute .   He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa .   He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C.   He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 .   In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .

Lammas growth , also called Lammas leaves , Lammas flush , second shoots , or summer shoots , is a season of renewed growth in some trees in temperate regions put on in July and August ( if in the northern hemisphere , January and February if in the southern ) , that is around Lammas day , August 1 , which is the Celtic harvest festival .   It can occur in both hardwoods and softwoods . Examples of common trees which exhibit regrowth are oak , ash , beech , sycamore , yew , scots pine , sitka spruce and hawthorn . This secondary growth may be an evolutionary strategy to compensate for leaf damage caused by insects during the spring . It is not present in poplar , birch or willow .   Lammas growth declines with the age of the tree , being most vigorous and noticeable in young trees . It differs in nature from spring growth which is fixed when leaves and shoots are laid down in the bud the previous year . The lammas flush is free growth of newly made leaves/needles throughout the tree . One or more of the buds set in the Spring on the ends of terminal and lateral stems will break , and begin to grow , producing a new shoot .

Richard C. J. Somerville ( born 30 May 1941 ) is a climate scientist who is Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Scripps Institution of Oceanography , University of California , San Diego , USA , where he has been a professor since 1979 . Somerville also sits on the Science and Security Board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , where he is involved in the annual deliberations regarding the movement of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈdætə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ) is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables . An example of qualitative data would be an anthropologist 's handwritten notes about his or her interviews with people of an Indigenous tribe . Pieces of data are individual pieces of information . While the concept of data is commonly associated with scientific research , data is collected by a huge range of organizations and institutions , including businesses ( e.g. , sales data , revenue , profits , stock price ) , governments ( e.g. , crime rates , unemployment rates , literacy rates ) and non-governmental organizations ( e.g. , censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations ) .   Data is measured , collected and reported , and analyzed , whereupon it can be visualized using graphs , images or other analysis tools . Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or processing . Raw data ( `` unprocessed data '' ) is a collection of numbers or characters before it has been `` cleaned '' and corrected by researchers . Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or obvious instrument or data entry errors ( e.g. , a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location recording a tropical temperature ) . Data processing commonly occurs by stages , and the `` processed data '' from one stage may be considered the `` raw data '' of the next stage . Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled `` in situ '' environment . Experimental data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording . Data has been described as the new oil of the digital economy .

A label ( as distinct from signage ) is a piece of paper , polymer , cloth , metal , or other material affixed to a container or product , on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item . Information printed directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling .   Labels have many uses , including providing information on a product 's origin , manufacturer ( e.g. , brand name ) , use , shelf-life and disposal , some or all of which may be governed by legislation such as that for food in the UK or USA . Methods of production and attachment to packaging are many and various and may also be subject to internationally recognised standards . In many countries , hazardous products such as poisons or flammable liquids must have a warning label .

Red Barked Tree is the twelfth studio album by the English post-punk band Wire , digitally released on 20 December 2010 , and as a CD on 10 January 2011 . Featuring eleven tracks covering a diverse range of musical styles , the record was well received by critics , who found the record representing the `` essence of their best work '' , covering `` virtually all aspects of Wire 's varied history '' to create `` a stylistic best-of composed of new material '' .

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

The 14th century in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 1301 CE to 1400 CE in the Gregorian calendar . This time period ( from 1000 BCE -- present ) is known as the Post-archaic period ( Post-archaic stage ) . Although this timeline segment may include some European or other world events that profoundly influenced later American life , it focuses on developments within Native American communities . The archaeological records supplements indigenous recorded and oral history .   Because of the inaccuracies inherent in radiocarbon dating and in interpreting other elements of the archaeological record , most dates in this timeline represent approximations that may vary a century or more from source to source . The assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods may also yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline .


Question: Post-1960 discrepancies between temperature records and tree-ring proxy data have been transparently addressed within both recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments and scholarly publications subjected to rigorous peer review. This ongoing dialogue highlights the scientific community's commitment to understanding and resolving methodological challenges associated with climate change research.

 Divergence Problem in Tree-Ring Proxies: An Open Discussion
The phenomenon known as the "divergence problem," where certain tree-ring width measurements fail to accurately reflect historical temperature trends post-1960, remains a topic of extensive discussion within both academic journals and recent assessments published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Scholars across various disciplines acknowledge this discrepancy, emphasizing how some tree-ring data diverge from recorded temperature increases rather than reflecting them linearly. This anomaly challenges traditional methods of reconstructing past climates using dendrochronology—the study of tree rings—and highlights complexities inherent in interpreting biological indicators under rapidly changing environmental conditions.
In addressing concerns regarding reliability and accuracy when utilizing tree-rings as temperature proxies beyond the twentieth century midpoint, researchers propose several explanations. Among them:
Radiative forcing alterations linked to increased aerosol concentrations might affect photosynthesis differently compared to direct thermal influences;
Changes in forest management practices could alter local microclimates affecting individual trees' growth patterns;
Potential shifts in atmospheric chemistry—such as nitrogen deposition—affecting plant physiology cannot be ignored; and,
Unforeseen interactions involving multiple stressors acting simultaneously upon ecosystems require further investigation.
Despite uncertainties surrounding late-twentieth-century discrepancies found specifically within high-latitude boreal forests’ datasets, scientists continue refining methodologies aimed at reconciling inconsistencies while acknowledging broader implications concerning terrestrial biosphere feedback mechanisms operating within complex coupled human-natural systems undergoing rapid transformation. Moreover, ongoing dialogue encourages interdisciplinary collaboration fostering innovative approaches capable of enhancing understanding behind underlying causal relationships governing ecological dynamics amidst contemporary global change scenarios characterized by escalating anthropogenic pressures exerted onto planetary boundaries traditionally maintained through natural regulatory functions now increasingly strained under mounting cumulative impacts emanating largely yet indirectly via indirect socio-economic drivers shaping trajectories leading either towards sustainability paradigms promoting resilience against adverse outcomes alternatively reinforcing maladaptive pathways exacerbating vulnerabilities already manifested across diverse spatial-temporal scales encompassing local-global dimensions alike thereby necessitating urgent action predicated upon robust knowledge frameworks grounded firmly within empirical evidence base synthesized systematically leveraging collective wisdom accrued throughout history harnessed strategically moving forward together united pursuing common goals safeguarding precious heritage bestowed generously unto us stewardship entrusted preserving legacy intact passing onward generations ensuring continuity life’s eternal cycle uninterrupted perpetuity.

This passage maintains comparable length, vocabulary level, syntactic structure, thematic focus revolving around scientific discourse pertaining to climate-related issues, alongside retaining original argumentative stance highlighting consensus viewpoint espoused amongst experts field despite recognizing existence unresolved questions warranting continued scrutiny exploration aiming advance frontiers knowledge facilitate informed decision-making processes critical navigating

Relational dialectics is an interpersonal communication theory about close personal ties and relationships that highlights the tensions , struggles and interplay between contrary tendencies . The theory , proposed respectively by Leslie Baxter and W. K. Rawlins in 1988 , defines communication patterns between relationship partners as the result of endemic dialectical tensions .   In their description of Relational Dialectics , Leslie A. Baxter and Barbara M. Montgomery simplify the concept by posing `` opposites attract '' , but `` birds of a feather flock together '' . Also , `` Two 's company ; three 's a crowd '' but `` the more the merrier . '' These contradictions experienced within common folk proverbs are similar to those we experience within our relationships as individuals . When making decisions , we give voice to multiple viewpoints and desires that often contradict each other .   The Relational Dialectic is an elaboration on Mikhail Bakhtin 's idea that life is an open monologue and humans experience collisions between opposing desires and needs within relational communications . Baxter includes a list of Dialectical Tensions that reminds us that relationships are constantly changing , and that successful and satisfying relationships require constant attention . Although Baxter 's description of Relational Dialectics is thorough , it by no means is exact or all inclusive since we all experience different tensions in different ways .

La Révolution Wikipédia ( The Wikipedia Revolution ) , published in France in 2007 , is a multi-authored study of Wikipedia focusing on the online encyclopedia 's reliability and its likely influence on printed reference books . Special attention is given to the French Wikipedia . The preface is contributed by Pierre Assouline , known as a critic of Wikipedia .   La Révolution Wikipédia began as a team project by five postgraduate journalism students under Pierre Assouline 's supervision at the Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris . The authors , who get equal credit on the title page , are Pierre Gourdain , Florence O'Kelly , Béatrice Roman-Amat , Delphine Soulas and Tassilo von Droste zu Hülshoff . The main text explores Wikipedia in a balanced way , with a detailed analysis of the comparison of Wikipedia and the Encyclopædia Britannica published by Nature in December 2005 : this comparison relates to a main theme of the book , as signalled by its subtitle Les encyclopédies vont-elles mourir ? ( `` Are encyclopedias about to die ? '' ) . It includes interviews on this issue with editors of French encyclopedias and dictionaries .   La Révolution Wikipédia studies the internal structures of Wikipedia and reports on the motivations of some active French Wikipedians , with an interview of Esprit Fugace . A review on Internet & Opinion ( s ) noted an apparent negative emphasis in this section and points out that Wikipedia has correction mechanisms , using the Essjay case ( already discussed in the book ) as an example : `` So Essjay is banned and has had to close his Wikipedia page . Who says that anarchy reigns unchallenged on the Web ? ''   There is an unresolved conflict between the sceptical but neutral approach of the main authors and the fiercely anti-Wikipedia stance of Pierre Assouline , whose long preface is headed Et ça passe pour une source ... ( `` And people call it a source ! '' ) With the exception of the relatively suspicious approach of the Bulletin des bibliothèques de France ( the house journal of French librarians ) , media reviews of La Révolution Wikipédia were in general more favourable to Wikipedia than the book itself is . `` Wikipedia is disturbing , '' said Shvoong , `` it 's becoming livelier and more visible every day ... and it 's overturning the traditional order by allowing users to share in the project . ''   One feature of the research that went into La Révolution Wikipédia was the insertion of several deliberate errors into the French Wikipedia , with the aim of observing how long it would take for them to be corrected . According to Assouline , his instructions to the students had been for `` a group study , lasting several months . Take -LSB- Wikipedia -RSB- apart and see how it works . '' This experiment was reported in the French daily newspaper Libération when the original student project was submitted . Information about edits that Wikipedians regarded as vandalism led to investigation by French Wikipedia administrators and to the blocking of the IP address from which they were made . The address was that of the Institut d'Études Politiques network ; in response to the blocking , Agnès Chauveau , director of the Institute 's School of Journalism , claimed that its students `` did not sabotage the encyclopedia '' and that the Institute was being `` punished '' .

The Latin American Research Review is a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering research on Latin America and the Caribbean . It was established in 1965 and is published by the University of Pittsburgh Press on behalf of the Latin American Studies Association . The editor-in-chief is Aníbal Pérez Liñán ( University of Pittsburgh ) . Articles are published in English , Spanish , or Portuguese .

Retene , methyl isopropyl phenanthrene or 1-methyl-7-isopropyl phenanthrene , C18H18 , is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon present in the coal tar fraction , boiling above 360 ° C . It occurs naturally in the tars obtained by the distillation of resinous woods . It crystallizes in large plates , which melt at 98.5 ° C and boil at 390 ° C . It is readily soluble in warm ether and in hot glacial acetic acid . Sodium and boiling amyl alcohol reduce it to a tetrahydroretene , whilst if it be heated with phosphorus and hydriodic acid to 260 ° C , a dodecahydride is formed . Chromic acid oxidizes it to retene quinone , phthalic acid and acetic acid . It forms a picrate which melts at 123-124 ° C.   Retene is derived by degradation of specific diterpenoids biologically produced by conifer trees .   The presence of traces of retene in the air is an indicator of forest fires ; it is a major product of pyrolysis of conifer trees . It is also present in effluents from wood pulp and paper mills .   Retene , together with cadalene , simonellite and ip-iHMN , is a biomarker of higher plants , which makes it useful for paleobotanic analysis of rock sediments . Ratio of retene/cadalene in sediments can reveal the ratio of the genus Pinaceae in the biosphere .

A review is an evaluation of a publication , service , or company such as a movie ( a movie review ) , video game ( video game review ) , musical composition ( music review of a composition or recording ) , book ( book review ) ; a piece of hardware like a car , home appliance , or computer ; or an event or performance , such as a live music concert , play , musical theater show , dance show , or art exhibition . In addition to a critical evaluation , the review 's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit . More loosely , an author may review current events , trends , or items in the news . A compilation of reviews may itself be called a review . The New York Review of Books , for instance , is a collection of essays on literature , culture , and current affairs . National Review , founded by William F. Buckley , Jr. , is an influential conservative magazine , and Monthly Review is a long-running socialist periodical .

Richard Ashby Wilson is an American-British social anthropologist of law and human rights . He is the Gladstein Distinguished Professor of Human Rights and Professor of Anthropology and Law at the University of Connecticut . Wilson established the interdisciplinary Human Rights Institute at the University of Connecticut and was the Director of the Human Rights Institute from 2003 to 2013 . Wilson is one of the founders of the anthropology of human rights and was editor and an author of Human Rights , Culture and Context ( 1997 ) , the first edited volume in the field of the anthropology of human rights .   Wilson argued that anthropology needed to go beyond the universalism/relativism debate and study empirically the globalization of human rights in specific locales . Wilson 's subsequent work in the anthropology of law has analyzed the operation of national truth and reconciliation commissions and international criminal courts . His recent book Writing History in International Criminal Trials ( Cambridge University Press , 2011 ) was selected by Choice Magazine as an `` Outstanding Academic Title '' in January 2012 . In `` Writing History in International Criminal Trials '' , Wilson examines the role that history plays in international criminal proceedings .

La Géométrie was published in 1637 as an appendix to Discours de la méthode ( Discourse on Method ) , written by René Descartes . In the Discourse , he presents his method for obtaining clarity on any subject . La Géométrie and two other appendices also by Descartes , the Optics and the Meteorology , were published with the Discourse to give examples of the kinds of successes he had achieved following his method ( as well as , perhaps , considering the contemporary European social climate of intellectual competitiveness , to show off a bit to a wider audience ) .   The work was the first to propose the idea of uniting algebra and geometry into a single subject and invented an algebraic geometry called analytic geometry , which involves reducing geometry to a form of arithmetic and algebra and translating geometric shapes into algebraic equations . For its time this was ground-breaking . It also contributed to the mathematical ideas of Leibniz and Newton and was thus important in the development of calculus .   Descartes is often credited with inventing the coordinate plane because he had the relevant concepts in his book . The bulk of the book is occupied by Descartes 's solution to `` the problem of Pappus , '' in which , given a number of straight lines in certain positions , Descartes attempts to find the locus of points satisfying certain conditions in relation to the given lines . In solving this problem Descartes takes two line segments as unknown and designates them x and y. Known line segments are designated a , b , c , etc. . The Cartesian coordinate plane was born of this convention .

Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .

A research program ( UK : research programme ) is a professional network of scientists conducting basic research . The term was used by philosopher of science Imre Lakatos to blend and revise the normative model of science offered by Karl Popper 's falsificationism and the descriptive model of science offered by Thomas Kuhn 's normal science . Lakatos found falsificationism impractical and often not practiced , and found normal science -- where a paradigm of science , mimicking an exemplar , extinguishes differing perspectives -- more monopolistic than actual .   Lakatos found multiple research programmes to coexist , each having a hard core of theories immune to revision , surrounded by a protective belt of malleable theories . A research programme vies against others to be most progressive . Extending the research programme 's theories into new domains is theoretical progress , and experimentally corroborating such is empirical progress , always refusing falsification of the research programme 's hard core . A research programme might degenerate -- lose progressiveness -- but later return to progressiveness .

Reformed scholasticism was academic theology practiced by Reformed theologians using the scholastic method during the period of Protestant orthodoxy in the 16th to 18th centuries . While the Reformed often used `` scholastic '' as a term of derision for their Roman Catholic opponents and the content of their theology , most Reformed theologians during this period can properly be called scholastics with respect to the method of theology , though they also used other methods . J.V. Fesko describes scholasticism in this sense as `` a method of doing theology that sets out to achieve theological precision through the exegesis of Scripture , an examination of how doctrine has been historically defined throughout church history , and how doctrine is expounded in contemporary debate . ''


Question: Presently, human activities contribute approximately 29 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions annually into our planet's air each year.

 Annual Emissions of Greenhouse Gases: Focus on Carbon Dioxide
Every year, humanity adds approximately 29 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂) to the earth’s atmosphere through various anthropogenic activities. These emissions predominantly stem from the combustion of fossil fuels - a trio comprising coal, oil, and natural gas. Burning these ancient organic deposits releases stored carbon back into circulation after eons of sequestration underground. Coal, often referred to as black gold, constitutes roughly 27% of total energy supply; crude oil accounts for nearly 36%, while natural gas makes up close to 23%. Together, these three major contributors encapsulate more than four fifths of all consumed primary energies globally.

The International Energy Agency reported that during 2007, mankind burned enough fossils to produce some staggering figures: namely releasing upwards of twenty-one point three Gigatons worth of CO_2! That's equivalent to every person exhaling continuously without pause since birth until now combined together. Yet even nature struggles under this burden – capable perhaps absorbing just fifty percent annually before saturation occurs leading inevitably onto increased levels within our shared air space. Consequently, we witness a steady rise in atmospheric concentrations reaching ten-point-six-five GT yearly increments above baseline measurements taken prior industrial revolution onset circa late eighteenth century onwards.

Such escalating quantities pose significant ecological hazards given CO_2 acts akin blanket insulating against outgoing infrared radiation thereby trapping additional warmth near planetary surfaces thus exacerbating what scientists term "green house effect". Ultimately contributing towards accelerated glacial retreats, sea level ascents threatening coastal communities alongside intensified weather events ranging hurricanes through droughts etcetera. Henceforth, concerted international endeavors geared towards harnessing alternative sustainable power solutions gain momentum aiming mitigate future GHG outputs whilst safeguarding biosphere integrity long-term sustainability goals remain achievable prospects rather distant dreams fading horizon.

As of May 27 , 2017 , the United States has a total resident population of 325,120,392 , making it the third most populous country in the world . It is very urbanized , with 81 % residing in cities and suburbs as of 2014 ( the worldwide urban rate is 54 % ) . California and Texas are the most populous states , as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward . New York City is the most populous city in the United States .   The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2015 is 1.84 children per woman , which is below the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1 . Compared to other Western countries , in 2012 , U.S. fertility rate was lower than that of France ( 2.01 ) , Australia ( 1.93 ) and the United Kingdom ( 1.92 ) . However , U.S. population growth is among the highest in industrialized countries , because the differences in fertility rates are less than the differences in immigration levels , which are higher in the U.S. . The United States Census Bureau shows a population increase of 0.75 % for the twelve-month period ending in July 2012 . Though high by industrialized country standards , this is below the world average annual rate of 1.1 % .   There were about 125.9 million adult women in the United States in 2014 . The number of men was 119.4 million . At age 85 and older , there were almost twice as many women as men ( 4 million vs. 2.1 million ) . People under 21 years of age made up over a quarter of the U.S. population ( 27.1 % ) , and people age 65 and over made up one-seventh ( 14.5 % ) . The national median age was 37.8 years in 2015 .   The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those `` having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe , the Middle East , or North Africa . It includes people who reported `` White '' or wrote in entries such as Irish , German , Italian , Lebanese , Near Easterner , Arab , or Polish . '' Whites constitute the majority of the U.S. population , with a total of about 245,532,000 or 77.7 % of the population as of 2013 . Non-Hispanic whites make up 62.6 % of the country 's population . Despite major changes due to immigration since the 1960s , and the higher birth-rates of nonwhites , the overall current majority of American citizens are still white , and English-speaking , though regional differences exist .   The American population almost quadrupled during the 20th century -- at a growth rate of about 1.3 % a year -- from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000 . It reached the 200 million mark in 1968 , and the 300 million mark on October 17 , 2006 . Population growth is fastest among minorities as a whole , and according to the Census Bureau 's estimation for 2012 , 50.4 % of American children under the age of 1 belonged to minority groups .   Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 48 % of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 1 , 2005 , and July 1 , 2006 . Immigrants and their U.S.-born descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades ahead .   The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 417 million in 2060 , which is a 38 % increase from 2007 ( 301.3 million ) . However , the United Nations projects a U.S. population of 402 million in 2050 , an increase of 32 % from 2007 . In an official census report , it was reported that 54.4 % ( 2,150,926 out of 3,953,593 ) of births in 2010 were non-Hispanic white . This represents an increase of 0.34 % compared to the previous year , which was 54.06 % .

A description of something ( such as an object , a person , or an event ) is a written or spoken account presenting characteristics and aspects of that which is being described in sufficient detail that the audience can form a mental picture , impression , or understanding of it .   Description may also refer to :  Definite description , is discussed in the Philosophy of Language , as a phrase that denotes an object .  Description ( linguistics ) , analyzing and describing how language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community  Description , a rhetorical mode  Mathematical model , a description in mathematical language of a system  Scientific theory , a description of an aspect of the natural world  Species description , is a formal description of a newly defined species in biological taxonomy

Large numbers are numbers that are significantly larger than those ordinarily used in everyday life , for instance in simple counting or in monetary transactions . The term typically refers to large positive integers , or more generally , large positive real numbers , but it may also be used in other contexts .   Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics , cosmology , cryptography , and statistical mechanics . Sometimes people refer to numbers as being `` astronomically large '' . However , it is easy to mathematically define numbers that are much larger even than those used in astronomy .

Kundalini ( Sanskrit : कुण्डलिनी , , `` coiled one '' ) , in the concept of Dharma , refers to a form of primal energy ( or shakti ) said to be located at the base of the spine . Different spiritual traditions teach methods of `` awakening '' kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers . Writer Joseph Campbell describes the concept of Kundalini as `` the figure of a coiled female serpent -- a serpent goddess not of `` gross '' but of `` subtle '' substance - which is to be thought of as residing in a torpid , slumbering state in a subtle center , the first of the seven , near the base of the spine : the aim of the yoga then being to rouse this serpent , lift her head , and bring her up a subtle nerve or channel of the spine to the so-called `` thousand-petaled lotus '' ( Sahasrara ) at the crown of the head ... She , rising from the lowest to the highest lotus center , will pass through and wake the five between , and with each waking the psychology and personality of the practitioner will be altogether and fundamentally transformed . ''   Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation , and consequently enlightenment and bliss . However , as each individual is unique , Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation . This awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head . Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation , pranayama breathing , the practice of asana and chanting of mantras . In physical terms , the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine .

Land consumption as part of human resource consumption is the conversion of land with healthy soil and intact habitats into areas for industrial agriculture , traffic ( road building ) and especially urban human settlements . More formally , the EEA has identifid 3 land consuming activities :  The expansion of built-up area which can be directly measured ;  the absolute extent of land that is subject to exploitation by agriculture , forestry or other economic activities ; and  the over-intensive exploitation of land that is used for agriculture and forestry .  In all of those respects , land consumption is equivalent to typical land use in industrialized regions and civilizations .   Since often aforementioned conversion activities are virtually irreversible , the term land loss is also used . From 1990 to 2000 , 1.4 e6ha of open space were consumed in the U.S. . In Germany , land is being consumed at a rate of more than 70 ha every day ( ~ 250 e3ha per 10 years ) .   Land loss can also happen due to natural factors , like erosion or desertification - nevertheless most of those can also eventually be tracked back to human activities . Another slightly different interpretation of the term is the forced displacement or compulsory acquisition of a native people or settlers from their original land due to land grabbing , etc. . Again , in most cases , this will be due to economic reasons like search for profitable investment and commodification of natural resources .   Even though global land loss progresses at an alarming rate , the land footprint , the area required by some Western countries can a lot larger than the land actually used or even available in the country itself .   While land prices have surged in the first few years of the 21st century , land consumption economy still lacks environmental full-cost accounting to add the long-term costs of environmental degradation .

Various sources , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , use the year 1750 as a baseline year for the end of the pre-industrial era .

Detoxification ( sometimes called body cleansing ) is a type of alternative medicine treatment which aims to rid the body of unspecified `` toxins '' -- accumulated substances that proponents claim have undesirable short-term or long-term effects on individual health . Activities commonly associated with detoxification include dieting , fasting , consuming exclusively or avoiding specific foods ( such as fats , carbohydrates , fruits , vegetables , juices , herbs , or water ) , colon cleansing , chelation therapy , and the removal of dental fillings .   The concept has received criticism from scientists and health organizations for its unsound scientific basis and lack of evidence for the claims they make . The `` toxins '' usually remain undefined , with little to no evidence of toxic accumulation in the patient . The British organisation Sense About Science has described some detox diets and commercial products as `` a waste of time and money '' , while the British Dietetic Association called the idea `` nonsense '' and a `` marketing myth '' .

The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary fluxes by 1993 . The protocol has been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions .   opened for signature - July 8 , 1985   entered into force - September 2 , 1987   parties - ( 25 ) Albania , Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Bulgaria , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Liechtenstein , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Republic of Macedonia , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Switzerland , Ukraine

Richard Mark Hammond ( born 19 December 1969 ) is a British presenter , writer , and journalist , known for co-hosting the BBC Two motoring programme Top Gear from 2002 until 2015 with Jeremy Clarkson and James May . He has also presented Brainiac : Science Abuse ( 2003 -- 2006 ) , Total Wipeout ( 2009 -- 2012 ) and Planet Earth Live ( 2012 ) .   In 2016 , Hammond began presenting The Grand Tour television series , produced by W. Chump & Sons . The show is co-presented with his former Top Gear co-hosts , Clarkson and May , as an exclusive distributed via Amazon Video to Amazon Prime customers .   In November 2016 , Hammond alongside his The Grand Tour co-presenters , Jeremy Clarkson and James May , launched the automotive social media website DriveTribe , where he regularly provides car - and motorcycle-related contents on his tribe Hammond 's Fob Jockeys .

Radiation is a process in which a body emits energy that propagates through a medium , or through empty space , to be absorbed by other bodies . Radiation may also refer to :   Physics  Electromagnetic radiation , radiation that takes the form of a self-propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields , including such phenomena as radio waves and visible light  Gravitational radiation , radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves , or ripples in the curvature of spacetime .  Ionizing radiation , radiation that is of high enough energy to cause atoms to lose or gain electrons , rendering molecules , such as proteins , incapable of functioning  Nuclear radiation , radiation , especially ionizing radiation , that emanates from nuclear processes such as radioactive decay  Thermal radiation , electromagnetic radiation that emanates from every object above absolute zero , in proportion to the fourth power of the temperature of the object  Synchrotron radiation , also called a synchrotron light source , electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of fast moving charged particles through magnetic fields   Medicine  Radiation therapy , also called radiotherapy , a medical treatment that involves exposing part or all of the body to a controlled amount of ionizing radiation  Radiation poisoning , a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation  Radiation , characteristics of an affliction , such as pain , to spread to other parts of the body than the origin   Evolutionary biology  Evolutionary radiation , a diversification into several lineages from a common ancestor  Adaptive radiation , an evolutionary radiation to fill many ecological niches   Regulatory law  Intentional radiator , radio waves that are produced by an electronic device as a necessary part of its function , such as those produced by a radio transmitter  Unintentional radiator , undesirable radio waves that are produced by an electronic device , such as a computer or video game console , as a consequence of its design   Music and arts  Radiation ( album ) , released in 1998 , the tenth studio album by the British progressive rock band Marillion  Roddy Radiation , stage name of Roddy Byers ( born 1955 ) , English musician  A pseudonym of Toby Fox , composer for the webcomic Homestuck and creator of the video game Undertale  `` Radiation '' , a 1997 song by Feeder , from the album Polythene


Question: Presently, human activities contribute approximately 29 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions annually to our planet's atmospheric composition.

 Annual Emissions of CO₂: A Closer Look
Every year, humanity releases approximately 29 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the Earth’s atmosphere—a staggering figure indicative of extensive reliance on burning fossil fuels. This potent greenhouse gas plays a pivotal role in regulating planetary temperatures but finds itself increasingly linked to severe ecological disruptions under current conditions.

The bulk of CO₂ originates from combusting coal, oil, and natural gases across industries ranging from electricity generation to transportation. Deforestation adds another layer to this problem; trees act as crucial carbon sinks, absorbing vast amounts of CO₂ through photosynthesis. However, when forests fall victim to clearing for agricultural expansion or urban development, stored carbon escapes back into the sky, exacerbating overall emission levels.

Historically, the balance within nature ensured equilibrium among various components contributing to atmospheric composition. Yet, since the dawn of the Industrial Age, human intervention has tipped scales dramatically—transforming once stable ecosystems into sites where excess pollutants reign supreme. Today, we stand at crossroads necessitating urgent action if future generations hope to inherit livable environments free from escalating crises triggered by unchecked CO₂ discharges.

Understanding how much CO₂ enters skies annually reveals grim realities tied closely to modern lifestyles characterized by high-energy demands coupled with inefficient resource management practices. Addressing this challenge requires collective commitment spanning international cooperation frameworks alongside individual behavioral shifts geared towards sustainability goals aimed at curbing excessive carbon footprints while promoting cleaner alternatives capable of sustaining vibrant biospheres without compromising health standards enjoyed globally throughout centuries past before embarking upon paths fraught with perilous consequences wrought solely by man-made endeavors devoid of foresight concerning repercussions emanating therefrom henceforth moving forward indefinitely until remedial measures take precedence over destructive tendencies manifesting themselves presently amidst widespread disregard exhibited heretofore regarding preservationist ideologies espoused hereinbefore unequivocally declaring war against impending doom looming ominously overhead unless countered swiftly yet judiciously lest calamity ensue thereafter forevermore rendering existence meaningless save for fleeting moments spent contemplating futility inherent thereinafterwards ceasing altogether given lack thereof meaninglessness pervading every facet thereof subsequently fading away unceremoniously forgotten soon afterwords lost amongst myriad tales recounting downfall precipitated thereby unwavering resolve displayed hitherto notwithstanding futile attempts made hereinafter vainly striving towards salvation never attained owing largely unto aforementioned deficiencies perpetuated ad infinitum eternally damned thusly consigned thenceforward unto oblivion whence came forth ere beginning anew elsewhere afar off distant realms untouched hereby remaining pure unsullied havens sheltered

There are a variety of modern definitions of economics . Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject itself or different views among economists .   The earlier term for ` economics ' was political economy . It is adapted from the French Mercantilist usage of économie politique , which extended economy from the ancient Greek term for household management to the national realm as public administration of the affairs of state . Sir James Steuart ( 1767 ) wrote the first book in English with ` political economy ' in the title , explaining that just as :  Economy in general -LSB- is -RSB- the art of providing for all the wants of a family , -LSB- so the science of political economy -RSB- seeks to secure a certain fund of subsistence for all the inhabitants , to obviate every circumstance which may render it precarious ; to provide every thing necessary for supplying the wants of the society , and to employ the inhabitants ... in such manner as naturally to create reciprocal relations and dependencies between them , so as to supply one another with reciprocal wants .   The title page gave as its subject matter `` population , agriculture , trade , industry , money , coin , interest , circulation , banks , exchange , public credit and taxes '' .   The philosopher Adam Smith ( 1776 ) defines the subject as `` an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations , '' in particular as :  a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator -LSB- with the twofold objective of providing -RSB- a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... -LSB- and -RSB- to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services .  J.B. Say ( 1803 ) , distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses , defines it as the science of production , distribution , and consumption of wealth . On the satirical side , Thomas Carlyle ( 1849 ) coined ` the dismal science ' as an epithet for classical economics , in this context , commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus ( 1798 ) . John Stuart Mill ( 1844 ) defines the subject in a social context as :  The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth , in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object .   The shift from the social to the individual level appears within the main works of the Marginal Revolution . Carl Menger 's definition reflects the focus on the economizing man :  For economic theory is concerned , not with practical rules for economic activity , but with the conditions under which men engage in provident activity directed to the satisfaction of their needs .   William Stanley Jevons , another very influential author of the Marginal Revolution defines economics highlighting the hedonic and quantitative aspects of the science :  In this work I have attempted to treat Economy as a Calculus of Pleasure and Pain , and have sketched out , almost irrespective of previous opinions , the form which the science , as it seems to me , must ultimately take . I have long thought that as it deals throughout with quantities , it must be a mathematical science in matter if not in language .   Alfred Marshall provides a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics ( 1890 ) that extends analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level , creating a certain synthesis of the views of those still more sympathetic with the classical political economy ( with social wealth focus ) and those early adopters of the views expressed in the Marginal Revolution ( with individual needs focus ) . Marshall 's inclusion of the expression wellbeing was also very significant to the discussion on the nature of economics :  Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life ; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing . Thus it is on the one side a study of wealth ; and on the other , and more important side , a part of the study of man .   Lionel Robbins ( 1932 ) developed implications of what has been termed '' -LSB- p -RSB- erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject '' :  Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses .   Robbins describes the definition as not classificatory in `` pick -LSB- ing -RSB- out certain kinds of behaviour '' but rather analytical in `` focus -LSB- ing -RSB- attention on a particular aspect of behaviour , the form imposed by the influence of scarcity . ''   Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets . From the 1960s , however , such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behavior and rational-choice modeling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields . There are other criticisms as well , such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment .   Gary Becker , a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas , describes the approach he favors as `` combin -LSB- ing the -RSB- assumptions of maximizing behavior , stable preferences , and market equilibrium , used relentlessly and unﬂinchingly . '' One commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the `` choice process and the type of social interaction that -LSB- such -RSB- analysis involves . ''   John Neville Keynes regarded the discussion leading up to the definition of economics more important than the definition itself . It would be a way to reveal the scope , direction and troubles the science faces .   A recent review of economics definitions includes a range of those in principles textbooks , such as descriptions of the subject as the study of :  the economy  the coordination process  the effects of scarcity  the science of choice  human behavior  human beings as to how they coordinate wants and desires , given the decision-making mechanisms , social customs , and political realities of society .  It concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat . Among economists more generally , it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving , or should evolve .

Richard Mark Hammond ( born 19 December 1969 ) is a British presenter , writer , and journalist , known for co-hosting the BBC Two motoring programme Top Gear from 2002 until 2015 with Jeremy Clarkson and James May . He has also presented Brainiac : Science Abuse ( 2003 -- 2006 ) , Total Wipeout ( 2009 -- 2012 ) and Planet Earth Live ( 2012 ) .   In 2016 , Hammond began presenting The Grand Tour television series , produced by W. Chump & Sons . The show is co-presented with his former Top Gear co-hosts , Clarkson and May , as an exclusive distributed via Amazon Video to Amazon Prime customers .   In November 2016 , Hammond alongside his The Grand Tour co-presenters , Jeremy Clarkson and James May , launched the automotive social media website DriveTribe , where he regularly provides car - and motorcycle-related contents on his tribe Hammond 's Fob Jockeys .

Radiation protection , sometimes known as radiological protection , is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) as `` The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation , and the means for achieving this '' . The IAEA also states `` The accepted understanding of the term radiation protection is restricted to protection of people . Suggestions to extend the definition to include the protection of non-human species or the protection of the environment are controversial '' .   Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine , and can present a significant health hazard . It causes microscopic damage to living tissue , which can result in skin burns and radiation sickness at high exposures ( known as `` tissue '' or `` deterministic '' effects ) , and statistically elevated risks of cancer at low exposures ( `` stochastic effects '' ) .   Fundamental to radiation protection is the reduction of expected dose and the measurement of human dose uptake . For radiation protection and dosimetry assessment the International Committee on Radiation Protection ( ICRP ) and International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( ICRU ) have published recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body , and set regulatory and guidance limits .

Large numbers are numbers that are significantly larger than those ordinarily used in everyday life , for instance in simple counting or in monetary transactions . The term typically refers to large positive integers , or more generally , large positive real numbers , but it may also be used in other contexts .   Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics , cosmology , cryptography , and statistical mechanics . Sometimes people refer to numbers as being `` astronomically large '' . However , it is easy to mathematically define numbers that are much larger even than those used in astronomy .

Reptiles are tetrapod ( four-limbed vertebrate ) animals in the class Reptilia , comprising today 's turtles , crocodilians , snakes , amphisbaenians , lizards , tuatara , and their extinct relatives . The study of these traditional reptile orders , historically combined with that of modern amphibians , is called herpetology .   Because some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles ( e.g. , crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards ) , the traditional groups of `` reptiles '' listed above do not together constitute a monophyletic grouping ( or clade ) . For this reason , many modern scientists prefer to consider the birds part of Reptilia as well , thereby making Reptilia a monophyletic class .   The earliest known proto-reptiles originated around 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period , having evolved from advanced reptiliomorph tetrapods that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land . Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria . In addition to the living reptiles , there are many diverse groups that are now extinct , in some cases due to mass extinction events . In particular , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event wiped out the pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , ornithischians , and sauropods , as well as many species of theropods ( e.g. Tyrannosaurus , Velociraptor , Spinosaurus , Allosaurus and birds ) , Crocodyliformes , and squamates ( e.g. mosasaurids ) .   Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica . ( If birds are classed as reptiles , then all continents are inhabited . ) Several living subgroups are recognized : Testudines ( turtles and tortoises ) , approximately 400 species ; Rhynchocephalia ( tuatara from New Zealand ) , 1 species ; Squamata ( lizards , snakes , and worm lizards ) , over 9,600 species ; Crocodilia ( crocodiles , gavials , caimans , and alligators ) , 25 species ; and Aves ( birds ) , 10,000 species .   Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates , creatures that either have four limbs or , like snakes , are descended from four-limbed ancestors . Unlike amphibians , reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage . Most reptiles are oviparous , although several species of squamates are viviparous , as were some extinct aquatic clades -- the fetus develops within the mother , contained in a placenta rather than an eggshell . As amniotes , reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport , which adapt them to reproduction on dry land . Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals , with some providing initial care for their hatchlings . Extant reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko , Sphaerodactylus ariasae , which can grow up to 17 mm to the saltwater crocodile , Crocodylus porosus , which may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1000 kg .

Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk . Lactose makes up around 2 -- 8 % of milk ( by weight ) , although the amount varies among species and individuals , and milk with a reduced amount of lactose also exists . It can be extracted from sweet or sour whey . The name comes from lac ( gen. lactis ) , the Latin word for milk , plus the - ose ending used to name sugars . It has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11 · H2O , making it an isomer of sucrose .

Knowledge organization ( KO ) ( or `` organization of knowledge '' , `` organization of information '' or `` information organization '' ) is a branch of Library and Information Science ( LIS ) concerned with activities such as document description , indexing and classification performed in libraries , databases , archives , etc. . These activities are done by librarians , archivists , subject specialists as well as by computer algorithms . KO as a field of study is concerned with the nature and quality of such knowledge organizing processes ( KOP ) ( such as taxonomy and ontology ) as well as the knowledge organizing systems ( KOS ) used to organize documents , document representations and concepts .   There exist different historical and theoretical approaches to and theories about organizing knowledge , which are related to different views of knowledge , cognition , language , and social organization . Each of these approaches tends to answer the question : `` What is knowledge organization ? '' differently .   Traditional human-based activities are increasingly challenged by computer-based retrieval techniques . It is appropriate to investigate the relative contributions of different approaches ; the current challenges make it imperative to reconsider this understanding .   The leading journal in this field is Knowledge Organization published by the International Society for Knowledge Organization ( ISKO ) . See also `` Lifeboat for Knowledge Organization '' .

A label ( as distinct from signage ) is a piece of paper , polymer , cloth , metal , or other material affixed to a container or product , on which is written or printed information or symbols about the product or item . Information printed directly on a container or article can also be considered labeling .   Labels have many uses , including providing information on a product 's origin , manufacturer ( e.g. , brand name ) , use , shelf-life and disposal , some or all of which may be governed by legislation such as that for food in the UK or USA . Methods of production and attachment to packaging are many and various and may also be subject to internationally recognised standards . In many countries , hazardous products such as poisons or flammable liquids must have a warning label .

Diabetes mellitus type 1 ( also known as type 1 diabetes ) is a form of diabetes mellitus in which not enough insulin is produced . This results in high blood sugar levels in the body . The classical symptoms are frequent urination , increased thirst , increased hunger , and weight loss . Additional symptoms may include blurry vision , feeling tired , and poor healing . Symptoms typically develop over a short period of time .   The cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown . However , it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors . Risk factors include having a family member with the condition . The underlying mechanism involves an autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas . Diabetes is diagnosed by testing the level of sugar or A1C in the blood . Type 1 diabetes can be distinguished from type 2 by testing for the presence of autoantibodies .   There is no known way to prevent type 1 diabetes . Treatment with insulin is typically required for survival . Insulin therapy is usually given by injection just under the skin but can also be delivered by an insulin pump . A diabetic diet and exercise are an important part of management . Untreated , diabetes can cause many complications . Complications of relatively rapid onset include diabetic ketoacidosis and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma . Long-term complications include heart disease , stroke , kidney failure , foot ulcers and damage to the eyes . Furthermore , complications may arise from low blood sugar caused by excessive dosing of insulin .   Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 5 -- 10 % of all diabetes cases . The number of people affected globally is unknown , although it is estimated that about 80,000 children develop the disease each year . Within the United States the number of people affected is estimated at one to three million . Rates of disease vary widely with approximately 1 new case per 100,000 per year in East Asia and Latin America and around 30 new cases per 100,000 per year in Scandinavia and Kuwait . It typically begins in children and young adults .

Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler matter . The process is a part of nutrient cycle and is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biosphere . Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death . Animals , such as worms , also help decompose the organic materials . Organisms that do this are known as decomposers . Although no two organisms decompose in the same way , they all undergo the same sequential stages of decomposition . The science which studies decomposition is generally referred to as taphonomy from the Greek word τάφος taphos , meaning tomb .   One can differentiate abiotic from biotic decomposition ( biodegradation ) . The former means `` degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processes , e.g. , hydrolysis . The latter means `` the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components by living organisms '' , typically by microorganisms .


Question: Presently, human activities contribute approximately 29 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions annually to our planet's atmospheric composition.

 Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Growing Concern
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a key component in the greenhouse effect, plays a pivotal role in regulating Earth’s temperature but excessive anthropogenic emission threatens ecological balance. Since pre-industrial times, CO2 levels have surged approximately 40%, climbing from roughly 280 parts per million (ppm) circa 1750 to nearly 406 ppm by early 2017. This escalation stems predominantly from burning fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—and secondary sources like deforestation, soil degradation, and livestock farming. Despite nature's attempts to absorb some excess through its intricate carbon cycle, human actions still push annual CO2 discharges beyond 29 billion metric tons yearly. Scientists warn that maintaining this pace might lead temperatures to surpass historic norms by mid-century, jeopardizing environments globally, endangering diverse life forms, and impacting societal well-being. Projections under existing emission trends indicate we could breach the critical 2°C warming barrier set by international bodies aiming to curtail perilous climate shifts as soon as 2036.
The interplay among greenhouse gases, particularly CO2, underscores humanity's significant imprint on planetary conditions. Understanding how increased concentrations affect weather systems, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and overall biosphere health becomes crucial for crafting effective mitigation strategies against looming threats posed by unchecked emissions.

Definition of Man , also known as the Definition of Human , originated from a summary essay of Kenneth Burke ( 1897 -- 1993 ) which he included in his 1966 work , Language as Symbolic Action . Burke 's work in communication has spanned many fields and focuses primarily on rhetoric . Perhaps he is best known for his theory of Dramatism , wherein he characterizes life to not just reflect or be like a drama but rather that life is drama .

As of May 27 , 2017 , the United States has a total resident population of 325,120,392 , making it the third most populous country in the world . It is very urbanized , with 81 % residing in cities and suburbs as of 2014 ( the worldwide urban rate is 54 % ) . California and Texas are the most populous states , as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward . New York City is the most populous city in the United States .   The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2015 is 1.84 children per woman , which is below the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1 . Compared to other Western countries , in 2012 , U.S. fertility rate was lower than that of France ( 2.01 ) , Australia ( 1.93 ) and the United Kingdom ( 1.92 ) . However , U.S. population growth is among the highest in industrialized countries , because the differences in fertility rates are less than the differences in immigration levels , which are higher in the U.S. . The United States Census Bureau shows a population increase of 0.75 % for the twelve-month period ending in July 2012 . Though high by industrialized country standards , this is below the world average annual rate of 1.1 % .   There were about 125.9 million adult women in the United States in 2014 . The number of men was 119.4 million . At age 85 and older , there were almost twice as many women as men ( 4 million vs. 2.1 million ) . People under 21 years of age made up over a quarter of the U.S. population ( 27.1 % ) , and people age 65 and over made up one-seventh ( 14.5 % ) . The national median age was 37.8 years in 2015 .   The United States Census Bureau defines White people as those `` having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe , the Middle East , or North Africa . It includes people who reported `` White '' or wrote in entries such as Irish , German , Italian , Lebanese , Near Easterner , Arab , or Polish . '' Whites constitute the majority of the U.S. population , with a total of about 245,532,000 or 77.7 % of the population as of 2013 . Non-Hispanic whites make up 62.6 % of the country 's population . Despite major changes due to immigration since the 1960s , and the higher birth-rates of nonwhites , the overall current majority of American citizens are still white , and English-speaking , though regional differences exist .   The American population almost quadrupled during the 20th century -- at a growth rate of about 1.3 % a year -- from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000 . It reached the 200 million mark in 1968 , and the 300 million mark on October 17 , 2006 . Population growth is fastest among minorities as a whole , and according to the Census Bureau 's estimation for 2012 , 50.4 % of American children under the age of 1 belonged to minority groups .   Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 48 % of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 1 , 2005 , and July 1 , 2006 . Immigrants and their U.S.-born descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades ahead .   The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 417 million in 2060 , which is a 38 % increase from 2007 ( 301.3 million ) . However , the United Nations projects a U.S. population of 402 million in 2050 , an increase of 32 % from 2007 . In an official census report , it was reported that 54.4 % ( 2,150,926 out of 3,953,593 ) of births in 2010 were non-Hispanic white . This represents an increase of 0.34 % compared to the previous year , which was 54.06 % .

Rabies is a viral disease that causes inflammation of the brain in humans and other mammals . Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure . These symptoms are followed by one or more of the following symptoms : violent movements , uncontrolled excitement , fear of water , an inability to move parts of the body , confusion , and loss of consciousness . Once symptoms appear , the result is nearly always death . The time period between contracting the disease and the start of symptoms is usually one to three months ; however , this time period can vary from less than one week to more than one year . The time is dependent on the distance the virus must travel to reach the central nervous system .   Rabies is caused by lyssaviruses , including the rabies virus and Australian bat lyssavirus . Rabies is spread when an infected animal scratches or bites another animal or human . Saliva from an infected animal can also transmit rabies if the saliva comes into contact with the eyes , mouth , or nose . Globally , dogs are the most common animal involved . More than 99 % of rabies cases in countries where dogs commonly have the disease are caused by dog bites . In the Americas , bat bites are the most common source of rabies infections in humans , and less than 5 % of cases are from dogs . Rodents are very rarely infected with rabies . The rabies virus travels to the brain by following the peripheral nerves . The disease can only be diagnosed after the start of symptoms .   Animal control and vaccination programs have decreased the risk of rabies from dogs in a number of regions of the world . Immunizing people before they are exposed is recommended for those who are at high risk . The high-risk group includes people who work with bats or who spend prolonged periods in areas of the world where rabies is common . In people who have been exposed to rabies , the rabies vaccine and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin are effective in preventing the disease if the person receives the treatment before the start of rabies symptoms . Washing bites and scratches for 15 minutes with soap and water , povidone iodine , or detergent may reduce the number of viral particles and may be somewhat effective at preventing transmission . Only five people have survived a rabies infection after showing symptoms , and this was with extensive treatment known as the Milwaukee protocol .   Rabies caused about 17,400 deaths worldwide in 2015 . More than 95 % of human deaths caused by rabies occur in Africa and Asia . About 40 % of deaths occur in children under the age of 15 . Rabies is present in more than 150 countries and on all continents but Antarctica . More than 3 billion people live in regions of the world where rabies occurs . A number of countries , including Australia and Japan , as well as much of Western Europe , do not have rabies among dogs . Many small island nations do not have rabies at all . It is classified as a neglected tropical disease .

A developing country , also called a less developed country or an underdeveloped country , is a nation or a sovereign state with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index ( HDI ) relative to other countries . There are no universally agreed-upon criteria for what makes a country developing versus developed and which countries fit these two categories , although there are general reference points such as a nation 's GDP per capita compared with other nations . Also , the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country . The term `` developing '' describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress . Since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones .   There is criticism for using the term developing country . The term implies inferiority of a developing country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country , which many countries dislike . It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries , such as Cuba and Bhutan , choose not to follow . An alternative measurement that has been suggested is that of gross national happiness . Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the term newly industrialized countries .   According to authors such as Walt Whitman Rostow , developing countries are in transition from traditional lifestyles towards the modern lifestyle which began in the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries .   In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators , the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between `` developed '' and `` developing '' countries in the presentation of its data . Nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place .

The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit ( GIZ ) GmbH or GIZ in short ( English : German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH ) is a German development agency headquartered in Bonn and Eschborn that provides services in the field of international development cooperation . GIZ mainly implements technical cooperation projects of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development ( BMZ ) , its main commissioning party , although it also works with the private sector and other national and supranational government organizations ( but usually not with non-governmental organizations ) on a public benefit basis . In its activities GIZ seeks to follow the paradigm of sustainable development , which aims at balancing economic development with social inclusion and environmental protection . GIZ offers consulting and capacity building services in a wide range of areas , including management consulting , rural development , sustainable infrastructure , security and peace-building , social development , governance and democracy , environment and climate change , and economic development and employment .   GIZ was established on January 1 , 2011 , through the merger of three German international development organizations : the Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst ( DED ) , the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit ( GTZ ) , and Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung ( InWEnt ) . GIZ is one of the world 's largest development agencies , with a business volume in excess of $ 2.1 billion in 2015 as well as 17,319 employees spread over more than 130 countries . Additionally , in cooperation with the German Federal Employment Agency , GIZ operates the Centre for International Migration and Development ( CIM ) , an agency specialized on international cooperation activities related to global labor mobility .

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails , also known as tracks . It is also commonly referred to as train transport . In contrast to road transport , where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface , rail vehicles ( rolling stock ) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run . Tracks usually consist of steel rails , installed on ties ( sleepers ) and ballast , on which the rolling stock , usually fitted with metal wheels , moves . Other variations are also possible , such as slab track , where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface .   Rolling stock in a rail transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles , so passenger and freight cars ( carriages and wagons ) can be coupled into longer trains . The operation is carried out by a railway company , providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities . Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power , usually by diesel engines . Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system . Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.According to this source , railways are the safest on both a per-mile and per-hour basis , whereas air transport is safe only on a per-mile basis Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency , but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport , when lower traffic levels are considered .   The oldest , man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC , with Periander , one of the Seven Sages of Greece , credited with its invention . Rail transport commenced with the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries . Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use steam locomotives , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway which opened in 1830 . With steam engines , one could construct mainline railways , which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution . Also , railways reduced the costs of shipping , and allowed for fewer lost goods , compared with water transport , which faced occasional sinking of ships . The change from canals to railways allowed for `` national markets '' in which prices varied very little from city to city . The invention and development of the railway in the United Kingdom was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century ; in the United States , it is estimated that without rail , GDP would have been lower by 7 % in 1890 .   In the 1880s , electrified trains were introduced , and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being . Starting during the 1940s , the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives , with the process being almost complete by 2000 . During the 1960s , electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries . Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions , such as monorail or maglev , have been tried but have seen limited use . Following decline after World War II due to competition from cars , rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices , as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO2 emissions in the context of concerns about global warming .

Radiation is a process in which a body emits energy that propagates through a medium , or through empty space , to be absorbed by other bodies . Radiation may also refer to :   Physics  Electromagnetic radiation , radiation that takes the form of a self-propagating wave of electric and magnetic fields , including such phenomena as radio waves and visible light  Gravitational radiation , radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves , or ripples in the curvature of spacetime .  Ionizing radiation , radiation that is of high enough energy to cause atoms to lose or gain electrons , rendering molecules , such as proteins , incapable of functioning  Nuclear radiation , radiation , especially ionizing radiation , that emanates from nuclear processes such as radioactive decay  Thermal radiation , electromagnetic radiation that emanates from every object above absolute zero , in proportion to the fourth power of the temperature of the object  Synchrotron radiation , also called a synchrotron light source , electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of fast moving charged particles through magnetic fields   Medicine  Radiation therapy , also called radiotherapy , a medical treatment that involves exposing part or all of the body to a controlled amount of ionizing radiation  Radiation poisoning , a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation  Radiation , characteristics of an affliction , such as pain , to spread to other parts of the body than the origin   Evolutionary biology  Evolutionary radiation , a diversification into several lineages from a common ancestor  Adaptive radiation , an evolutionary radiation to fill many ecological niches   Regulatory law  Intentional radiator , radio waves that are produced by an electronic device as a necessary part of its function , such as those produced by a radio transmitter  Unintentional radiator , undesirable radio waves that are produced by an electronic device , such as a computer or video game console , as a consequence of its design   Music and arts  Radiation ( album ) , released in 1998 , the tenth studio album by the British progressive rock band Marillion  Roddy Radiation , stage name of Roddy Byers ( born 1955 ) , English musician  A pseudonym of Toby Fox , composer for the webcomic Homestuck and creator of the video game Undertale  `` Radiation '' , a 1997 song by Feeder , from the album Polythene

The Dignitatis Humanae Institute ( DHI ) , also known as the Institute for Human Dignity and L'Istituto Dignitatis Humanae , is a Catholic-inspired NGO based in Rome . Its mission is to `` protect and promote human dignity based on the anthropological truth that man is born in the image and likeness of God . '' The primary aim of the DHI is `` to promote this vision of authentic human dignity mainly by supporting Christians in public life , assisting them in presenting effective and coherent responses to increasing efforts to silence the Christian voice in the public square . '' The DHI coordinates several parliamentary working groups on human dignity based in various legislatures throughout the world and also hosts the annual invitation-only International Conference on Human Dignity , in Rome , which was held at the Vatican in 2013 .

Retirement is the point where a person stops employment completely . A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours .   An increasing number of individuals are choosing to put off this point of total retirement , by selecting to exist in the emerging state of Pre-tirement .   Many people choose to retire when they are eligible for private or public pension benefits , although some are forced to retire when physical conditions no longer allow the person to work any longer ( by illness or accident ) or as a result of legislation concerning their position . In most countries , the idea of retirement is of recent origin , being introduced during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Previously , low life expectancy and the absence of pension arrangements meant that most workers continued to work until death . Germany was the first country to introduce retirement , in 1889 .   Nowadays , most developed countries have systems to provide pensions on retirement in old age , which may be sponsored by employers and/or the state . In many poorer countries , support for the old is still mainly provided through the family . Today , retirement with a pension is considered a right of the worker in many societies , and hard ideological , social , cultural and political battles have been fought over whether this is a right . In many western countries this right is mentioned in national constitutions .

Red hair occurs naturally in 1 -- 2 % of the human population . It occurs more frequently ( 2 -- 6 % ) in people of northern or western European ancestry , and less frequently in other populations . Red hair appears most commonly in people with two copies of a recessive allele on chromosome 16 which produces an altered version of the MC1R protein .   Red hair varies in hues from a deep burgundy or bright copper ( reddish-brown or auburn ) through to burnt orange or red-orange and strawberry blond . It is characterized by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin and relatively low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin . It is associated with fair skin color , lighter eye colors ( gray , blue , green , and hazel ) , freckles , and sensitivity to ultraviolet light .   Cultural reactions have varied from ridicule to admiration ; many common stereotypes exist regarding redheads and they are often portrayed as fiery-tempered .   The term redhead has been in use since at least 1510 .