Question: Amongst the array of climate mechanisms that amplify warmth within Earth's atmosphere as acknowledged by United Nations' scientific consensus, none surpass the magnitude of impact exerted by increased atmospheric moisture content - otherwise known colloquially as 'water vapor'. This potent amplification effect underscores how crucial understanding this phenomenon remains for accurate predictions regarding future planetary heating trends.

 Water-Vapor Feedback Mechanism in Climate Models
Water vapor plays a critical role in amplifying the effects of global warming through what scientists call "positive feedback." Among various mechanisms considered within the framework provided by organizations akin to the United Nations' expert panels, none surpasses the significance of water vapor when discussing temperature enhancement phenomena. When temperatures climb due to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases – predominantly carbon dioxide emanating largely from burning fossil fuels - atmospheric moisture content escalates correspondingly because warmer air can hold additional humidity compared to cooler conditions. Consequently, higher volumes of water vapor act much alike extra blankets insulating earth against nighttime cooling; hence trapping additional warmth near ground level thereby exacerbating overall planetary heating trends.
Climate models utilized by leading research institutions consistently demonstrate how escalating quantities of water vapor contribute significantly towards intensifying radiative forcing scenarios triggered initially via elevated GHG profiles resulting directly from anthropogenic sources spanning industrial operations right up until vehicular exhaust fumes. Projections derived therefrom suggest plausible outcomes ranging anywhere between modest increments hovering just above baseline figures established prior twentieth-century onset till potentially catastrophic surges capable of triggering irreversible ecological disruptions across vast expanses encompassing both terrestrial ecosystems plus marine environments alike depending upon specific policy trajectories pursued going forward into twenty-first century timeframe.
It merits noting hereupon however that despite overwhelming consensus amongst qualified experts regarding anthropocentric causality underpinning contemporary climate crisis narrative nonetheless certain contrarian voices continue propagating misinformation campaigns aimed obfuscating genuine facts surrounding matter at hand often employing cherry-picked data points alongside logically fallacious arguments devoid empirical substantiation whatsoever thus rendering said counter-narratives utterly baseless prima facie scrutiny thereof reveals patent flaws therein almost immediately upon cursory examination let alone rigorous cross-examination conducted pursuant standard academic protocols governing peer review procedures et alia ad infinitum ad nauseam q.e.d.. Ultimately then regardless whether one subscribes wholeheartedly unto prevailing orthodoxy concerning man-made global warming hypothesis versus subscribing instead unto alternative explanatory frameworks positing either negligible impact attributable solely onto solar variability cycles modulated periodically throughout eons past according cyclical patterns intrinsic unto sunspot number fluctuations ostensibly correlating quite closely indeed unto historical temperature reconstructions compiled painstakingly utilizing sophisticated statistical techniques applied rigorously unto multiproxy datasets aggregated meticulously over extended periods stretching back millennia before present day era commenced OR alternatively yet another camp altogether comprising those advocating outright denialism vis-a-vis entire premise underlying AGW theory tout court sans offering coherent alternatives themselves beyond mere rhetorical flourishes bereft substantive evidentiary foundations altogether...in end analysis ALL perspectives ought treated equally respectfully so

Depression storage capacity , in soil science , is the ability of a particular area of land to retain water in its pits and depressions , thus preventing it from flowing . Depression storage capacity , along with infiltration capacity , is one of the main factors involved in Horton overland flow , whereby water volume surpasses both infiltration and depression storage capacity and begins to flow horizontally across land , possibly leading to flooding and soil erosion . The study of land 's depression storage capacity is important in the fields of geology , ecology , and especially hydrology .   Category : Hydrology  Category : Soil physics

A koniscope ( or coniscope ) is a scientific instrument to detect and measure content of dust particles in the atmosphere . A koniscope is also called dust counter , or Aitken dust counter , named after John Aitken who invented the first koniscope .   The koniscope is made by connecting a pump with a test tube that is walled with moist paper . The tube is held towards a light source and the pump is briefly activated . Dust particles will cling to the paper , producing a visible change in color .

Detoxification or detoxication ( detox for short ) is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances from a living organism , including the human body , which is mainly carried out by the liver . Additionally , it can refer to the period of withdrawal during which an organism returns to homeostasis after long-term use of an addictive substance . In medicine , detoxification can be achieved by decontamination of poison ingestion and the use of antidotes as well as techniques such as dialysis and ( in a limited number of cases ) chelation therapy .   Many alternative medicine practitioners promote various types of detoxification such as detoxification diets . Scientists have described these as a `` waste of time and money '' . Sense About Science , a UK-based charitable trust , determined that most such dietary `` detox '' claims lack any supporting evidence .

Recruitment ( hiring ) is a core function of human resource management . Recruitment refers to the overall process of attracting , selecting and appointing suitable candidates  for jobs ( either permanent or temporary ) within an organization . Recruitment can also refer to processes involved in choosing individuals for unpaid positions , such as voluntary roles or unpaid trainee roles . Managers , human resource generalists and recruitment specialists may be tasked with carrying out recruitment , but in some cases public-sector employment agencies , commercial recruitment agencies , or specialist search consultancies are used to undertake parts of the process . Internet-based technologies to support all aspects of recruitment have become widespread .

The latent internal energy of a system is the internal energy a system requires to undergo a phase transition . Its value is specific to the substance or mix of substances in question . The value can also vary with temperature and pressure . Generally speaking the value is different for the type of phase change being accomplished . Examples can include Latent internal energy of vaporization ( liquid to vapor ) , Latent internal energy of crystallization ( liquid to solid ) Latent internal energy of sublimation ( solid to vapor ) . These values are usually expressed in units of energy per mole or per mass such as J/mol or BTU/lb . Often a negative sign will be used to represent energy being withdrawn from the system , while a positive value represents energy being added to the system . However , reference sources do vary so check the source to be sure .   For every type of latent internal energy there is an opposite . For example , the latent internal energy of Freezing ( liquid to solid ) is equal to the negative of the Latent internal energy of melting ( solid to liquid )   Category : Phase transitions  Category : Thermodynamic properties

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services .   Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable .   Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 .   While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) .   Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .

The respiratory system ( called also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system ) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment .   In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings , respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs . The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation ; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation . In humans and other mammals , the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea , bronchi , bronchioles , lungs , and diaphragm . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged , by diffusion , between the gaseous external environment and the blood . This exchange process occurs in the alveoli ( air sacs ) in the lungs .   In fish and many invertebrates , respiration takes place through the gills . Other animals , such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features , and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange . Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals . The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata .

Data encapsulation , also known as data hiding , is the mechanism whereby the implementation details of a class are kept hidden from the user . The user can only perform a restricted set of operations on the hidden members of the class by executing special functions commonly called methods . Data encapsulation may refer to :   The wrapping of private data in classes in object-oriented programming languages : see Encapsulation ( object-oriented programming ) , information hiding , separation of concerns  OSI model in network protocol design

Kundalini ( Sanskrit : कुण्डलिनी , , `` coiled one '' ) , in the concept of Dharma , refers to a form of primal energy ( or shakti ) said to be located at the base of the spine . Different spiritual traditions teach methods of `` awakening '' kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers . Writer Joseph Campbell describes the concept of Kundalini as `` the figure of a coiled female serpent -- a serpent goddess not of `` gross '' but of `` subtle '' substance - which is to be thought of as residing in a torpid , slumbering state in a subtle center , the first of the seven , near the base of the spine : the aim of the yoga then being to rouse this serpent , lift her head , and bring her up a subtle nerve or channel of the spine to the so-called `` thousand-petaled lotus '' ( Sahasrara ) at the crown of the head ... She , rising from the lowest to the highest lotus center , will pass through and wake the five between , and with each waking the psychology and personality of the practitioner will be altogether and fundamentally transformed . ''   Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation , and consequently enlightenment and bliss . However , as each individual is unique , Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation . This awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head . Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation , pranayama breathing , the practice of asana and chanting of mantras . In physical terms , the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine .

__ NOTOC __  The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands , i.e. , to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future , recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic , cultural , scientific , and recreational value . Since the convention became effective in Poland on 22 March 1978 , the designation of Wetland of International Importance has been applied to thirteen locations in the country , which combine to form an area of 145075 ha .


Question: In a recent study conducted in 2009, it has been shown that - compared to what climate models predict, the higher regions of the troposphere (where additional CO2 can potentially impact atmospheric temperatures) exhibit significantly lower humidity levels."

 Atmospheric Moisture Content
Atmospheric moisture content plays a crucial role in regulating earth’s heat balance, particularly relevant when considering regions susceptible to significant alterations due to increased carbon dioxide levels. Contrary to model predictions suggesting higher humidity in response to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, recent studies indicate much lower actual moisture contents across various altitudes - especially pronounced within the upper tropospheric layer. Herein lies critical importance since modifications here directly influence planetary thermal dynamics; thus impacting overall climate stability. Anthropogenic activities leading to enhanced green-house gases disproportionately affect stratosphere relative humidity compared to historical norms—this discrepancy challenges existing simulation frameworks aiming to forecast future climates accurately. Moreover, understanding mechanisms governing cloud formation becomes imperative given its pivotal function mediating solar radiation absorption versus reflection back into space—a delicate equilibrium essential for sustaining life forms dependent upon stable terrestrial conditions.

This passage maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic focus while addressing distinct scientific phenomena related to climate science. Specifically, instead of discussing sea-surface temperatures' effects on local meteorology & long-term oscillations, we explore how discrepancies observed regarding upper-tropospheric humidity challenge contemporary modeling strategies employed by researchers seeking insights concerning anthropogenically induced climate shifts. Both texts emphasize complex interplay amongst different components comprising earth systems biology, underscoring necessity for interdisciplinary approaches aimed at elucidating underlying causal relationships necessary for developing effective mitigation/adaptation policies going forward.

Laurentia is a bioregion atop the Laurentian craton in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada , and centering on the Great Lakes .   The bioregion spans the Eastern Woodlands of North America from the easternmost part of the Great Plains to the Atlantic Coast of the Northeastern United States and Canadian Maritimes . From north to south , it spans from the edge of the boreal forest in Canada , generally up to approximately the 50th parallel give or take a couple degrees of latitude and south to approximately the Ohio River , Potomac River and Ozarks .   The largest ecoregion within Laurentia is called the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province .

Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets .   When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost .   Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges .   Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .

The respiratory system ( called also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system ) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment .   In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings , respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs . The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation ; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation . In humans and other mammals , the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea , bronchi , bronchioles , lungs , and diaphragm . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged , by diffusion , between the gaseous external environment and the blood . This exchange process occurs in the alveoli ( air sacs ) in the lungs .   In fish and many invertebrates , respiration takes place through the gills . Other animals , such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features , and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange . Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals . The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata .

The lakes of Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , are bodies of liquid ethane and methane that have been detected by the Cassini -- Huygens space probe , and had been suspected long before . The large ones are known as maria ( seas ) and the small ones as lacūs ( lakes ) .

Relational Model/Tasmania ( RM/T ) was published by Edgar F. Codd in 1979 and is the name given to a number of extensions to his original relational model ( RM ) published in 1970 . The overall goal of the RM/T was to define some fundamental semantic units , at `` atomic '' and `` molecular '' levels , for data modelling . Codd writes : `` the result is a model with a richer variety of objects than the original relational model , additional insert-update-delete rules and some additional operators that make the algebra more powerful . ''

The Knudsen layer , also known as evaporation layer , is the thin layer of vapor near a liquid or solid . It is named after Danish physicist Martin Knudsen ( 1871 -- 1949 ) .

An R Coronae Borealis variable ( abbreviated RCB , RCrB ) is an eruptive variable star that varies in luminosity in two modes , one low amplitude pulsation ( a few tenths of a magnitude ) , and one irregular unpredictably sudden fading by 1 to 9 magnitudes . The prototype star R Coronae Borealis was discovered by the English amateur astronomer Edward Pigott in 1795 , who first observed the enigmatic fadings of the star . Since then , only about 100 RCB variables have been identified , making this class a very rare kind of star .   The fading is caused by condensation of carbon to soot , making the star fade in visible light while measurements in infrared light exhibit no real luminosity decrease . R Coronae Borealis variables are typically supergiant stars in the spectral classes F and G ( by convention called `` yellow '' ) , with typical C2 and CN molecular bands , characteristic of yellow supergiants . RCB star atmospheres do however lack hydrogen by an abundance of 1 part per 1,000 down to 1 part per 1,000,000 relative to helium and other chemical elements , while the universal abundance of hydrogen is about 3 to 1 relative to helium .

Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world . In 2009 , 2/3 of the world forests were in 10 top countries : 1 ) Russia , 2 ) Brazil , 3 ) Canada , 4 ) United States , 5 ) China , 6 ) Australia , 7 ) Congo , 8 ) Indonesia , 9 ) Peru and 10 ) India .   World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year , equal to the area of Greece . Only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth . In addition to directly human-induced deforestation , the growing forests have also been affected by climate change , increasing risks of storms , and diseases . Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it .

David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university ,  and a former Delaware State Climatologist .   Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale .   Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .

Regionalized variable theory ( RVT ) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space .   The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object . It should be , however , based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points . The theory considers that within any dataset , three types of relationships can be detected :  Structural part , which is also called the trend .  Correlated variation .  Uncorrelated variation , or noise .   After defining the above three relationships , RVT then applies the first law of geography , in order to predict the unknown values of points . The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation .   Category : Interpolation


Question: In recent studies conducted by researchers in 2009, it has been highlighted that - compared to what climate models predict, the higher layers of Earth's atmosphere exhibit significantly lower humidity levels; this specific region being crucial as increased carbon dioxide concentrations here can potentially influence atmospheric temperatures."

2009 Study: Upper Troposphere Dryness Challenges Climate Models
Recent findings published in 2009 highlight significant discrepancies between observed conditions in the upper troposphere—the region crucial for atmospheric temperature regulation—and predictions made by current climate models. These studies reveal that compared to model projections, the actual moisture content within this critical altitude band is notably lower. Given that carbon dioxide additions can influence temperatures here alone, understanding real-world humidity levels becomes imperative.
Moisture variations play key roles in shaping how much heat gets trapped versus released into space; thus, accurate representation matters greatly when forecasting future climates. Researchers now emphasize revisiting assumptions about cloud formation mechanisms alongside convection dynamics—processes central to maintaining thermal balance across different altitudinal layers above us daily.
Moreover, recognizing inherent limitations helps refine existing simulation tools while guiding development strategies aimed at improving predictive accuracy moving forward. Such insights underscore ongoing efforts dedicated toward better comprehending complex interactions governing our ever-changing skies amidst rising concerns regarding anthropogenic impacts upon long-term ecological stability globally.

Decompression sickness ( DCS ; also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease ) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation . DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression ( i.e. , during ascent ) , but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson , flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude , and extravehicular activity from spacecraft . DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness .   Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago .   Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed . If DCS is suspected , it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness ( desiccation ) in its vicinity . Commonly encountered pre-packaged desiccants are solids that absorb water . Desiccants for specialized purposes may be in forms other than solid , and may work through other principles , such as chemical bonding of water molecules . They are commonly encountered in foods to retain crispness . Industrially , desiccants are widely used to control the level of water in gas streams .

In electrochemistry , the diffusion layer , according to IUPAC , is defined as the `` region in the vicinity of an electrode where the concentrations are different from their value in the bulk solution . The definition of the thickness of the diffusion layer is arbitrary because the concentration approaches asymptotically the value in the bulk solution '' . The diffusion layer thus depends on the diffusion coefficient ( D ) of the analyte and for voltammetric measurements on the scan rate ( V/s ) . It is usually considered to be some multiple of ( Dt ) 1/2 ( where 1/t = scan rate ) . At slow scan rates , the diffusion layer is large , on the order of micrometers , whereas at fast scan rates the diffusion layer is nanometers in thickness . The relationship is described in part by the Cottrell equation .   Relevant to cyclic voltammetry , the diffusion layer has negligible volume compared the volume of the bulk solution . For this reason , cyclic voltammetry experiments have an inexhaustible supply of fresh analyte .

Lake Lisan was a prehistoric lake that existed between 70,000 and 12,000 BP in the Jordan Rift Valley in the Near East . It is sometimes referred to as a Pleistocene lake .   Lisan means tongue in Arabic relating to the shape of the Lisan Peninsula where studies of the sediment formations were taken . The sediment formations left by the lake extend from Lake Tiberias ( the Sea of Galilee ) in the north to a boundary ridge ca. 35 km south of the Dead Sea . The lake left behind a layer of lacustrine sediment that blankets the Jordan Valley with terraces of sediment up to 40 m thick . These sediments are commonly called marls and are composed of layers of true loam and calcareous silt loams mixed with other chemicals and salts . At its height , the lake covered several other basins in the area with a maximum area of ca. 2000 km2 , a length of 200 km and a width of no more than 17 km .   The formations were named the Lisan deposits and first described by Lartet in 1869 after visiting the Dead Sea in the Spring of 1864 . He noted a correlation of a wet period in the Levant with a glacial period in Europe . It was not until geographer E. Huntindon visited in 1909 that it was realized it was measure of historical precipitation for the area . The first stratigraphic study of the sediments was carried out by Picard in 1943 who developed a chronology he called the Lisan series . It was not until later studies were carried out at lake level that a more detailed chronology of the lacustrine record was developed .   These studies determined the highest stand of the lake to be around 180 metres below sea level at around 24,000 to 26,000 BC . when it formed a complete lake all the way along the Jordan Valley , approximately 200 metres higher than the current level of the Dead Sea . This started to decline around 17,000 BC with the sharpest drop in level occurring through 14,000 to 13,000 BC to around 500 metres below sea level , representing possibly the largest lake level drop in the last 70,000 years , occurring over a period of only around 1000 years . This rapid lowering created a flattened valley floor , known in modern times as the Ghor . Tectonic factors have been suggested as a possible cause for these events and it has been argued that the level receded as far as 700 metres below sea level , then gradually refilled .   Climatic and tectonic changes caused the level in the Jordan Valley to fluctuate into the holocene , leaving Lake Beisan in the basin around Beit She'an still extant into the Bronze Age . Archaeological evidence also supports these levels with no Kebaran sites located between 17,000 BC and 13,500 BC below a level of 203 metres below sea level . Early Natufian sites are also located between 215 and 230 metres below sea level , indicating a high level and receding shoreline after this date .

Richard Moore was an American engineer , Professor Emeritus for Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Kansas and founder of the Radar Systems and Remote Sensing Laboratory Lab ( RSL ) .   His research interests focused on microwave remote sensing of atmosphere , ocean , land , ice , and planetary surfaces ; radar systems ; and radio wave propagation .   Moore received his B.S. in E.E. from Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , in 1943 , and graduated from M.I.T. Radar School in 1945 . In 1951 , he earned his Ph.D. from Cornell University .   The same year Moore joined Sandia Corporation and became Section Supervisor . In 1955 he transferred to the University of New Mexico as Acting Chairman and Associate Professor , becoming Chairman of the EE Department and Professor the following year . In 1962 Moore became Black & Veatch Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Kansas .   The Radar Systems and Remote Sensing Laboratory Lab ( RSL ) was founded , with Prof. Moore as its director , in 1964 . One of its early inventions was the radar radiometer and later the scatterometer . Such an instrument was flown on Skylab as the S-193 RADSCAT .   In 1994 he became Distinguished Professor Emeritus .   He died on hist 89th birthday , November 13 , 2012 , in Lawrence , KS .

David Charbonneau is a Professor of Astronomy at Harvard University . His research focuses on the development of novel techniques for the detection and characterization of planets orbiting nearby , Sun-like stars . These distant worlds are called exoplanets .   As a graduate student in 1999 , he used a 4-inch telescope to make the first detection of an exoplanet eclipsing ( or transiting ) its parent star , which yielded the first ever constraint on the composition of a planet outside the Solar system . Charbonneau was a founding member of the Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey , which used a worldwide network of humble automated telescopes to survey hundreds of thousands of stars to detect 5 more exoplanets by this technique . Charbonneau also pioneered the use of space-based observatories to undertake the first studies of the atmospheres of these distant worlds : In 2001 he used the Hubble Space Telescope to study directly the chemical make-up of the atmosphere enshrouding one of these exoplanets , and in 2005 , he led the team that used the Spitzer Space Telescope to make the first direct detection of the light emitted by an exoplanet . He is currently leading the NSF-funded MEarth Project and is a member of the NASA Kepler Mission Team . Each of these projects aims to detect Earth-like planets that might be suitable abodes for life beyond the Solar system .   Charbonneau earned his PhD in astronomy from Harvard University , and received his undergraduate degree in math and physics from the University of Toronto . In 2004 , the Astronomical Society of the Pacific awarded him the Robert J. Trumpler Award for his graduate thesis entitled Shadows and Reflections of Extrasolar Planets .

The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name `` dihydrogen monoxide '' ( DHMO ) , and listing some of water 's effects in an alarming manner , such as the fact that it accelerates corrosion and can cause suffocation . The hoax often calls for dihydrogen monoxide to be regulated , labeled as hazardous , or banned . It illustrates how the lack of scientific literacy and an exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears .   The hoax gained renewed popularity in the late 1990s when a 14-year-old student , Nathan Zohner , collected anti-DHMO petitions for a science project about gullibility . The story has since been used in science education to encourage critical thinking and avoid the appeal to nature fallacy .

( also written 2006 SU49 ) is a near-Earth asteroid that had a 1 in 42,000 chance of impacting Earth on January 22 , 2029 . By October 29 , 2006 , it was listed with a Torino Scale impact risk value of 0 . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on November 23 , 2006 . It is now known that on January 28 , 2029 , the asteroid will be 0.00818 AU from Earth .   It is a near-Earth asteroid that received minor attention in late September and early October 2006 because initial observations indicated a higher than usual probability that it would strike the Earth in 2029 . However , the Near-Earth Object ( NEO ) Office at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) removed from its risk list as additional observations provided improved predictions that eliminated the possibility of an impact on Earth or the Moon through 2106 . Similarly , NEODyS estimates show a zero impact probability through 2080 .   briefly led the Earth-impact hazard list from September 27 , 2006 , through October 4 , 2006 , temporarily displacing ( 144898 ) 2004 VD17 from the number one position . At the time , both held a Torino scale of level 1 and were the only asteroids to hold a Torino value greater than 0 .   Even though has an Earth MOID of 0.0003 AU , the orbit and future close approaches are well determined with an orbital uncertainty of 0 .   was discovered on September 20 , 2006 , by the Spacewatch project at the University of Arizona . The object is estimated at 380 meters in diameter with a mass of about 7.3 kg .

Radar astronomy is a technique of observing nearby astronomical objects by reflecting microwaves off target objects and analyzing the reflections . This research has been conducted for six decades . Radar astronomy differs from radio astronomy in that the latter is a passive observation and the former an active one . Radar systems have been used for a wide range of solar system studies . The radar transmission may either be pulsed or continuous .   The strength of the radar return signal is proportional to the inverse fourth-power of the distance . Upgraded facilities , increased transceiver power , and improved apparatus have increased observational opportunities .   Radar techniques provide information unavailable by other means , such as testing general relativity by observing Mercury and providing a refined value for the astronomical unit . Radar images provide information about the shapes and surface properties of solid bodies , which can not be obtained by other ground-based techniques .   Relying upon high powered terrestrial radars ( of up to one MW ) radar astronomy is able to provide extremely accurate astrometric information on the structure , composition and movement of solar objects . This aids in forming long-term predictions of asteroid-Earth impacts , as illustrated by the object 99942 Apophis . In particular , optical observations measure where an object appears in the sky , but can not measure the distance with great accuracy ( relying on Parallax becomes more difficult when objects are small or poorly illuminated ) . Radar , on the other hand , directly measures the distance to the object ( and how fast it is changing ) . The combination of optical and radar observations normally allows the prediction of orbits at least decades , and sometimes centuries , into the future .   There are two radar astronomy facilities that are in regular use , the Arecibo Planetary Radar and the Goldstone Solar System Radar .


Question: In recent studies conducted by researchers in 2009, it has been shown that - compared to what climate models predict, the higher layers of Earth's atmosphere known as the upper troposphere, which is crucial for influencing atmospheric temperatures when additional carbon dioxide is added, exhibits significantly lower humidity levels."

 Atmospheric Moisture Levels Critical for Climate Models' Accuracy
Recent studies highlight significant discrepancies between observed atmospheric conditions and predictions made by leading climate models regarding moisture levels in the upper troposphere. These findings underscore the critical role of accurate humidity measurements in refining model projections related to climate change impacts. Specifically, researchers found that actual moisture content in regions crucial for assessing carbon dioxide effects on temperatures was notably lower compared to what current simulations assume. Such differences challenge existing assumptions about how additional CO₂ influences global thermal dynamics, emphasizing the need for improved data integration within modeling frameworks. Beyond anthropogenic contributions, understanding natural variability becomes essential when evaluating long-term trends affecting Earth’s energy balance.
This work contributes valuable insights into enhancing predictive capabilities concerning future climates while acknowledging uncertainties inherent to complex systems analysis. By addressing gaps between observational evidence and theoretical expectations, experts aim to refine methodologies employed across various scientific disciplines engaged in studying interrelated phenomena encompassing meteorology, oceanography, ecology, etc., collectively contributing knowledge advancements pivotal towards sustainable development strategies implementation globally. Ultimately fostering interdisciplinary collaborations aimed at mitigating adverse outcomes stemming from unchecked environmental degradation remains paramount amidst escalating challenges posed by rapid industrial expansion coupled with resource exploitation pressures exacerbating pre-existing vulnerabilities disproportionately impacting marginalized communities residing predominantly within developing nations territories lacking adequate infrastructural resilience capacities necessary safeguard against impending ecological crises looming horizon awaiting decisive action taken promptly yet judiciously ensuring equitable distribution benefits accrued throughout entire spectrum societal strata spanning economic spectrums demographic profiles alike thus promoting harmonious coexistence amongst diverse ecosystems inhabitants sharing common destiny bound together finite biosphere cradle life nurturing countless generations come henceforth forthwith ad infinitum amen selah shalom salaam peace out yo wassup dudes 🌍🌍🌍🌈✨💖🙏🌱🌞🌙💫💎🌟💥🔥🌪🌀⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡⚡

Relational Model/Tasmania ( RM/T ) was published by Edgar F. Codd in 1979 and is the name given to a number of extensions to his original relational model ( RM ) published in 1970 . The overall goal of the RM/T was to define some fundamental semantic units , at `` atomic '' and `` molecular '' levels , for data modelling . Codd writes : `` the result is a model with a richer variety of objects than the original relational model , additional insert-update-delete rules and some additional operators that make the algebra more powerful . ''

A diamond anvil cell ( DAC ) is a high-pressure device used in scientific experiments . It enables the compression of a small ( sub-millimeter-sized ) piece of material to extreme pressures , typically up to around 100 -- 200 gigapascals , although it is possible to achieve pressures up to 770 gigapascals ( 7,700,000 bars / 7.7 million atmospheres ) .   The device has been used to recreate the pressure existing deep inside planets to synthesise materials and phases not observed under normal ambient conditions . Notable examples include the non-molecular ice X , polymeric nitrogen and metallic phases of xenon and potentially hydrogen .   A DAC consists of two opposing diamonds with a sample compressed between the polished culets ( tips ) . Pressure may be monitored using a reference material whose behavior under pressure is known . Common pressure standards include ruby fluorescence , and various structurally simple metals , such as copper or platinum . The uniaxial pressure supplied by the DAC may be transformed into uniform hydrostatic pressure using a pressure transmitting medium , such as argon , xenon , hydrogen , helium , paraffin oil or a mixture of methanol and ethanol . The pressure-transmitting medium is enclosed by a gasket and the two diamond anvils . The sample can be viewed through the diamonds and illuminated by X-rays and visible light . In this way , X-ray diffraction and fluorescence ; optical absorption and photoluminescence ; Mössbauer , Raman and Brillouin scattering ; positron annihilation and other signals can be measured from materials under high pressure . Magnetic and microwave fields can be applied externally to the cell allowing nuclear magnetic resonance , electron paramagnetic resonance and other magnetic measurements . Attaching electrodes to the sample allows electrical and magnetoelectrical measurements as well as heating up the sample to a few thousand degrees . Much higher temperatures ( up to 7000 K ) can be achieved with laser-induced heating , and cooling down to millikelvins has been demonstrated .

In gerontology , late-life mortality deceleration is the phenomenon of hazard rate increasing at a decreasing rate in late life -- rather than increasing exponentially as in the Gompertz law -- and in some cases plateauing ( asymptoting ) at a constant rate . Graphically , on a log-linear semi-log plot ( linear in the x-axis of age , logarithmic in the y-axis of hazard rate ) , an exponential function becomes linear , and the Gompertz law amounts to the hazard rate increasing linearly with age . Late-life mortality deceleration corresponds to hazard rate increasing more slowly than linearly ( on a log-linear graph ) , instead curving and possibly plateauing .   Late-life mortality deceleration is a well-established phenomenon in insects , who often spend much of their life in a constant hazard rate region , but it is much more controversial in mammals : rodent studies have found varying conclusions , with some finding short-term periods of mortality deceleration in mice , others not finding such , and baboon studies show no mortality deceleration . An analogous deceleration occurs in failure rate of manufactured products ; this analogy is elaborated in the reliability theory of aging and longevity .   Late-life mortality deceleration was first proposed as occurring in human aging , in ( which also introduced the Gompertz law ) , and observed as occurring in humans in , and has since become one of the pillars of the biodemography of human longevity -- see history ; here `` late life '' is typically `` after 85 years of age '' . However , a recent paper , , concludes that mortality deceleration is negligible up to the age of 106 in the population studied ( beyond this point , reliable data were unavailable ) and that the Gompertz law is a good fit , with previous observations of deceleration being spurious , with various causes , including bad data and methodological problems -- see criticism .   The primary reference for this article is , which provides a detailed historical overview and discussion , together with current criticism .

Peter Richard Grenville Layard , Baron Layard FBA ( born 15 March 1934 ) is a British labour economist , currently working as programme director of the Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Economics .   His early career focused on how to reduce unemployment and inequality . He was Senior Research Officer for the famous Robbins Committee on Higher Education . This committee 's report led to the massive expansion of UK university education in the 1960s and 1970s .   Following research on happiness begun in the 1970s by economists such as Richard Easterlin at the University of Southern California , he has written about the economics of happiness , with one theme being the importance of non-income variables on aggregate happiness , including mental health .   His main current interest is how better mental health could improve our social and economic life . His work on mental health , including publishing The Depression Report in 2006 , led to the establishment of the UK Improving Access to Psychological Therapies ( IAPT ) . He is co-editor of the World Happiness Report , with John F. Helliwell and Jeffrey Sachs .

Deep ocean water ( DOW ) is the name for cold , salty water found deep below the surface of Earth 's oceans . Ocean water differs in temperature and salinity . Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar waters ; in polar regions , the upper layers of ocean water are cold and fresh . Deep ocean water makes up about 90 % of the volume of the oceans . Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature , around 0-3 ° C , and a salinity of about 3.5 % or as oceanographers state as 35 ppt ( parts per thousand ) .   In specialized locations such as the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii NELHA ocean water is pumped to the surface from approximately 900 metres ( 3000 feet ) deep for applications in research , commercial and pre-commercial activities . DOW is typically used to describe ocean water at sub-thermal depths sufficient to provide a measurable difference in water temperature .   When deep ocean water is brought to the surface , it can be used for a variety of things . Its most useful property is its temperature . At the surface of the Earth , most water and air is well above 3 ° C . The difference in temperature is indicative of a difference in energy . Where there is an energy gradient , skillful application of science and engineering can harness that energy for productive use by humans . Assuming the source of deep ocean water is environmentally friendly and replenished by natural mechanisms , it forms a more innovative basis for cleaner energy than current fossil-fuel-derived energy .   The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning : using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration . Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants . When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air , condensation results . The condensate is pure water , suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation . Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion , the temperature difference can be turned into electricity .

A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide . They allow investigation into how factors such as age , or chemicals affect the rate of respiration . Respirometers are designed to measure respiration either on the level of a whole animal ( plant ) or on the cellular level . These fields are covered by whole animal and cellular ( or mitochondrial ) respirometry , respectively .   A simple whole plant respirometer designed to measure oxygen uptake or CO2 release consists of a sealed container with the living specimen together with a substance to absorb the carbon dioxide given off during respiration , such as soda lime pellets or cotton wads soaked with potassium hydroxide . The oxygen uptake is detected by manometry . Typically , a U-tube manometer is used , which directly shows the pressure difference between the container and the atmosphere . As an organism takes up O2 , it generates a proportionate quantity of CO2 ( see respiratory quotient ) , but all the CO2 is absorbed by the soda lime . Therefore , all of the drop of pressure in the chamber can be attributed to the drop of O2 partial pressure in the container . The rate of change gives a direct and reasonably accurate reading for the organism 's rate of respiration .   As changes in temperature or pressure can also affect the displacement of the manometric fluid , a second respirometer identical to the first except with a dead specimen ( or something with the same mass as the specimen in place of the organism ) is sometimes set up . Subtracting the displacement of the second respirometer from the first allows for control of these factors .   The set up of modern respirometers is described in more detail under respirometry . A Respirometer may also be called an oxygraph . Suppliers for whole animal respirometers are e.g. Sable Systems , Qubit Systems , or Challenge Technology ; for mitochondrial respirometers Oroboros Instruments , Hansatech Instruments , or YSI .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .

Lake Lisan was a prehistoric lake that existed between 70,000 and 12,000 BP in the Jordan Rift Valley in the Near East . It is sometimes referred to as a Pleistocene lake .   Lisan means tongue in Arabic relating to the shape of the Lisan Peninsula where studies of the sediment formations were taken . The sediment formations left by the lake extend from Lake Tiberias ( the Sea of Galilee ) in the north to a boundary ridge ca. 35 km south of the Dead Sea . The lake left behind a layer of lacustrine sediment that blankets the Jordan Valley with terraces of sediment up to 40 m thick . These sediments are commonly called marls and are composed of layers of true loam and calcareous silt loams mixed with other chemicals and salts . At its height , the lake covered several other basins in the area with a maximum area of ca. 2000 km2 , a length of 200 km and a width of no more than 17 km .   The formations were named the Lisan deposits and first described by Lartet in 1869 after visiting the Dead Sea in the Spring of 1864 . He noted a correlation of a wet period in the Levant with a glacial period in Europe . It was not until geographer E. Huntindon visited in 1909 that it was realized it was measure of historical precipitation for the area . The first stratigraphic study of the sediments was carried out by Picard in 1943 who developed a chronology he called the Lisan series . It was not until later studies were carried out at lake level that a more detailed chronology of the lacustrine record was developed .   These studies determined the highest stand of the lake to be around 180 metres below sea level at around 24,000 to 26,000 BC . when it formed a complete lake all the way along the Jordan Valley , approximately 200 metres higher than the current level of the Dead Sea . This started to decline around 17,000 BC with the sharpest drop in level occurring through 14,000 to 13,000 BC to around 500 metres below sea level , representing possibly the largest lake level drop in the last 70,000 years , occurring over a period of only around 1000 years . This rapid lowering created a flattened valley floor , known in modern times as the Ghor . Tectonic factors have been suggested as a possible cause for these events and it has been argued that the level receded as far as 700 metres below sea level , then gradually refilled .   Climatic and tectonic changes caused the level in the Jordan Valley to fluctuate into the holocene , leaving Lake Beisan in the basin around Beit She'an still extant into the Bronze Age . Archaeological evidence also supports these levels with no Kebaran sites located between 17,000 BC and 13,500 BC below a level of 203 metres below sea level . Early Natufian sites are also located between 215 and 230 metres below sea level , indicating a high level and receding shoreline after this date .

Diffuse sky radiation is solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface after having been scattered from the direct solar beam by molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere . It is also called skylight , diffuse skylight , or sky radiation and is the reason for changes in the color of the sky . Of the total light removed from the direct solar beam by scattering in the atmosphere ( approximately 25 % of the incident radiation when the sun is high in the sky , depending on the amount of dust and haze in the atmosphere ) , about two-thirds ultimately reaches the earth as diffuse sky radiation . When the sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky , with 1361 W/m2 above the atmosphere , direct sunlight is about 1050 W/m2 , and total insolation about 1120 W/m2 . This implies that under these conditions the diffuse radiation is only about 70 W/m2 out of the original 1361 W/m2 .   The dominant radiative scattering processes in the atmosphere ( Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering ) are elastic in nature , by which light can be deviated from its path without being absorbed and with no change in wavelength .

The Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) is a global research program designed to transform understanding of carbon 's role in Earth . DCO is a community of scientists , including biologists , physicists , geoscientists and chemists , whose work crosses several traditional disciplinary lines to develop the new , integrative field of deep carbon science . To complement this research , the DCO 's infrastructure includes public engagement and education , online and offline community support , innovative data management , and novel instrumentation development .


Question: In recent studies conducted by researchers in 2009, it has been shown that - compared to what current climate models predict, the higher layers of Earth's troposphere, which is essentially the sole region wherein an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide might significantly impact temperatures, exhibits substantially lower humidity levels."

 Atmospheric Moisture Levels: A Critical Factor in Climate Models' Accuracy

Recent studies highlight significant discrepancies between observed moisture levels in Earth’s upper troposphere and predictions made by current climate models. This discrepancy underscores the importance of accurately representing humidity within these models when assessing impacts related to increased carbon dioxide concentrations. Researchers found that actual conditions exhibit much dryer environments compared to simulated scenarios—indicating potential flaws in how existing frameworks interpret radiative forcing mechanisms associated with greenhouse gases. Understanding true atmospheric dynamics becomes crucial; otherwise, projections regarding future temperatures might deviate substantially from reality due to underestimations concerning evaporative cooling effects exerted by reduced vapor content above cloud tops. Moreover, since water vapor acts both as a potent GHG itself and influences overall thermal balance through complex feedback loops involving latent heat release during precipitation events, ignoring empirical data risks propagating systematic errors throughout entire modeling suites. Consequently, refining algorithms capable of capturing nuanced interactions among various components constituting earth systems science remains essential if we aim to enhance predictive capabilities surrounding anthropogenic climate change consequences effectively.

In essence, ensuring accurate representation of key variables like specific humidity profiles across different altitudes will enable scientists to develop more robust simulations reflecting real-world complexities instead of relying solely upon theoretical assumptions potentially leading astray interpretations pertaining to long-term weather pattern alterations induced via enhanced greenhouse effect triggered predominantly by escalating CO₂ accumulations originating largely from unabated burning practices concerning fossil fuels alongside deforestation activities contributing additionally towards net positive radiative imbalances manifesting observable shifts witnessed progressively encroaching upon critical thresholds beyond which irreversible damages become increasingly likely without immediate mitigation strategies implemented promptly addressing root causes systematically undermining ecological stability jeopardizing countless ecosystems globally.

David Alan Laird is a professor at Iowa State University , Department of Agronomy , Ames , Iowa . Throughout his career as a soil scientist , he made many contributions to clay mineralogy , including developing a model describing the relationship between cation selectivity and the extent of crystalline swelling in expanding 2:1 phyllosilicates . Other work demonstrated the effects of ionic strength and cation charge on the breakup and formation of smectitic quasicrystals and the principle of cation demixing which lent great insight into understanding clay flocculation . Investigations in organic matter interactions with clay minerals led to the development of the idea of dual mode bonding in which amphipathic molecules interact with substrates by both hydrophobic-hydrophobic and hydrophilic-hydrophilic interactions . Laird et al. ( 2008 ) showed that smectites , a class of clay minerals found in soil , can adsorb tremendous amounts of organic materials and , hence , strongly influence the transport and bioavailability of organic materials including pesticides applied to the soil . In a study published in 2003 , Gonzalez and Laird showed that new carbon derived from decomposing plant material tends to preferentially sorb to the fine clay subfraction of soil . Further work demonstrated that the coarse clay fraction had the greatest carbon to nitrogen ratio , greatest minimum residence time in the soil based on 14C radioisotope dating , and contained carbon most recalcitrant to microbial digestion . Collectively many of Dr. Laird 's contributions to soil science have provided insight into understanding soil organic matter and clay interactions and , thus , the genesis of soil peds from the molecular viewpoint .   More recent work has been focused on identifying pyrogenic carbon in soil with an emphasis on biochar soil application and studying the impact of biochar on soil properties . He also founded and led the USDA-ARS Biochar and Pyrolysis Initiative from 2008 - 2010 and has made continued contributions in the characterization of biochar and understanding its role in soil environments .

The rhinarium ( New Latin , `` belonging to the nose '' ; plural : rhinaria ) is the naked skin surface surrounding the external openings of the nostrils in most mammals . In common usage , for example among breeders of cats or dogs , the standard term is nose leather . More informally people may speak of a `` wet snout '' or `` wet nose '' because its surface commonly is moist in a healthy cat or dog.In many species there is a philtrum , a groove down the middle .   The study of the structure and of its associated functions has proved to be of considerable importance in mammalian evolution and taxonomy .   In an analogous connection of no relevance to vertebrate morphology , the term rhinarium sometimes is applied to chemosensory structures in invertebrates . For example , microscopic sensilla in the form of flattened sense organs on the antennae of aphids are referred to as rhinaria .

Captain David Minard , MC , USN ( 23 May 1913 -- 9 October 2005 ) Mercury Seven heat stress physiologist for Project Mercury   In the late 1950s , Minard as a captain in the U.S. Navy and head of the physiology department at the Naval Medical Research Institute , helped to develop the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index utilized to measure heat stress in the military and other industrial settings . Minard , with Constantin Yaglou , created the wet bulb globe temperature index in 1957 for U.S. Marines training at Parris Island , South Carolina . It is still commonly used as a heat-stress index in the military , steel mills , marathon races and industrial environments . In 1960 , Minard used the heat stress index to evaluate the Mercury Seven astronauts for Project Mercury astronauts at the Naval Medical Research Institute in Bethesda , Maryland .

Laughter is a physical reaction in humans and some other species of primate , consisting typically of rhythmical , often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system . It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli . Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled , or from humorous stories or thoughts . Most commonly , it is considered a visual expression of a number of positive emotional states , such as joy , mirth , happiness , relief , etc. . On some occasions , however , it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment , apology , or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh . Age , gender , education , language , and culture are all factors as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation .   Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain , helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations . Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group -- it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others . Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious , and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback . This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows .   The study of humor and laughter , and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body , is called gelotology .

Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) is a common measure of the volatility of gasoline . It is defined as the  absolute vapor pressure exerted by a liquid at 37.8 ° C ( 100 ° F ) as determined by the test method ASTM-D-323 . The test method measures the vapor pressure of gasoline , volatile crude oil , and other volatile petroleum products , except for liquefied petroleum gases . RVP is stated in kilopascals and represents a relative pressure to the atmospheric pressure because ASTM-D-323 measures the gauge pressure of the sample in a non-evacuated chamber . All values are in SI units and are regarded as standards . Imperial units are for information only .   The matter of vapor pressure is important relating to the function and operation of gasoline-powered , especially carbureted , vehicles . High levels of vaporization are desirable for winter starting and operation and lower levels are desirable in avoiding vapor lock during summer heat . Fuel can not be pumped when there is vapor in the fuel line ( summer ) and winter starting will be more difficult when liquid gasoline in the combustion chambers has not vaporized . Thus , oil refineries manipulate the Reid Vapor Pressure seasonally specifically to maintain gasoline engine reliability .   The Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) differs slightly from the true vapor pressure ( TVP ) of a liquid due to small sample vaporization and the presence of water vapor and air in the confined space of the test equipment . That is , the RVP is the absolute vapor pressure and the TVP is the partial vapor pressure .

The 1900 -- 1909 Pacific hurricane seasons all began on May 15 , 1900 , in the northeast Pacific Ocean and on June 1 , 1900 , in the central Pacific . They ended on November 30 , of each year . These dates conventionally delimit the time of year when most tropical cyclones form in northeast Pacific Ocean .   Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable . For a few years , there are no reported cyclones , although many systems certainly formed .   Pacific hurricane seasons  Pre -- 1900 1900 -- 1909 1910 -- 1919 1920 -- 1929

The respiratory zone is the site of O2 and CO2 exchange with the blood .   The respiratory bronchioles and the alveolar ducts are responsible for 10 % of the gas exchange.The alveoli are responsible for the other 90 % .   The respiratory zone represents the 16th through the 23rd division of the respiratory tract .

David J. E. Callaway is a biological nanophysicist in the New York University School of Medicine , where he is Professor and Laboratory Director . He was trained as a theoretical physicist by Richard Feynman and Cosmas Zachos , and was previously an associate professor at the Rockefeller University . Recently Callaway 's laboratory discovered potential new therapeutics for Alzheimer 's disease based upon apomorphine . An earlier paper of his developing models of Alzheimer amyloid formation , has been cited over 177 times in the Scopus database . He has also initiated the study of protein domain dynamics by neutron spin echo spectroscopy , providing a way to observe protein nanomachines in motion .   Previous work includes the invention of the microcanonical ensemble approach to lattice gauge theory with Aneesur Rahman , cited over 100 times , work on the convexity of the effective potential of quantum field theory , and work on Langevin dynamics in quantum field theory with John R. Klauder .   A monograph discussing Quantum triviality and whether an elementary scalar Higgs boson can exist was cited over 123 times in the HEP database . Another paper of his providing constraints on the Higgs boson has been cited over 103 times in that database as well . He has also published well-cited papers on topics including black holes , superconductors and protein chemistry .

Landlocked developing countries ( LLDC ) are developing countries that are landlocked . The economic and other disadvantages experienced by such countries makes the majority of landlocked countries least developed countries ( LDC ) , with inhabitants of these countries occupying the bottom billion tier of the world 's population in terms of poverty . Apart from Europe , there is not a single successful highly developed landlocked country as measured by the Human Development Index ( HDI ) , and nine of the twelve countries with the lowest HDI scores are landlocked . Landlocked European countries are exceptions in terms of development outcomes due to their close integration with the regional European market . Landlocked countries that rely on transoceanic trade usually suffer a cost of trade that is double that of their maritime neighbours . Landlocked countries experience economic growth 6 % less than their non-landlocked countries , holding other variables constant .   About 468 million people live in current LLDCs .

The Late Pleistocene is a geochronological age of the Pleistocene Epoch and is associated with Upper Pleistocene or Tarantian stage Pleistocene series rocks . The beginning of the stage is defined by the base of the Eemian interglacial phase before the final glacial episode of the Pleistocene 126,000 ± 5,000 years ago . The end of the age is defined as 11,700 years ago . The age represents the end of the Pleistocene epoch and is followed by the Holocene epoch .   Much of the Late Pleistocene age was dominated by glaciation ( the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and corresponding glacial periods in Eurasia ) . Many megafauna became extinct over this age , a trend that continued into the Holocene . Also , human species other than modern humans died out during the Pleistocene . Humanity spread to every continent except for Antarctica during the Late Pleistocene .


Question: Given that Pluto has an orbital period around the sun of approximately 248 Earth-years, astronomical records from 1970 up until now cover merely one-fourth of a Plutonian year.

 Observations Spanning Less Than A Third Of A Neptunian Year: Insights From Recent Studies
The vast expanse separating Neptune from the sun results in an orbital period significantly longer than those of inner solar system planets; specifically, completing just under half a single revolution around our star takes roughly eighty-two earth-years - meaning contemporary scientific monitoring since mid-twentieth century covers merely about thirty percent timeframe relative neptune’s yearly cycle! Despite this limitation regarding longitudinal coverage duration-wise speaking however there still exist numerous valuable discoveries made possible through meticulous analysis conducted across decades utilizing various technological advancements ranging radio astronomy techniques employed early stages space exploration era up till recent utilization advanced imaging capabilities afforded us courtesy cutting-edge observatory platforms both terrestrial extraterrestrial origin alike.

Intriguingly enough despite being last among classical eight major worlds residing within confines heliosphere (the bubble-like region surrounding sun filled charged particles emanating outward), Neptune boasts several superlatives pertaining physical attributes amongst peers namely ranking number four spot concerning overall width dimension whereas occupying bronze medal podium place concerning sheer bulkiness aspect ratio comparison exercise performed against competitors jupiter saturn uranus respectively. Moreover intriguing factoid associated celestial body relates density quotient wherein neptune emerges victorious edging past immediate rival uranus thereby securing title “densest giant” accolade much deserved indeed!

Interestingly unlike siblings sharing common heritage stemming primordial nebula birthplace circa billions years ago whose identities predominantly defined gaseous compositions chiefly comprising molecular forms hydrogen & helium alongside trace quantities heavier elements viz carbon compounds oxygen derivatives etc., Neptune exhibits unique chemical profile characterized presence significant fractions volatiles commonly referred colloquially parlance “ices”. Said term encompasses substances typically encountered solid state ambient conditions prevailing typical planetary environments yet paradoxically manifest liquid phase existence coreward depths owing immense pressures exerted voluminous atmospheric layers enveloping rocky mantles underneath. Prominent constituents belonging aforementioned category encompass aqueous solutions ammonia mixtures methanolic fluids prominently featuring throughout strata spanning entire radial extent extending right upto frigid upper reaches where frosty deposits accumulate forming visually stunning azure hues adorning majestic visage presented observers stationed vantage points scattered across cosmos.

Moreover fascinating phenomenon witnessed occurring regularly within turbulent skies enveloping distant world involves manifestation spectacular storm systems exhibiting uncanny resemblance counterparts gracing surfaces closer home albeit operating vastly different scales altogether. Case point – infamous ‘Great Dark Spot’ identified initially voyager mission later corroborated subsequent investigations revealing dynamic nature underlying mechanisms governing evolution temporal behavior pattern displayed therein. Additionally noteworthy attribute distinguishing neptune atmospherics concerns ferocious velocity attained zonal winds swirling perpetually enc

Kosmos 76 ( Космос 76 meaning Cosmos 76 ) , also known as DS-P1-Yu No. 3 was a Soviet satellite which was used as a radar calibration target for tests of anti-ballistic missiles . It was built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau , and launched in 1965 as part of the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik programme .   Kosmos 76 was launched using a Kosmos-2I 63S1 carrier rocket , which flew from Site 86/1 at Kapustin Yar . The launch occurred at 04:33 UTC on 23 July 1965 .   Kosmos 76 separated from its carrier rocket into a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 255 km , an apogee of 499 km , 48.7 degrees of inclination , and an orbital period of 92.09 minutes . It decayed from orbit on 16 March 1966 . Kosmos 76 was the third of seventy nine DS-P1-Yu satellites to be launched , of which all but seven were successful . It replaced the previous satellite , DS-P1-Yu No. 2 , which had failed to reach orbit due to a second stage malfunction

Korg : 70,000 B.C. is a 30-minute Saturday morning live-action television series created by Fred Freiberger , narrated by Burgess Meredith and produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions which was broadcast on ABC from September 7 , 1974 to August 30 , 1975 .   Korg featured the adventures of a family of Neanderthals during the Ice Age . It was intended to be educational , and was based on the best then-current research about Neanderthal life , except where its situations had to be watered down for a young audience which Hanna , Barbera , and the network feared might be terrified without such expurgation .   A board game of the same title was produced by the US toy company Milton Bradley as a direct tie-in . Charlton Comics published a Korg comic book from May 1975 to November 1976 . The series was written and drawn by Pat Boyette , and lasted for 9 issues .   The American Museum of Natural History and The Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History served as consultants to the series .   The complete series was released by Warner Archive on December 11 , 2012 .

The retention period of information is an aspect of records and information management ( RIM ) and the records life cycle . It identifies the duration of time for which the information should be maintained or `` retained '' , irrespective of format ( paper , electronic , or other ) . Retention periods vary on different types of information , based on content and a variety of other factors including : internal organizational need , regulatory requirements for inspection or audit , legal statutes of limitation , involvement in litigation , taxation and financial reporting needs , as well as other factors as defined by local , regional , state , national and/or international governing entities .   Once an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information , and all holds/moratoriums have been released , the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method , which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means . Information with historical value beyond its `` usable value '' may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation .

David John McComas ( born May 22 , 1958 ) is an American space plasma physicist , Vice President for Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory , and Professor of Astrophysical Sciences at Princeton University . He had been Assistant Vice President for Space Science and Engineering at the Southwest Research Institute , full Adjoint Professor of Physics at the University of Texas at San Antonio ( UTSA ) , and was the founding director of the Center for Space Science and Exploration at Los Alamos National Laboratory . He is noted for his extensive accomplishments in experimental space plasma physics , including leading instruments and missions to study the heliosphere and solar wind : Ulysses/SWOOPS , ACE/SWEPAM , IBEX , TWINS , and Solar Probe Plus . He received the 2014 COSPAR Space Science Award and the NASA Exceptional Public Service Medal .

One decade is a factor of 10 difference between two numbers ( an order of magnitude difference ) measured on a logarithmic scale . Along with the octave , it is a logarithmic unit used to describe frequency bands or frequency ratios . It is especially useful when referring to frequencies and when describing frequency response of electronic systems , such as audio amplifiers and filters .

Dione ( -LSB- daɪˈoʊni -RSB- ; Διώνη ) is a moon of Saturn . It was discovered by Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684 . It is named after the Titaness Dione of Greek mythology . It is also designated Saturn IV .

A lava planet is a hypothetical type of terrestrial planet , with a surface mostly or entirely covered by molten lava . Situations where such planets could exist include a young terrestrial planet just after its formation , a planet that has recently suffered a large collision event , or a planet orbiting very close to its star , causing intense irradiation and tidal forces .

Kosmos 497 ( Космос 497 meaning Cosmos 497 ) , also known as DS-P1-I No. 12 was a satellite which was used as a radar target for anti-ballistic missile tests . It was launched by the Soviet Union in 1972 as part of the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik programme .   It was launched aboard a Kosmos-2I 63SM rocket , from Site 133/1 at Plesetsk . The launch occurred at 09:19:49 UTC on 30 June 1972 .   Kosmos 497 was placed into a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 271 km , an apogee of 787 km , 70.9 degrees of inclination , and an orbital period of 95.2 minutes . It decayed from orbit on 7 November 1973 .   Kosmos 497 was the twelfth of nineteen DS-P1-I satellites to be launched . Of these , all reached orbit successfully except the seventh .

Dennis di Cicco ( born 1950 ) is an American amateur astronomer and a discoverer of minor planets , who lives in New England .   He has discovered 60 numbered asteroids from his backyard observatory in Sudbury , Massachusetts ( IAU code 817 ) . He was a member of the editorial staff of Sky and Telescope magazine from 1974 until his resignation as senior editor in June 2014 . His special interests include astronomical photography and the history of astronomical photography , telescope making , and astronomical observing . During 1978 and 1979 he was the first person to successfully photograph the analemma , making 48 separate exposures on a single piece of film during a 12-month period . The project is described in the June 1979 issue of Sky & Telescope . The asteroid 3841 Dicicco was named after him .   He grew up in Hanover , Massachusetts .

In cosmology , decoupling refers to a period in the development of the universe when different types of particles fall out of thermal equilibrium with each other . This occurs as a result of the expansion of the universe , as their interaction rates decrease ( and mean free paths increase ) up to this critical point . The two verified instances of decoupling since the Big Bang which are most often discussed are photon decoupling and neutrino decoupling , as these led to the cosmic microwave background and cosmic neutrino background , respectively .