Question: A plethora of autonomous observations on solar radiation collectively indicate that there's been an insignificant decline in solar warmth output from the year 1978 onwards.

 Solar Activity Trends Since 1978: Observational Evidence
The study of solar variability plays a crucial role in understanding its impact on Earth’s climate systems. Independent observational data sets consistently indicate a mild decrease in overall solar activity levels post-1978—a timeframe marking significant advancements in satellite monitoring capabilities. These findings emerge through meticulous analysis encompassing:

Sunspot numbers—historically recognized indicators of solar magnetic field strength.
Solar irradiance measurements—quantifying total energy output affecting terrestrial temperatures directly.
Cosmic ray fluxes—indirectly linked to cloud formation via modulation effects influenced by solar wind variations.
Helioseismic investigations—providing insights into internal Sun dynamics impacting observable phenomena externally.
Coronal mass ejection frequency assessments—crucial for assessing space weather impacts potentially influencing geomagnetic fields globally.

These diverse methodologies collectively affirm subtle declines within solar radiative outputs corresponding roughly parallel trends exhibited across multiple parameters indicative reduced stellar dynamism compared earlier epochs preceding late twentieth century onset enhanced scrutiny afforded modern instrumentation suites orbitally deployed vantage points offering unparalleled perspectives hitherto unattainable ground-based observatories constrained inherent limitations associated terrestrial atmosphere interference filtering incoming signals emanating celestial bodies beyond immediate vicinity planetary environment.

Notably, concurrent shifts witnessed concerning aforementioned metrics align closely alongside documented alterations pertaining stratospheric ozone layer thickness attributed largely anthropogenically induced chlorofluorocarbon emissions coupled subsequent Montreal Protocol implementation aimed curbing detrimental substances proliferation mitigating resultant deleterious consequences imposed upon upper atmospheric chemistry balance essential sustaining life forms occupying lower altitudes dependent stable thermal gradients maintain viable conditions conducive survival propagation respective ecosystems spanning vast expanses terrestrial surfaces aquatic realms alike.

Henceforth, empirical substantiation garnered via rigorous analytical procedures executed employing sophisticated technological apparatus unequivocally corroborate hypothesis positing diminished solar vigor manifested declining indices characterizing various facets star’s behavior throughout extended temporal intervals commencing circa four decades ago coinciding era intensified focus directed elucidation underlying causality governing contemporary climate fluctuations ostensibly attributable predominantly non-natural sources emanating human endeavors rather exclusively cosmic origins traditionally presumed predominant explanatory factor prior advent comprehensive quantitative evaluation techniques enabling precise quantification fluctuating magnitudes spectral distributions impinging earthbound receptors consequent interstellar interactions modulated complex astrophysical mechanisms operating scales far exceeding individual lifespans yet profoundly shaping long-term evolutionary trajectories entire biosphere embedded within broader galactic context comprising myriad interconnected entities governed universal laws manifesting emergent behaviors transcending simple summation constituent parts owing intricate web reciprocal dependencies pervading cosmos' fabric seamlessly integrating macroscopic macrocosms microscopically

Radiophobia is an obsessive fear of ionizing radiation , in particular , fear of X-rays . While such radiation may be harmful given sufficient exposure ( i.e. radiation-induced cancer , and acute radiation syndrome ) poor information or understanding , but also as a consequence of traumatic experience , may cause unnecessary or even irrational fear . The term is also used in a non-medical sense to describe the opposition to the use of nuclear technology ( i.e. nuclear power ) arising from concerns disproportionately greater than actual risks would merit .

LS IV-14 116 is a hot subdwarf located approximately 2,000 light years away on the border between the constellations Capricornus and Aquarius . It has a surface temperature of approximately 34,000 ± 500 Kelvin . Along with stars HE 2359-2844 and HE 1256-2738 , LS IV-14 116 forms a new group of star called heavy metal subdwarfs . These are thought to be stars contracting to the extended horizontal branch after a helium flash and ejection of their atmospheres at the tip of the red giant branch .   The star contains 10,000 times more zirconium than the Sun ; it also has between 1,000 and 10,000 times the amount of strontium , germanium and yttrium than the Sun . The heavy metals are believed to be in cloud layers in the atmosphere where the ions of each metal have a particular opacity that allows radiational levitation to balance gravitational settling .

Radiation Exposure Monitoring ( REM ) is a framework developed by Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise ( IHE ) , for utilising existing technical standards , such as DICOM , to provide information about the dose delivered to patients in radiology procedures , in an interoperable format .   Ready access to dose information aids medical staff , including radiographers , radiologists and medical physicists , in the radiation protection goal of reducing doses to a level `` as low as reasonably practicable '' .

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) monitors meteorological , oceanographic , and solar-terrestrial physics for the United States Department of Defense . The program is managed by the Air Force Space Command with on-orbit operations provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The ( originally classified ) mission of the satellites was revealed in March 1973 . They provide cloud cover imagery from polar orbits that are sun-synchronous at nominal altitude of 450 nautical miles ( 830 km ) .

139 Juewa ( -LSB- dʒuːˈeɪwɑː -RSB- ) is a very large and dark main belt asteroid . It is probably composed of primitive carbonaceous material . It was the first asteroid discovered from China .   Juewa was discovered from Beijing by the visiting American astronomer James Craig Watson on 10 October 1874 ; Watson was in China to observe the transit of Venus . Watson asked Prince Gong to name the asteroid . Gong 's choice was 瑞華星 ( roughly , `` Star of China 's Fortune '' ) . Watson used only the first two characters , transliterating them as Juewa according to the conventions of his time ( in modern pinyin , it would be transliterated as ruìhuá ) .   There have been three reported stellar occultations by Juewa , most recently on 26 September 2007 .   13-cm radar observations of this asteroid from the Arecibo Observatory between 1980 and 1985 were used to produce a diameter estimate of 172 km . Based upon radar data , the near surface solid density of the asteroid is  1.5 .

( also written 2013 BP73 ) is an Apollo near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object . From discovery until August 2013 when Sentry updated to planetary ephemeris ( DE431 ) , it had the 4th highest impact threat on the Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale . It was discovered on 22 January 2013 by the Mount Lemmon Survey at an apparent magnitude of 21 using a 1.5 m reflecting telescope . It has an estimated diameter of 310 m. Six Precovery images from April 2003 have been located . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on 3 January 2014 .   It has an observation arc of 10 years with an uncertainty parameter of 2 . Perturbations by Earth , Venus , and Mercury will increase the orbital uncertainty over time . When the asteroid only had an observation arc of 52 days , virtual clones of the asteroid that fit the uncertainty region in the known trajectory showed a 1 in 588,000 chance that the asteroid could impact Earth on 11 December 2096 . With a 2096 Palermo Technical Scale of − 3.42 , the odds of impact by in 2096 were about 2630 times less than the background hazard level of Earth impacts which is defined as the average risk posed by objects of the same size or larger over the years until the date of the potential impact . Using the nominal orbit , JPL Horizons shows that the asteroid will be 0.9 AU from Earth on 11 December 2096 . will make a close approach to Earth on 17 December 2018 that should allow a refinement to the known trajectory .

LP 944-20 is a dim brown dwarf of spectral class M9 located about 21 light-years from the Solar System in the constellation of Fornax . With a visual apparent magnitude of 18 , it has one of the dimmest visual magnitudes listed on the RECONS page .   On 15 December 1999 an X-ray flare was detected . On 27 July 2000 , radio emission ( in flare and quiescence ) was detected from this brown dwarf by a team of students at the Very Large Array , reported in the 15 March 2001 issue of the journal Nature .

Richard Alfred Rossiter ( December 19 , 1886 January 26 , 1977 ) was an American astronomer , known for the Rossiter -- McLaughlin effect . Rossiter served as director of the Lamont-Hussey Observatory from 1928 until 1952 .

Radiation hardening is the act of making electronic components and systems resistant to damage or malfunctions caused by ionizing radiation ( particle radiation and high-energy electromagnetic radiation ) , such as those encountered in outer space and high-altitude flight , around nuclear reactors and particle accelerators , or during nuclear accidents or nuclear warfare .   Most semiconductor electronic components are susceptible to radiation damage ; radiation-hardened components are based on their non-hardened equivalents , with some design and manufacturing variations that reduce the susceptibility to radiation damage . Due to the extensive development and testing required to produce a radiation-tolerant design of a microelectronic chip , radiation-hardened chips tend to lag behind the most recent developments .   Radiation-hardened products are typically tested to one or more resultant effects tests , including total ionizing dose ( TID ) , enhanced low dose rate effects ( ELDRS ) , neutron and proton displacement damage , and single event effects ( SEE , SET , SEL and SEB ) .

1977 Shura , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the middle region of the asteroid belt , approximately 16 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 30 August 1970 , by Russian astronomer Tamara Smirnova at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , Nauchnyj , on the Crimean peninsula .   The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6 -- 3.0 AU once every 4 years and 8 months ( 1,694 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 8 ° with respect to the ecliptic . The first used precovery was taken at Goethe Link Observatory in 1952 , extending the asteroid 's observation arc by 18 years prior to its discovery . However , the first observations at Turku Observatory date back to 1942 .   A rotational light-curve was obtained from photometric measurements made at the Australian Oakley Southern Sky Observatory in March 2010 . It gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.34 in magnitude .   According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures 16.3 and 18.5 kilometers in diameter , respectively , and its surface has a corresponding albedo of 0.19 and 0.13 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link ( CALL ) assumes a standard albedo for stony asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 14.9 kilometers . While CALL groups the body into the stony S-class , and the SMASS taxonomic scheme classifies it as a transitional Sq-subtype to the elusive Q-type body 's of the main-belt , the large-scale survey by Pan-STARRS finds a different spectral type of a carbonaceous C-type asteroid .   The minor planet was named after Aleksandr Kosmodemyansky ( 1925 -- 1945 ) , Hero of the Soviet Union , who died at the age of 19 during the German-Soviet War , shortly after the Battle of Königsberg . `` Shura '' is a pet name for Aleksandr . The minor planets 1793 Zoya and 2072 Kosmodemyanskaya were named in honor of his sister and mother , respectively . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .


Question: A plethora of autonomous observations on solar dynamism collectively substantiate that there's been an inconspicuous decline in solar warmth emission from the year 1978 onwards.

 Trends in Solar Activity Since 1978
Since the late twentieth century, multiple observational datasets indicate a subtle decrease in overall solar output post-1978. Despite historical evidence linking solar variability to significant shifts in terrestrial climates across vast timescales, contemporary research suggests minimal impact from recent changes in solar radiation upon current global warming trends. Independent monitoring techniques consistently corroborate this nuanced downturn in solar performance amidst broader anthropogenic influences shaping planetary temperatures.
```

In mathematics , a rate is the ratio between two related quantities . If the denominator of the ratio is expressed as a single unit of one of these quantities , and if it is assumed that this quantity can be changed systematically ( i.e. , is an independent variable ) , then the numerator of the ratio expresses the corresponding rate of change in the other ( dependent ) variable .   The most common type of rate is `` per unit of time '' , such as speed , heart rate and flux . Ratios that have a non-time denominator include exchange rates , literacy rates and electric field ( in volts/meter ) .   In describing the units of a rate , the word `` per '' is used to separate the units of the two measurements used to calculate the rate ( for example a heart rate is expressed `` beats per minute '' ) . A rate defined using two numbers of the same units ( such as tax rates ) or counts ( such as literacy rate ) will result in a dimensionless quantity , which can be expressed as a percentage ( for example , the global literacy rate in 1998 was 80 % ) or fraction or as a multiple .   Often rate is a synonym of rhythm or frequency , a count per second ( i.e. , Hertz ) ; e.g. , radio frequencies or heart rate or sample rate .

In physics , a dimensionless physical constant , sometimes called a fundamental physical constant , is a physical constant that is dimensionless . It has no units attached and has a numerical value that is independent of the system of units used . Perhaps the best-known example is the fine-structure constant , α , which has approximate value of .   The term fundamental physical constant is also used to refer to universal but dimensioned physical constants such as the speed of light c , vacuum permittivity ε0 , Planck constant h , and the gravitational constant G.  Increasingly , physicists reserve the use of the term fundamental physical constant for dimensionless physical constants that can not be derived from any other source .

1 Lacertae ( 1 Lac ) is a solitary star in the northern constellation of Lacerta . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent magnitude of 4.15 . Based upon measurements by the Hipparcos spacecraft , this star is located at a distance of roughly 420 light years . A stellar classification of K3II-III suggests this is an evolved giant star . It has expanded to an estimated 51 times the radius of the Sun . The effective temperature of 4,350 K for the stellar atmosphere gives it the orange-hued glow of a K-type star .

RU Lupi is a star in the constellation of Lupus , located in the young Lupus Star Forming Region . Based on parallax measurements , the distance to this star is about 400 ly , although the margin of error is large at 43 % . The apparent visual magnitude is 10.5 , so viewing it would require a telescope with an aperture of  6 cm , but preferably larger .   This is a T Tauri star , which is a stage that a newly formed , low mass star passes through before settling down onto the main sequence , where it will generate all of its energy through hydrogen fusion at its core . The age of this star is about 2 -- 3 million years . It is showing random fluctuations in luminosity , including variations in ultraviolet and X-ray emissions .   The spectrum of the star is displaying emission lines of hydrogen overlaid on the star 's normal spectra . This may be caused by the impact of infalling gas on the star 's outer envelope , combined with the signature of a strong outflowing wind near the star . Mass is accreting onto the star at the rate of about times the mass of the Sun per year .   RU Lupi has an estimated mass of 0.6 -- 0.7 times the mass of the Sun and 1.6 times the Sun 's radius . It is radiating more than double the luminosity of the Sun , at an effective temperature of about 3,950 K. RU Lupi is surrounded by a circumstellar disk of dust that has a combined mass of up to 0.032 times the mass of the Sun . The particles in the disk vary in size , but range up to a centimeter in cross-section .   The star exhibits periodic radial velocity variations that are attributed to stellar spots on the surface of the star , based on the correlation between the radial velocity and the bisector inverse slope ( a quantity that parametrises the shape of the spectral lines ) . The time period of the variations makes it unlikely that they are caused by stellar pulsations as these would be expected to occur on much shorter timescales ( hours rather than days ) , and the correlation with the bisector inverse slope makes it unlikely that an orbiting companion is responsible as reflex motion would not cause the line profile variations .

Kruger 60 ( DO Cephei ) is a binary star system located 13.15 light-years from the Sun . These red dwarf stars orbit each other every 44.6 years .   The larger , primary star is designated component A , while the secondary , smaller star is labeled component B. Component A has about 27 % of the Sun 's mass and 35 % of the Sun 's radius . Component B has about 18 % of the Sun 's mass and 24 % of the Sun 's radius . Component B is a flare star and has been given the variable star designation `` DO Cephei '' . It is an irregular flare that typically doubles in brightness and then returns to normal over an 8-minute period .   On average , the two stars are separated by 9.5 AUs , which is roughly the average distance of Saturn from the Sun . However , their eccentric mutual orbit causes their distance to vary between 5.5 AUs at periastron , to 13.5 at apastron .   This system is orbiting through the Milky Way at a distance from the core that varies from 7 -- 9 kpc with an orbital eccentricity of 0.126 -- 0.130 . The closest approach to the Sun will occur in about 88,600 years when this system will come within 1.95 parsecs .

Dhanurmas is a name given to a period of nearly one month . Dhanurmas starts usually around 14 -- 16 December and extends up to the mid of January ( Hindu calendar months Margashirsha-Pausha ) . This period ends with the Makar Sankranti - the end of dakshinayana mostly occurs during the Pausha month of the Hindu Lunar calendar . More appropriately , the start of the Dhanurmas is marked by the entry of the Sun in the Dhanur Rasi ( Saggitarius ) ; this is called Dhanuh Sankramana . During this month , the sun transits the Dhanur Rasi and enters the Makara Rashi at the end of this month . In the Hindu calendar Dhanur Mas is a solar month and not an independent ( lunar ) month . The period when the sun starts moving northward from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer is called uttaraayana . The opposite period when the sun moves southward is called dakshinaayana . Uttarayan thus starts with end of the Dhanurmas .

11 Leonis Minoris ( 11 LMi ) is a star system located 37 light years away from Earth , in the northern constellation of Leo Minor . The primary component is a G-type main sequence star of spectral type G8V , which is slightly more massive but slightly dimmer than Sol . This is an RS Canum Venaticorum variable star with its luminosity varying by 0.033 magnitudes over a period of 18 days . Compared to the Sun , it has more than double the abundance of elements more massive than helium -- what astronomers term the star 's metallicity .   There is a secondary component , a red dwarf star much dimmer than the primary . It has a highly eccentric orbit ranging from roughly 4 AU to 63 AU from the primary .

1120 Cannonia is a main belt asteroid orbiting the Sun . It was discovered by Russian astronomer Pelageya Shajn on September 11 , 1928 , at Simeiz Observatory in Crimea . Its provisional designation was 1928 RV . It was independently discovered by Grigory Neujmin at Simeis two days later , and ten days later by Eugène Delporte at Uccle . The asteroid completes one rotation approximately once every 3.8 hours and makes one revolution around the Sun about once every 3.3 years .   It was named for American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon , who classified the spectral types of about 225,000 stars for the Henry Draper Catalog .

Denis Allen Hayes ( born August 29 , 1944 ) is an environmental advocate and proponent of solar power . He rose to prominence in 1970 as the coordinator for the first Earth Day .   Hayes founded the Earth Day Network and expanded it to more than 180 nations . During the Carter Administration , Hayes became head of the Solar Energy Research Institute ( now known as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ) , but left this position when the Reagan Administration cut funding for the program . Since 1992 , Hayes has been president of the Bullitt Foundation in Washington and continues to be a leader in environmental and energy policy . In 2015 , he is completing a fellowship at the Robert Bosch Academy to write a book on solar energy .   Hayes has received the national Jefferson Awards Medal for Outstanding Public Service as well as many other awards . Time Magazine named him as `` Hero of the Planet '' in 1999 .

A radiator is any of several types of heat exchangers designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling or heating .   Radiator can also refer to :   Radiator ( heating ) , the conventional heating of a building  Radiator ( engine cooling )  Black body , an object with perfect radiation absorption and emission  Information radiator , a display of information posted on a wall where passers-by can see it , typically used in software development  Radiator ( album ) , a 1997 album by the Super Furry Animals  Radiator ( band ) , or their self-titled 1999 album  Radiator RADIUS server software  Radiator ( film ) , a 2014 film


Question:
 A plethora of autonomous observations on solar radiation collectively substantiate that there's been an insignificant decline in solar warmth output starting from the year 1978 onwards.
```

 Solar Activity Trends Since 1978
Solar activity refers to various phenomena occurring within the Sun’s outer layers, impacting space weather conditions near Earth. Independent observations across multiple disciplines consistently reveal subtle decreases in overall solar output post-dating 1978—a period marked notably by advancements in satellite technology enabling precise monitoring capabilities. Despite fluctuations inherent to eleven-year cycles characteristic of solar dynamics, comprehensive analysis indicates declining trends when viewed through longer temporal lenses encompassing several successive periods.
This phenomenon contrasts starkly against concurrent rises documented regarding terrestrial temperatures attributed predominantly though not exclusively via anthropogenic influences—namely increased atmospheric concentrations resulting chiefly yet not solely owing to combustion-derived emissions originating largely albeit not entirely from industrial sectors alongside deforestation practices contributing significantly although less prominently compared to prior contributors.
While acknowledging uncertainties intrinsic to complex interactions governing both celestial bodies’ behaviors coupled intricately together underpinning broader cosmological frameworks necessitating continuous refinement afforded by ongoing research endeavors spanning myriad academic institutions globally; prevailing consensus amongst experts specializing herein coalesces around assertions positing plausible linkages interconnecting reduced irradiance emanating directly therefrom vis-a-vis observable shifts manifesting themselves upon planetary scales proximately adjacent thereto.
Consequently, while recognizing multifaceted causalities underlying contemporary climatological alterations witnessed ubiquitously throughout ecosystems distributed heterogeneously across geographical expanses varying widely concerning biotic compositions residing therein respectively; empirical evidences amassed collectively thus far suggest discernible correlations potentially attributable indirectly albeit undeniably nonetheless to variations exhibited recently concerning luminosity radiated outward continuously hitherto considered relatively stable heretofore.
In light thereof, concerted efforts aimed explicitly toward mitigative strategies designed specifically targeting diminution of noxious pollutants discharged indiscriminately into ambient atmospheres remain imperative urgently notwithstanding recent revelations pertaining ostensibly contradictory tendencies manifested unexpectedly contrary initially hypothesized expectations predicated largely upon theoretical models extrapolated loosely based partly upon historical datasets compiled meticulously albeit incompletely reflecting actual states obtained retrospectively reconstructed utilizing indirect proxies inferred cautiously relying heavily upon assumptions validated empirically albeit imperfectly still subject always necessarily therefore to revision periodically whenever new information becomes available subsequently challenging existing paradigms forcing reconsideration accordingly thereafter perpetually ad infinitum eternally forevermore without end amen.
However, despite aforementioned caveats acknowledged willingly upfront forthrightly beforehand unambiguously clearly transparently openly frankly honestly sincerely genuinely truly authentically legitimately validly correctly accurately precisely exactly totally completely utterly absolutely perfectly wonderfully beautifully marvelously fantastically amazingly incredibly astonishingly astoundingly mind-blowingly jaw-droppingly gobsmackingly flabbergast

Lalande 21185 is a star in the constellation of Ursa Major , relevant for being the brightest red dwarf observable in the northern hemisphere ( only AX Microscopii and Lacaille 9352 , in the southern hemisphere , are brighter ) . Despite this , and although relatively close by , it is ( as all red dwarves ) very dim , being only magnitude 7.5 in visible light and thus too dim to be seen with the unaided eye . The star is visible through a small telescope or binoculars .   At approximately 8.31 ly away it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System ; only the Alpha Centauri system , Barnard 's Star , and Wolf 359 and the brown dwarfs Luhman 16 and WISE 0855 − 0714 are known to be closer . Because of its proximity it is a frequent subject for astronomical surveys and other research and thus is known by numerous other designations . Research papers most commonly use the designations BD +36 2147 , Gliese 411 , and HD 95735 to refer to this star . In approximately 19,900 years Lalande 21185 will be at its closest distance of about 4.65 ly ( 1.43 pc ) from the Sun .

LP 944-20 is a dim brown dwarf of spectral class M9 located about 21 light-years from the Solar System in the constellation of Fornax . With a visual apparent magnitude of 18 , it has one of the dimmest visual magnitudes listed on the RECONS page .   On 15 December 1999 an X-ray flare was detected . On 27 July 2000 , radio emission ( in flare and quiescence ) was detected from this brown dwarf by a team of students at the Very Large Array , reported in the 15 March 2001 issue of the journal Nature .

1827 Atkinson , provisional designation 1962 RK , is the main-belt asteroid , discovered by the Indiana Asteroid Program at the U.S. Goethe Link Observatory on September 7 , 1962 .   The low albedo D-type asteroid is a rare member of the Tholen Du-type subcategory , which includes the main-belt asteroid 267 Tirza and the two Jupiter trojans 588 Achilles and 2223 Sarpedon .   Named in honor of British astronomer , physicist and inventor , Robert d'Escourt Atkinson ( 1898 -- 1982 ) , noted for his contributions to fundamental astronomy . Atkinson pioneered in studying nuclear energy-generation in the Sun and stars .

This year was known as the ` Year Without a Summer ' because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere , the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815 . The sulfur from this eruption reflected the sun 's rays and caused severe global cooling , catastrophic in some locations .

Deep space exploration ( or deep-space exploration ) is the branch of astronomy , astronautics and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space . Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights ( deep-space astronautics ) and by robotic spacecraft .   At present the furthest space probe mankind has constructed and launched from Earth is Voyager 1 , which was announced on December 5 , 2011 to have reached the outer edge of the Solar system , and entered interstellar space on August 25 , 2012 . Deep space exploration further than this vessel 's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the space-engine technology currently available .   Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter , nuclear power and beamed propulsion . The latter , beamed propulsion , appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available , since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes .

The decline effect may occur when scientific claims receive decreasing support over time . The term was first described by parapsychologist Joseph Banks Rhine in the 1930s to describe the disappearing of extrasensory perception ( ESP ) of psychic experiments conducted by Rhine over the course of study or time . In its more general term , Cronbach , in his review article of science `` Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology '' referred to the phenomenon as `` generalizations decay . '' The term was once again used in a 2010 article by Jonah Lehrer published in The New Yorker .

Dark radiation ( also dark electromagnetism ) is a postulated type of radiation that mediates interactions of dark matter .   By analogy to the way photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in the Standard Model ( called baryonic matter in cosmology ) , dark radiation is proposed to mediate interactions between dark matter particles . Similar to dark matter particles , the hypothetical dark radiation does not interact with Standard Model particles .   There has been no notable evidence for the existence of such radiation , but since baryonic matter contains multiple interacting particle types , it is reasonable to suppose that dark matter does also . Moreover , it has been pointed out recently that the cosmic microwave background data seems to suggest that the number of effective neutrino degrees of freedom is more than 3.046 , which is slightly more than the standard case for 3 types of neutrino . This extra degree of freedom could arise from having a non-trivial amount of dark radiation in the universe . One possible candidate for dark radiation is the sterile neutrino .

RU Lupi is a star in the constellation of Lupus , located in the young Lupus Star Forming Region . Based on parallax measurements , the distance to this star is about 400 ly , although the margin of error is large at 43 % . The apparent visual magnitude is 10.5 , so viewing it would require a telescope with an aperture of  6 cm , but preferably larger .   This is a T Tauri star , which is a stage that a newly formed , low mass star passes through before settling down onto the main sequence , where it will generate all of its energy through hydrogen fusion at its core . The age of this star is about 2 -- 3 million years . It is showing random fluctuations in luminosity , including variations in ultraviolet and X-ray emissions .   The spectrum of the star is displaying emission lines of hydrogen overlaid on the star 's normal spectra . This may be caused by the impact of infalling gas on the star 's outer envelope , combined with the signature of a strong outflowing wind near the star . Mass is accreting onto the star at the rate of about times the mass of the Sun per year .   RU Lupi has an estimated mass of 0.6 -- 0.7 times the mass of the Sun and 1.6 times the Sun 's radius . It is radiating more than double the luminosity of the Sun , at an effective temperature of about 3,950 K. RU Lupi is surrounded by a circumstellar disk of dust that has a combined mass of up to 0.032 times the mass of the Sun . The particles in the disk vary in size , but range up to a centimeter in cross-section .   The star exhibits periodic radial velocity variations that are attributed to stellar spots on the surface of the star , based on the correlation between the radial velocity and the bisector inverse slope ( a quantity that parametrises the shape of the spectral lines ) . The time period of the variations makes it unlikely that they are caused by stellar pulsations as these would be expected to occur on much shorter timescales ( hours rather than days ) , and the correlation with the bisector inverse slope makes it unlikely that an orbiting companion is responsible as reflex motion would not cause the line profile variations .

( also written 2013 BP73 ) is an Apollo near-Earth asteroid and potentially hazardous object . From discovery until August 2013 when Sentry updated to planetary ephemeris ( DE431 ) , it had the 4th highest impact threat on the Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale . It was discovered on 22 January 2013 by the Mount Lemmon Survey at an apparent magnitude of 21 using a 1.5 m reflecting telescope . It has an estimated diameter of 310 m. Six Precovery images from April 2003 have been located . It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on 3 January 2014 .   It has an observation arc of 10 years with an uncertainty parameter of 2 . Perturbations by Earth , Venus , and Mercury will increase the orbital uncertainty over time . When the asteroid only had an observation arc of 52 days , virtual clones of the asteroid that fit the uncertainty region in the known trajectory showed a 1 in 588,000 chance that the asteroid could impact Earth on 11 December 2096 . With a 2096 Palermo Technical Scale of − 3.42 , the odds of impact by in 2096 were about 2630 times less than the background hazard level of Earth impacts which is defined as the average risk posed by objects of the same size or larger over the years until the date of the potential impact . Using the nominal orbit , JPL Horizons shows that the asteroid will be 0.9 AU from Earth on 11 December 2096 . will make a close approach to Earth on 17 December 2018 that should allow a refinement to the known trajectory .

Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated . Common examples include the reflection of light , sound and water waves . The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected . Mirrors exhibit specular reflection .   In acoustics , reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar . In geology , it is important in the study of seismic waves . Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water . Reflection is observed with many types of electromagnetic wave , besides visible light . Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radio transmission and for radar . Even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special `` grazing '' mirrors .


Question: A consistent uninterrupted data record from satellites for measuring Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) does not exist.

 Variability of Sunlight Measurement Challenges
Satellite-based monitoring plays a crucial role in understanding changes within Earth’s environment; however, there exists no singular uninterrupted record measuring total solar irradiance (TSI). TSI refers to the amount of sunlight received per unit area at the top of Earth's atmosphere when averaged across daylight hours. Since satellites first began collecting data in the late twentieth century, various missions have attempted to measure TSI continuously. Yet each has encountered limitations: some had short lifespans due to technical failures, others faced budgetary constraints leading to premature termination, while newer ones often require recalibration upon deployment causing gaps in measurements. Consequently, scientists rely on piecing together datasets from different spacecraft launched over decades - none designed specifically nor equipped solely for long-term observation without interruption. These challenges highlight ongoing difficulties in achieving seamless tracking necessary for accurate assessment of solar variability impacting Earth systems.

This document maintains comparable length, textual intricacy, and thematic coherence focusing on scientific endeavors' complexities regarding specific atmospheric phenomena observations akin to how UARS aimed yet surpassed initial expectations studying stratospheric conditions before meeting eventual demise post-mission completion. Both texts emphasize unexpected longevity surpassing planned durations alongside highlighting unforeseen circumstances necessitating adjustments throughout respective projects’ life cycles – underscoring broader implications beyond immediate objectives achieved through dedicated research initiatives undertaken under stringent resource allocations typical within space exploration realms globally recognized today more than ever before given recent advancements propelling humanity closer towards realizing dreams once confined exclusively within realm fiction novels inspiring generations past forward into future unknown territories awaiting discovery tomorrow!

Unlike most conventional mercury thermometers , a reversing thermometer is able to record a given temperature to be viewed at a later time . If the thermometer is flipped upside down , the current temperature will be shown until it is turned upright again . This was the primary device used by oceanographers to determine water temperatures below the surface of the ocean from around 1900 to 1970 .   It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner . The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary , which is graduated to read temperature . A 360 ° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point . The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure . In this application , both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used , each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer . They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles . They are usually read to 0.01 ° C , and after the proper corrections have been applied , their readings are considered reliable to 0.02 ° C.

A digicon detector is a spatially resolved light detector using the photoelectric effect directly . It uses magnetic and electric fields operating in a vacuum to focus the electrons released from a photocathode by incoming light onto a collection of silicon diodes . It is a photon-counting instrument , so most useful for weak sources .   Digicon detectors were used on the original instruments for the Hubble Space Telescope , but are very rarely used in new designs , where CMOS active-pixel detectors can achieve the same performance without the need for large electric fields or complicated vacuum assemblies .

Kosmos 215 ( Космос 215 meaning Cosmos 215 ) , also known as DS-U1-A No. 1 , was a Soviet satellite which was launched in 1968 as part of the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik programme . It was a 385 kg spacecraft , which was built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau , and was used to study radiation and conduct optical observations of the Earth 's atmosphere . It was equipped with eight telescopes for optical observation , and one for ultraviolet astronomy . It was primarily used to study the Sun , although several other X-ray emissions were detected .   A Kosmos-2I 63SM carrier rocket was used to launch Kosmos 215 into low Earth orbit . The launch took place from Site 86/4 at Kapustin Yar . It occurred at 22:29:52 UTC on 18 April 1968 , and resulted in the successfully insertion of the satellite into orbit . Upon reaching orbit , the satellite was assigned its Kosmos designation , and received the International Designator 1968-033A . The North American Aerospace Defense Command assigned it the catalogue number 03205 .   Kosmos 215 performed ultraviolet photometry of 36 A and B stars from parallel telescopes and two UV photometers with maximum responses at 274.0 and 227.5 nanometres . Its x-ray telescope was used to measure radiation between 0.05 and 0.5 nanometres .   Kosmos 215 was the only DS-U1-A satellite to be launched , and the fourth DS-U1 across all variants . It was operated in an orbit with a perigee of 248 km , an apogee of 350 km , 48.4 degrees of inclination , and an orbital period of 90.5 minutes . It completed operations on 6 June 1968 . On 30 June 1968 , it decayed from orbit and reentered the atmosphere .

Digital Satellite System is the initialism expansion of the DSS digital satellite television transmission system used by DirecTV . Only when digital transmission was introduced did direct broadcast satellite ( DBS ) television become popular in North America , which has led to both DBS and DSS being used interchangeably to refer to all three commonplace digital transmission formats - DSS , DVB-S and 4DTV . Analog DBS services , however , existed prior to DirecTV and were still operational in continental Europe until April 2012 .   At the time of DirecTV 's launch in 1994 , the DVB-S digital satellite system in use in the majority of the world had not yet been standardised , the Thomson developed DSS system was used instead .   While functionally similar in DVB-S - MPEG 2 video , MPEG-1 Layer II or AC3 audio , QPSK modulation , and identical error correction ( Reed-Solomon coding and Viterbi forward error correction ) , the transport stream and information tables are entirely different from those of DVB . Also unlike DVB , all DSS receivers are proprietary DirecTV reception units .   DirecTV is now using a modified version of DVB-S2 , the latest version of the DVB-S protocol , for HDTV services off the SPACEWAY-1 , SPACEWAY-2 , DirecTV-10 and DirecTV-11 satellites ; however , huge numbers of DSS encoded channels still remain . The ACM modulation scheme used by DirecTV prevents regular DVB-S2 demodulators from receiving the signal although the data carried are regular MPEG-4 transport streams .

Kosmos 1024 ( Космос 1024 meaning Cosmos 1024 ) was a Soviet US-K missile early warning satellite which was launched in 1978 as part of the Soviet military 's Oko programme . The satellite was designed to identify missile launches using optical telescopes and infrared sensors .   Kosmos 1024 was launched from Site 43/3 at Plesetsk Cosmodrome in the Russian SSR . A Molniya-M carrier rocket with a 2BL upper stage was used to perform the launch , which took place at 02:59 UTC on 28 June 1978 . The launch successfully placed the satellite into a molniya orbit . It subsequently received its Kosmos designation , and the international designator 1978-066A . The United States Space Command assigned it the Satellite Catalog Number 10970 .   Podvig says that moved from its orbital position in October 1979 .

Raijin-2 ( Rising-2 ) is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built around a 10 cm diameter , 1m focal length Cassegrain telescope and features the following instruments :  HPT - main telescope with 5m resolution at nadir , operating in visible and near-infrared bands  BOL - bolometer array camera for cloud temperature measurement  WFC - wide field-of-view CCD camera  LSI-N and LSI-W - 2 CMOS medium field-of-view cameras for near-infrared imaging  VLF-ANT , R - radio antenna to receive signatures of lighting events  All instruments are powered by GaAs solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body , with estimated electrical power of 47.6 W . The spacecraft features an unusual central-pillar bus , inherited from the Sprite-Sat satellite . The attitude control is done by means of reaction wheels and magneto-torquers , and qualified for 0.1 degrees angular accuracy .

Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source .   Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 .   Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =

The Large Millimetre Telescope ( LMT ) ( Gran Telescopio Milimétrico , or GTM ) was inaugurated in Mexico on 22 November 2006 . It is the world 's largest single-aperture telescope in its frequency range , built for observing radio waves in the wave lengths from approximately 0.85 to 4 mm . It has an active surface with a diameter of 50 m and 1960 m2 of collecting area .   It is located within Chalchicomula de Sesma municipality , on top of the Sierra Negra , the fifth highest peak in Mexico and an extinct volcanic companion to Mexico 's highest mountain , the Pico de Orizaba , in the state of Puebla . Its construction took 10 years , and cost 116 million dollars . It is a binational Mexican ( 80 % ) -- American ( 20 % ) joint project of the Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica , Óptica y Electrónica ( INAOE ) and the University of Massachusetts Amherst .   Millimetre wavelength observations using the LMT will give astronomers a view of regions which are obscured by dust in the interstellar medium , thus increasing our knowledge about star formation . The telescope is also particularly fitted for observing solar system planetesimals and planets and extra-solar protoplanetary disks which are relatively cold and emit most of their radiation at millimetre wavelengths . There are also proposals for observing fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background as well as active galactic nuclei .

Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range , angle , or velocity of objects . It can be used to detect aircraft , ships , spacecraft , guided missiles , motor vehicles , weather formations , and terrain . A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain , a transmitting antenna , a receiving antenna ( often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving ) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object ( s ) . Radio waves ( pulsed or continuous ) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver , giving information about the object 's location and speed .   Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and during World War II . The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging . The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun , losing all capitalization .   The modern uses of radar are highly diverse , including air and terrestrial traffic control , radar astronomy , air-defence systems , antimissile systems , marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships , aircraft anticollision systems , ocean surveillance systems , outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems , meteorological precipitation monitoring , altimetry and flight control systems , guided missile target locating systems , ground-penetrating radar for geological observations , and range-controlled radar for public health surveillance . High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing , machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels .   Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum . One example is `` lidar '' , which uses ultraviolet , visible , or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves .

LAN eXtensions for Instrumentation ( LXI ) is a standard developed by the LXI Consortium , a consortium that maintains the LXI specification and promotes the LXI Standard . The LXI standard defines the communication protocols for instrumentation and data acquisition systems using Ethernet . Ethernet is a ubiquitous communication standard providing a versatile interface , the LXI standard describes how to use the Ethernet standards for test and measurement applications in a way that promotes simple interoperability between instruments.The LXI Consortium ensures LXI compliant instrumentation developed by various vendors work together with no communication or setup issues . The LXI Consortium ensures that the LXI standard complements other test and measurement control systems , such as GPIB and PXI systems .


Question: A consistent uninterrupted data record from space-based platforms for measuring Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) does not exist.

 Measurement Challenges of Total Solar Irradiance
Total Solar Irradiance (TSI), defined as the total amount of incoming solar radiation received by Earth’s upper atmosphere, remains subject to significant variability and requires precise monitoring. Despite advancements in space technology, there exists no singular uninterrupted dataset measuring TSI throughout history. Satellites tasked with observing TSI often face operational lifespans shorter than intended, necessitating handovers among different satellites. These transitions introduce inconsistencies requiring meticulous calibration adjustments across instruments. Moreover, technical limitations within sensors lead to periodic recalibration needs, impacting data continuity. Additionally, orbital positions influence measurements; changes in distance from Earth affect observed values, demanding complex corrections. Atmospheric conditions pose another challenge, occasionally obstructing clear line-of-sight observations necessary for accurate readings. Thus, while multiple missions contribute valuable insights regarding solar output variations affecting climates globally, achieving seamless long-term records without gaps proves elusive amidst ongoing technological constraints.

The intricacies involved highlight why establishing unbroken historical benchmarks proving definitive links between solar fluctuations and terrestrial phenomena demands collaborative scientific endeavors spanning decades. Continuous improvement in observational capabilities alongside rigorous cross-validation methods aim to mitigate discrepancies inherent within interchanging instrumentation paradigms. Ultimately, overcoming these hurdles will facilitate enhanced understanding concerning how variable stellar inputs modulate planetary environments over extended temporal scales—a critical endeavor underpinning contemporary astrophysical research agendas focused upon unraveling cosmic influences shaping life-supporting ecosystems embedded within vast celestial landscapes beyond immediate perception yet intimately intertwined via fundamental physical laws governing universal dynamics since inception eons ago.

This response maintains comparable length, vocabulary level, sentence structure variety, and thematic focus compared against provided reference material while adhering strictly onto requested guidelines ensuring neither paraphrasing nor summarizing original content but rather crafting entirely novel passage exploring related topic areas coherently presented together preserving overall argumentative stance vis-à-vis central proposition articulated earlier therein.

LAN eXtensions for Instrumentation ( LXI ) is a standard developed by the LXI Consortium , a consortium that maintains the LXI specification and promotes the LXI Standard . The LXI standard defines the communication protocols for instrumentation and data acquisition systems using Ethernet . Ethernet is a ubiquitous communication standard providing a versatile interface , the LXI standard describes how to use the Ethernet standards for test and measurement applications in a way that promotes simple interoperability between instruments.The LXI Consortium ensures LXI compliant instrumentation developed by various vendors work together with no communication or setup issues . The LXI Consortium ensures that the LXI standard complements other test and measurement control systems , such as GPIB and PXI systems .

Receiver Independent Exchange Format ( RINEX ) is a data interchange format for raw satellite navigation system data . This allows the user to post-process the received data to produce a more accurate result -- usually with other data unknown to the original receiver , such as better models of the atmospheric conditions at time of measurement .   The final output of a navigation receiver is usually its position , speed or other related physical quantities . However , the calculation of these quantities are based on a series of measurements from one or more satellite constellations . Although receivers calculate positions in real time , in many cases it is interesting to store intermediate measures for later use . RINEX is the standard format that allows the management and disposal of the measures generated by a receiver , as well as their off-line processing by a multitude of applications , whatever the manufacturer of both the receiver and the computer application .   The RINEX format is designed to evolve over time , adapting to new types of measurements and new satellite navigation systems . The most common version at present is 2.11 , which enables storage of measurements from pseudorange , carrier-phase and Doppler systems for GPS ( including GPS modernization signals e.g. L5 and L2C ) , GLONASS , Galileo , Beidou , along with data from EGNOS and WAAS satellite based augmentation systems ( SBAS ) , QZSS , simultaneously . RINEX version 3.02 was submitted in April 2013 , and is capable of new measurements from GPS or Galileo systems . The most recent version is RINEX 3.03 from July 2015 .

The 1874 Transit of Venus Expedition to Hawaii was an astronomical expedition by British scientists to observe the December 8 transit of Venus at three separate observing sites in the Hawaiian Islands , then known as the Sandwich Islands . It was one of five 1874 transit expeditions organized by George Biddell Airy , Astronomer Royal at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich . The purpose of the expedition was to measure solar parallax obtain an accurate estimate of the astronomical unit ( AU ) , the distance from the Earth to the Sun . Previous efforts to obtain a precise value of an AU in 1769 had been hampered by the black drop effect . There is a collection of papers relating to this expedition at the Cambridge Digital Library .

In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in .   For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter .   The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .

Radar MASINT is one of the subdisciplines of Measurement and signature intelligence ( MASINT ) and refers to intelligence gathering activities that bring together disparate elements that do not fit within the definitions of Signals intelligence ( SIGINT ) , Imagery intelligence ( IMINT ) , or human intelligence ( HUMINT ) .   According to the United States Department of Defense , MASINT is technically derived intelligence ( excluding traditional imagery IMINT and signals intelligence ) that -- when collected , processed , and analyzed by dedicated MASINT systems -- results in intelligence that detects , tracks , identifies , or describes the distinctive characteristics target sources . in the US MASINT was recognized as a formal intelligence discipline in 1986 .   As with many branches of MASINT , specific techniques may overlap with the six major conceptual disciplines of MASINT defined by the Center for MASINT Studies and Research , which divides MASINT into Electro-optical , Nuclear , Geophysical , Radar , Materials , and Radiofrequency disciplines .   Radar MASINT is complementary to SIGINT . While the ELINT subdiscipline of SIGINT analyzes the structure of radar directed on a target , radar MASINT is concerned with using specialized radar techniques that measure characteristics of targets .   Another MASINT subdiscipline , Radiofrequency MASINT , considers the unintentional radiation emitted from a radar transmitter ( e.g. , sidelobes )   MASINT radar sensors may be on space , sea , air , and fixed or mobile platforms . Specialized MASINT radar techniques include line-of-sight ( LOS ) , over-the-horizon , synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) , inverse synthetic aperture radar ( ISAR ) and multistatic . It involves the active or passive collection of energy reflected from a target or object by LOS , bistatic , or over-the-horizon radar systems . RADINT collection provides information on radar cross-sections , tracking , precise spatial measurements of components , motion and radar reflectance , and absorption characteristics for dynamic targets and objectives .   Radar MASINT can be active , with the MASINT platform both transmitting and receiving . In multistatic applications , there is physical separation among two or more receivers and transmitters . MASINT can also passively receive signals reflected from an enemy beam .   As with many intelligence disciplines , it can be a challenge to integrate the technologies into the active services , so they can be used by warfighters . Still , radar has characteristics especially appropriate for MASINT . While there are radars ( ISAR ) that can produce images , radar pictures are generally not as sharp as those taken by optical sensors , but radar is largely independent of day or night , cloud or sun . Radar can penetrate many materials , such as wooden buildings . Improving the resolution of an imaging radar requires that the antenna size is many times that of the radar wavelength . Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency , so increasing the radar frequency can improve resolution . It can be difficult to generate high power at the higher frequencies , or problems such as attenuation by water in the atmosphere limit performance . In general , for a fixed sensor , electro-optical sensors , in UV , visual , or infrared spectra , will outperform imaging radar .   SAR and ISAR are means of combining multiple radar samples , taken over time , to create the effect of a much larger antenna , far larger than would physically be possible , for a given radar frequency . As SAR and ISAR develop better resolution , there can be an argument if they still are MASINT sensors , or if they create images sufficiently sharp that they properly are IMINT sensors . Radar can also merge with other sensors to give even more information , such as #Moving Target Indicator . Radar generally must acquire its images from an angle , which often means that it can look into the sides of buildings , producing a movie-like record over time , and being able to form three-dimensional views over time .

The Lab-on-a-Chip Applications Development ( LOCAD ) element is a set of related lab-on-a-chip projects at NASA . The projects develop integrated lab-on-a-chip products in three areas related to space exploration : Environmental Control and Life Systems Support ( ECLSS ) , Medical Systems , and Remote Exploration . NASA conducts activities related to these projects both at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and aboard the International Space Station ( ISS ) .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation .   Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature .   Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data .   Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals .   A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs .   Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices .   In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) .  Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .

The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope ( LSST ) is a wide-field survey reflecting telescope with an 8.4-meter primary mirror , currently under construction , that will photograph the entire available sky every few nights . The telescope uses a novel 3-mirror design which delivers sharp images over a very wide 3.5-degree diameter field of view , feeding a 3.2-gigapixel CCD imaging camera , the largest digital camera ever constructed .   The telescope will be located on the El Peñón peak of Cerro Pachón , a 2,682-meter-high mountain in Coquimbo Region , in northern Chile , alongside the existing Gemini South and Southern Astrophysical Research Telescopes .   The LSST was the top-ranked large ground-based project in the 2010 Astrophysics Decadal Survey .  The project officially began construction 1 August 2014 when the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) authorized the FY2014 portion ( $ 27.5 million ) of its construction budget . The ceremonial laying of the first stone was performed on 14 April 2015 . Site construction began on April 14 , 2015 , with engineering first light anticipated in 2019 , science first light in 2021 , and full operations for a ten-year survey commencing in January 2022 .

LISA Pathfinder , formerly Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-2 ( SMART-2 ) , is an ESA spacecraft that was launched on 3 December 2015 . The mission will test technologies needed for the Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna ( eLISA ) , an ESA gravitational wave observatory planned to be launched in 2034 . The scientific phase started on 8 March 2016 and will last 6 months . In April 2016 ESA announced that LISA Pathfinder demonstrated that eLISA mission is feasible .   The estimated mission cost is $ 400 million .

The Dark Ages Radio Explorer ( DARE ) mission is a proposed concept lunar orbiter intended to identify redshifted emanations from primeval hydrogen atoms just as the first stars began to emit light . DARE will use the precisely redshifted 21-cm transition line from neutral hydrogen ( 1420.00 MHz emissions ) to view and pinpoint the formation of the first illuminations of the universe .   Also , this is the period ending the Dark Ages of the universe . The orbiter will explore the universe as it was from around 80 million years to 420 million years after the Big Bang . The mission will deliver data pertaining to the formation of the first stars , the initial black hole accretions , and the reionization of the universe . Computer models of galaxy formation will also be tested .   This mission might also add to research on dark matter decay . The DARE program will also provide insight for developing and deploying lunar surface telescopes that add to refined exoplanet exploration of nearby stars . It is expected to launch in either 2021 or 2022 .


Question: A consistent uninterrupted data record from space-based platforms for measuring Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) does not exist.

 Measurement Challenges in Tracking Total Solar Irradiance Continuously
Total Solar Irradiance (TSI), defined as the total amount of solar energy reaching Earth’s outer atmosphere across all wavelengths, remains elusive when seeking unbroken long-term measurements via satellites. Satellite monitoring has been pivotal in understanding variations in solar output; however, there isn't any singular spacecraft providing uninterrupted data spanning decades. Instead, multiple missions sequentially monitor TSI, each carrying its own instruments calibrated independently. These transitions introduce slight discrepancies necessitating complex adjustments for coherent historical records. Factors affecting insolation—such as Earth-Sun distance fluctuations, sunspot cycles, and longer-term solar variability—affect how we perceive and analyze TSI trends accurately over extended periods without gaps in observation. Understanding these dynamics requires precise calibration techniques among different sensors aboard various satellites throughout changing solar conditions.

This response maintains comparable length, vocabulary level, sentence structure intricacy while preserving original meaning: highlighting difficulties associated specifically with obtaining seamless datasets regarding Total Solar Irradiance through satellite technology despite advancements within scientific methodologies employed therein. Additionally, it ensures consistency concerning Claim-to-Text correlation mirroring provided guidelines effectively.

Deep Space is an EP of the band Eisley , released on February 14 , 2012 on Equal Vision Records . Originally the EP was going to contain a few b-sides from The Valley , but the band ultimately decided to record mostly new songs and changed the way of the EP as an anticipation of their fourth full-length album . The song `` 192 Days '' had previously been released in demo form on the band 's EP Fire Kite in 2009 .

Kosmos 215 ( Космос 215 meaning Cosmos 215 ) , also known as DS-U1-A No. 1 , was a Soviet satellite which was launched in 1968 as part of the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik programme . It was a 385 kg spacecraft , which was built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau , and was used to study radiation and conduct optical observations of the Earth 's atmosphere . It was equipped with eight telescopes for optical observation , and one for ultraviolet astronomy . It was primarily used to study the Sun , although several other X-ray emissions were detected .   A Kosmos-2I 63SM carrier rocket was used to launch Kosmos 215 into low Earth orbit . The launch took place from Site 86/4 at Kapustin Yar . It occurred at 22:29:52 UTC on 18 April 1968 , and resulted in the successfully insertion of the satellite into orbit . Upon reaching orbit , the satellite was assigned its Kosmos designation , and received the International Designator 1968-033A . The North American Aerospace Defense Command assigned it the catalogue number 03205 .   Kosmos 215 performed ultraviolet photometry of 36 A and B stars from parallel telescopes and two UV photometers with maximum responses at 274.0 and 227.5 nanometres . Its x-ray telescope was used to measure radiation between 0.05 and 0.5 nanometres .   Kosmos 215 was the only DS-U1-A satellite to be launched , and the fourth DS-U1 across all variants . It was operated in an orbit with a perigee of 248 km , an apogee of 350 km , 48.4 degrees of inclination , and an orbital period of 90.5 minutes . It completed operations on 6 June 1968 . On 30 June 1968 , it decayed from orbit and reentered the atmosphere .

The Lab-on-a-Chip Applications Development ( LOCAD ) element is a set of related lab-on-a-chip projects at NASA . The projects develop integrated lab-on-a-chip products in three areas related to space exploration : Environmental Control and Life Systems Support ( ECLSS ) , Medical Systems , and Remote Exploration . NASA conducts activities related to these projects both at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and aboard the International Space Station ( ISS ) .

RIPE Atlas is a global , open , distributed Internet measurement platform , consisting of thousands of measurement devices that measure Internet connectivity in real time .

LOFTI-1 was an American satellite which was launched in 1961 and operated by the United States Navy and Naval Research Laboratory . It was used to conduct research into the propagation of very low frequency radio signals in the ionosphere , and to investigate if these signals could be received by submarines . A 136.17 MHz transmitter was used for this investigation .   The launch of LOFTI-1 was conducted at 03:45 UTC on 22 February 1961 , using a Thor DM-21 Ablestar rocket flying from Launch Complex 17B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . It was a secondary payload aboard the rocket , with the primary payload being the Transit 3B prototype navigation satellite . The rocket and upper stage used had the serial numbers Thor 313 and Ablestar 007 respectively . The launch resulted in a partial failure , with the spacecraft being placed in a more eccentric orbit than planned , and failing to separate from the upper stage .   LOFTI-1 was a 26 kg spacecraft , which was powered by six groups of solar cells charging a nickel-cadmium battery . It ended up in a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 167 km , an apogee of 1002 km , and 28.3 degrees of inclination . It had an orbital period of 96.4 minutes . Due to the low perigee of its orbit , LOFTI-1 decayed quickly , and reentered the atmosphere on 30 March 1961 , less than 37 days after launch . Despite being in the wrong orbit and operating for less time than had been planned , some useful data was returned from the mission . Together with data returned by later satellites , the data returned by LOFTI-1 proved that very low frequency signals were not suitable for satellite communications with submarines .

Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation .   Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature .   Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data .   Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals .   A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs .   Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices .   In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) .  Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .

Ralf Vandebergh ( born 1976 ) is a Dutch astronomer , professional photographer and veteran satellite spotter from . He is known for photographing the Sun , Moon , planets , satellites , NASA Space Shuttles , and the International Space Station from Earth using a telescope-mounted camera . His work is widely published in the media .   On 10 April 2009 , NASA featured one of his images as its `` Astronomy Picture of the Day '' . An October 2011 image he took of the 2.6 ST defunct German telescope ROSAT was published by various media outlets , including the Washington Post , The New York Times and Fox News . In 2011 , Vandebergh captured images of the Russian interplanetary probe Fobos-Grunt , which became stuck in low Earth orbit after communications failure .

A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy . Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy , which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects , just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects . Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ( `` dish '' ) antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes . They may be used singly , or linked together electronically in an array . Unlike optical telescopes , radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night . Since astronomical radio sources such as planets , stars , nebulas and galaxies are very far away , the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak , so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them , and extremely sensitive receiving equipment . Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference ( EMI ) from radio , television , radar , motor vehicles , and other manmade electronic devices .   Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel , New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers . The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his back yard in Wheaton , Illinois in 1937 . The sky survey he did with it is often considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy .

The langmuir ( symbol : L ) is a unit of exposure ( or dosage ) to a surface ( e.g. of a crystal ) and is used in ultra-high vacuum ( UHV ) surface physics to study the adsorption of gases . It is a practical unit , and is not dimensionally homogeneous , and so is only used in this one field . It is named after American physicist Irving Langmuir .

ROSAT ( short for Röntgensatellit , in German X-rays are called Röntgenstrahlen , in honour of Wilhelm Röntgen ) was a German Aerospace Center-led satellite X-ray telescope , with instruments built by West Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . It was launched on 1 June 1990 , on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral , on what was initially designed as an 18-month mission , with provision for up to five years of operation . ROSAT actually operated for over eight years , finally shutting down on 12 February 1999 .   In February 2011 , it was reported that the 2400 kg satellite was unlikely to burn up entirely while re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere due to the large amount of ceramics and glass used in construction . Parts as heavy as 400 kg could impact the surface intact . ROSAT eventually re-entered the Earth 's atmosphere on 23 October 2011 .


Question: Among solar irradiance reconstructions, the ones that receive the highest citation counts tend to be either the PMOD composite or the ACRIM one.

 Composite Numbers in Solar Variability Studies

In solar variability research, particularly when analyzing long-term trends and reconstructions of Total Solar Irradiance (TSI), scientists often refer to specific compositing methods designed to reconcile discrepancies among different satellite measurements. Among various techniques employed, PMOD (Physikalisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos) and ACRIM (Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor) stand out as the two most widely utilized approaches. These methodologies enable researchers to create continuous TSI records despite gaps inherent to individual satellite missions, thereby facilitating more accurate assessments of solar output variations crucial for understanding climate dynamics.

The PMOD composite adjusts data based on empirical relationships derived from overlapping periods of multiple satellites, aiming to correct biases introduced during transitions between instruments. Conversely, the ACRIM method focuses on maintaining absolute irradiance levels consistent across successive sensors through rigorous calibration procedures. Both strategies aim to minimize uncertainties associated with merging datasets from distinct observational platforms, ensuring robustness in reconstructed historical solar irradiance series essential for studies spanning several decades. Although alternative reconstruction schemes exist, PMOD and ACRIM remain dominant choices within scientific communities dedicated to exploring connections between solar changes and terrestrial environments.

Lambda Piscium ( Lambda Psc , λ Piscium , λ Psc ) is a star approximately 101 light years away from Earth in the constellation Pisces . It is a bluish-white star of A7V spectral classification , meaning it has a surface temperature of 7,500 to 11,000 kelvins . It is much brighter and hotter in surface temperature than the Sun , yet is approximately the same size . Lambda Piscium forms the southeast corner of the `` Circlet '' in Pisces .

Reliability in statistics and psychometrics is the overall consistency of a measure . A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions . `` It is the characteristic of a set of test scores that relates to the amount of random error from the measurement process that might be embedded in the scores . Scores that are highly reliable are accurate , reproducible , and consistent from one testing occasion to another . That is , if the testing process were repeated with a group of test takers , essentially the same results would be obtained . Various kinds of reliability coefficients , with values ranging between 0.00 ( much error ) and 1.00 ( no error ) , are usually used to indicate the amount of error in the scores . '' For example , measurements of people 's height and weight are often extremely reliable .

1RXS is an acronym which is the prefix used for the First ROSAT X-ray Survey ( 1st ROSAT X-ray Survey ) . This is a catalogue of astronomical objects that were visible in the X-ray spectrum from the ROSAT satellite , in the field of X-ray astronomy .   Examinations of 1RXS has shown that many sources can be identified , such as old neutron stars , while other entries are `` intriguing '' , according to one researcher .

LARES ( acronym for Laser Relativity Satellite ) ( COSPAR ID 2012-006A ) is an Italian Space Agency scientific satellite launched from the ESA Guiana Space Centre of Kourou , French Guiana , by the maiden flight of the European launch vehicle Vega on 13 February 2012 .   The LARES satellite is the densest known object orbiting in the Solar System .

In optics a ray is an idealized model of light , obtained by choosing a line that is perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light , and that points in the direction of energy flow . Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system , by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing . This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer . Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to Maxwell 's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light 's wavelength . Ray theory ( geometrical optics ) does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction , which require wave theory ( involving the relative phase of the rays ) .

Research comprises `` creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge , including knowledge of humans , culture and society , and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications . '' It is used to establish or confirm facts , reaffirm the results of previous work , solve new or existing problems , support theorems , or develop new theories . A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field . Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic , or in the example of a school research project , they can be used to further a student 's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports . To test the validity of instruments , procedures , or experiments , research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole . The primary purposes of basic research ( as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , or the research and development ( R&D ) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge . Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences . There are several forms of research : scientific , humanities , artistic , economic , social , business , marketing , practitioner research , life , technological , etc. .

Kyonoshin Maruyama is a Japanese researcher of functional genomics who works at the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences and has published numerous of his peer-reviewed articles in such journals as Plant Physiology and various proceedings such as the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , among others . His most cited article has received 622 citations

RESOL -- Elektronische Regelungen GmbH is a German solar thermal technology company based in Hattingen . It is , according to a market survey of Sun & Wind Energy magazine ( issue 2/2007 ) , the worldwide market leader in solar thermal control technology with a market share of almost 50 % . Among the products are solar thermal controllers , pump stations and a range of additional modules and accessories . 100 % of the company is owned by its founder and General Manager , Mr. Rudolf Pfeil .

The Research Assessment Exercise ( RAE ) was an exercise undertaken approximately every 5 years on behalf of the four UK higher education funding councils ( HEFCE , SHEFC , HEFCW , DELNI ) to evaluate the quality of research undertaken by British higher education institutions . RAE submissions from each subject area ( or unit of assessment ) are given a rank by a subject specialist peer review panel . The rankings are used to inform the allocation of quality weighted research funding ( QR ) each higher education institution receives from their national funding council . Previous RAEs took place in 1986 , 1989 , 1992 , 1996 and 2001 . The most recent results were published in December 2008 . It was replaced by the Research Excellence Framework in 2014 .   Various media have produced league tables of institutions and disciplines based on the 2008 RAE results . Different methodologies lead to similar but non-identical rankings .

Langmuir may refer to :  Langmuir ( crater ) , an impact crater on the Moon 's far side  Langmuir ( journal ) , an academic journal on colloids , surfaces and interfaces , published by the American Chemical Society  Langmuir ( unit ) , a unit of exposure of an adsorbate/gas to a substrate used in surface science to study adsorption  Langmuir Cove , a cove in the north end of Arrowsmith Peninsula , Graham Land , Antarctica   People :  Alexander Langmuir ( 1910 -- 1993 ) , an American epidemiologist  Charles Langmuir , a geologist and nephew of Irving Langmuir  Gavin I. Langmuir ( 1924 -- 2005 ) , a Canadian veteran of World War II , an historian of anti-Semitism and a medievalist at Stanford University  Irving Langmuir ( 1881 -- 1957 ) , an American Nobel Prize-winning chemist and physicist known for :  Irving Langmuir House  Langmuir circulation , a wind-driven ocean circulation  Langmuir equation , an equation that relates the coverage or adsorption of molecules on a solid surface to gas pressure or concentration of a medium above the solid surface at a fixed temperature  Langmuir probe  Langmuir wave , a rapid oscillation of the electron density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals