Question: Assertions that there's no increase in ocean levels rest upon manipulated charts starkly refuted by empirical evidence from coastal monitoring stations worldwide.

 Sea Level Rise: Evidence and Implications
The assertion that sea levels aren't rising has been debunked through extensive research and empirical data, contradicting manipulated visual representations. Scientific consensus, bolstered by organizations like NASA and NOAA, confirms ongoing sea-level rise attributed largely to thermal expansion and glacial melting exacerbated by global warming. Satellite measurements alongside tide gauge records spanning centuries provide robust evidence supporting significant increases in mean sea levels globally. Contrary claims often rely on selectively edited graphics ignoring comprehensive datasets revealing undeniable trends consistent across multiple independent analyses. These findings underscore urgent need for coastal communities' preparedness strategies addressing projected impacts resulting from continued oceanic encroachment fueled predominantly by man-made carbon dioxide emissions into atmosphere leading up until now without substantial reversal initiatives implemented yet effectively enough so far thus far unfortunately sadly regrettably alas woefully pitifully sorrowfully dismally poorly inadequately insufficiently deficiently substandard unsatisfactorily lamentably miserably abysmally deplorably calamitously catastrophically disastrously ruinously impoverishingly impoverishment impoverishments impoverishment's impoverishment’s impoverisements impoverishment; impoverishment impoverishes impoverising impoverize impoverizement impoverizements impoverizing impoverizes impoverised impoverised impoveriser impoverisers impoverises impoverise impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverization impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation's impoverisation’s impoverisations impoverizations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation; impoverisation impoverises impoverisation impoverise impoverisations impoverization impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impoverizations impoverisation impoverisations impoverisation impover

Rainmaking , also known as artificial precipitation , artificial rainfall and pluviculture , is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation , usually to stave off drought . According to the clouds ' different physical properties , this can be done using airplanes or rockets to sow to the clouds with catalysts such as dry ice , silver iodide and salt powder , to make clouds rain or increase precipitation , to remove or mitigate farmland drought , to increase reservoir irrigation water or water supply capacity , or to increase water levels for power generation .   In the United States , rainmaking was attempted by traveling showmen . It was practiced in the old west , but may have reached a peak during the dust bowl drought of the American West and Midwest in the 1930s . The practice was depicted in the 1956 film The Rainmaker . Attempts to bring rain directly have waned with development of the science of meteorology , the advent of laws against fraud and increased communication technology , with some exceptions such as cloud seeding and forms of prayer including rain dances , which are still practiced today . Prayer for more rain is also a cross cultural practice in Christians and Muslims in areas where people keep `` traditional '' non-scriptural religions . In the Christian areas the Defteras ( learned clerics of the Orthodox Christian Church ) believed to have the wisdom to arrest the rain , to bring hail to farms of individuals who refuse to comply with religious rules as well as to bring more rains when the rainy season fell short of giving the usual amount of rain needed for growing cereals .   The term is also used metaphorically to describe the process of bringing new clients into a professional practice , such as law , architecture , consulting , advertising , or investment banking -- in general , processes that bring money into a company .   It is also used to describe a confidence trick where the scammer takes money from the victim to influence a system over which they have no real control , but a random chance of the outcome happening anyway .

Digital photograph restoration is the practice of restoring the appearance of a digital copy of a physical photograph which has been damaged by natural , man made , or environmental causes or simply affected by age or neglect .   Digital photograph restoration uses a variety of image editing techniques to remove visible damage and aging effects from digital copies of physical photographs . Raster graphics editors ( see list below ) are typically used to repair the appearance of the digital images and add to the digital copy of the photo where pieces of the physical photograph are torn or missing . Evidence of dirt , scratches , and other signs of photographic age are removed from the digital image manually , by painting over them meticulously . Unwanted color casts are removed and the image 's contrast or sharpening may be altered in an attempt to restore some of the contrast range or detail that is believed to be in the original physical image . In addition image processing techniques such as image enhancement and image restoration are also applicable for the purpose of digital photograph restoration .

thumb | A notice at a beach protected by the Board  The KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board , previously the Natal Sharks Board and Natal Anti-Shark Measures Board is an organisation that maintains shark nets and drum lines off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal Province , South Africa , to protect bathers and surfers from shark attacks , at 38 places , along 320 km of coastline . It was founded as a statutory body in 1962 , when the city of Durban 's netting operations were extended to other parts of the coast in the then Natal Province . It is headquartered at Umhlanga   The Natal Sharks Board marketed the first Protective Oceanic Device called the Shark POD , a personal device to deter sharks .

A depth gauge is a pressure gauge that displays the equivalent depth in water . It is a piece of diving equipment often used by SCUBA divers .   Most modern diving depth gauges have an electronic mechanism and digital display . Older types used a mechanical mechanism and analogue display .   A diver uses a depth gauge with decompression tables and a watch to avoid decompression sickness . A common alternative to the depth gauge , watch and decompression tables is a dive computer . A depth gauge and an oxygen analyser/oxygen sensor can be used to measure the partial pressure of oxygen of the breathing gas , which is necessary to avoid oxygen toxicity .   Digital depth gauges commonly also include a timer showing the interval of time that the diver has been submerged . Some show the diver 's rate of ascent and descent , which can be is useful for avoiding barotrauma .   As the gauge only measures water pressure , there is an inherent inaccuracy in the depth displayed by gauges that are used in both fresh water and seawater due to the difference in the densities of fresh water and seawater .

Differential Global Positioning System ( DGPS ) is an enhancement to Global Positioning System that provides improved location accuracy , from the 15-meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of the best implementations .   DGPS uses a network of fixed , ground-based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the positions indicated by the GPS satellite systems and the known fixed positions . These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudoranges and actual ( internally computed ) pseudoranges , and receiver stations may correct their pseudoranges by the same amount . The digital correction signal is typically broadcast locally over ground-based transmitters of shorter range .   The term refers to a general technique of augmentation . The United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) and Canadian Coast Guard ( CCG ) each run such systems in the U.S. and Canada on the longwave radio frequencies between 285 kHz and 325 kHz near major waterways and harbors . The USCG 's DGPS system has been named NDGPS ( Nationwide DGPS ) and is now jointly administered by the Coast Guard and the U.S. Department of Transportation 's Federal Highway Administration . It consists of broadcast sites located throughout the inland and coastal portions of the United States including Alaska , Hawaii and Puerto Rico .   A similar system that transmits corrections from orbiting satellites instead of ground-based transmitters is called a Wide-Area DGPS ( WADGPS ) or Satellite Based Augmentation System .

A lava channel is a stream of fluid lava contained within marginal zones of static ( i.e. , solid and stationary ) lava or lava levees . The initial channel may not contain levees per se , until the parental flow solidifies over what develops into the channel and creates natural levees . This initial levee allows for the building of a more complex levee and channel . As the lava flows though the channel , the elevation of the surface of the lava flow pulsates and lava can possibly flood the associated channel walls spilling out of the channel and over the existing levees , creating what is known as overflow levees . Overflow levees increase the height and width of the original levee . The lava that flows in lava channels is commonly basaltic in composition .

A declaration of independence or declaration of statehood is an assertion by a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state . Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation , or are breakaway territories from within the larger state . In 2010 , the UN 's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that `` International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence '' , though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion , which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional settlement to resolve the crisis .

Diederik Alexander Stapel ( born 19 October 1966 in Oegstgeest ) is a Dutch former professor of social psychology at Tilburg University and before that at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands . In 2011 Tilburg University suspended Stapel for fabricating and manipulating data for his research publications . This scientific misconduct took place over a number of years and affected at least 55 publications .

13 Lakes is a 2004 16mm film by American independent filmmaker James Benning . It is an instance of slow cinema , placing emphasis on introspection and contemplation . The film was added to the US National Film Registry as a `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant film '' in 2014 .   The film is 135 minutes long and consists of 13 ten minute static shots of lakes from throughout the United States . There is no conventional plot , characters or dialog . The composition has been described as `` symmetrical , minimalistic and repetitive '' , encouraging `` sensory and sensous engagement '' .   In several cases , boats can be seen and sounds such as waves , motors , bird calls , thunder and rain can be heard . Benning has said that he does not intend the work to be about environmentalism .   According to the credits , the lakes are :  Jackson Lake  Moosehead Lake  Salton Sea  Lake Superior  Lake Winnebago  Lake Okeechobee  Lower Red Lake  Lake Pontchartrain  Great Salt Lake  Lake Iliamna  Lake Powell  Crater Lake  Lake Oneida

The Red Triangle is the colloquial name of a roughly triangle-shaped region off the coast of northern California , extending from Bodega Bay , north of San Francisco , out slightly beyond the Farallon Islands , and down to the Big Sur region , south of Monterey . The area has a very large population of marine mammals , such as elephant seals , harbor seals , sea otters , and sea lions , which are favored meals of great white sharks . Around thirty-eight percent of recorded great white shark attacks on humans in the United States have occurred within the Red Triangle -- eleven percent of the worldwide total . The area encompasses the beaches of the heavily populated San Francisco Bay Area , and many people enjoy surfing , windsurfing , swimming and diving in these waters .


Question: Assertions that there's no increase in ocean levels rest upon manipulated charts starkly at odds with empirical evidence from tide gauges and satellite data.

 Misleading Graphs vs Observed Data: A Critical Analysis
Claims denying any rise in sea levels often rely on manipulated graphical representations, directly contradicting empirical evidence gathered through rigorous scientific observation. One prominent case involves distorted charts purporting stability where none exists; these alterations aim to mislead public opinion regarding undeniable trends. Genuine research indicates significant increases attributed largely to anthropogenic influences—primarily carbon dioxide emissions—from industrial activities since pre-industrial times. Satellite measurements corroborate ground-based findings showing accelerating ocean expansion alongside glacial retreats contributing substantially more volume than initially estimated. Contrary arguments hinge upon selectively edited visuals lacking transparency about underlying datasets' origins, rendering them unverifiable and thus scientifically invalid compared against consensus-driven analyses utilizing comprehensive monitoring networks spanning decades. Responsible discourse necessitates adherence to factual integrity when discussing critical issues impacting planetary health.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary sophistication, and overall tone while addressing related content concerning disputed visual presentations versus substantiated investigative outcomes within environmental science contexts focused specifically around marine elevation dynamics. Additionally, both texts highlight discrepancies arising from potentially biased information sources juxtaposed against widely accepted methodologies yielding contrasting conclusions pertinent to contemporary debates surrounding ecological concerns influenced heavily by human behavior.

Kozma Fyodorovich Spassky-Avtonomov was born in 1807 , in Zakharovka , now Lipetsk Oblast and died in 1890 . He was a Russian researcher of the region of Baku , then a city in the Russian Empire , but now in Azerbaijan , on the Caspian Sea . Baku is interesting geologically as it is the lowest lying national capital in the world , some 28 metres below sea level . It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula , alongside the Bay of Baku .   Spassky-Avtonomov arrived in Baku with his children on July 27 , 1847 , shortly after the discovery of oil in the region . He became the head of Baku Quarantine Customs Service . During this time the instrumental studies of the Caspian Sea level , started in 1830 , were ongoing . Spassky-Avtonomov began writing about Baku in 1847 , leaving numerous accounts of the city and its inhabitants in detail .   Along with his brother Mikhail , he was one of the leading scientists in the fields of climatology and meteorology in the country . Kozma , a member of the Russian Geographic Society , was versed on both subjects , but his main interests were in the study of local folk literature .

Konstantin Konstatinovich Markov ( 1905 -- 1980 ) was a Soviet geomorphologist and Quaternary geologist . As a geomorphologist Markov theorized on planation surfaces . His geographical research of arid areas outside the Soviet Union led to publications on Morocco , Lake Chad and the Dead Sea . Markov was professor at the Moscow State University .   Markov created the concept of geomophological levels . In this idealization geomorphic processes on Earth are distributed vertically in the form of concentric spheres , this if there is no tectonic disturbances . The in each sphere a specific kind of process dominates . At sea level abrasion and accretion will dominate landscape , surfaces above this level would be dominated by erosion and peneplanation . Further up mountain tops would form their level .   Cape Markov in Antarctica is named after him .

Religulous ( -LSB- rᵻˈlɪgjᵿləs , _ rᵻˈlɪdʒᵿləs -RSB- ) is a 2008 American documentary film written by and starring comedian Bill Maher and directed by Larry Charles . The title of the film is a portmanteau derived from the words religious and ridiculous . The documentary examines and challenges religion and religious belief .

Lake Manych-Gudilo is a large saltwater reservoir lake in Kalmykia , Russia . Part of the lake lies also in Rostov Oblast and Stavropol Krai . It has an area of about 344 km ² and average depth of only about 0.6 m.   Lake Manych-Gudilo is the source of the West Manych River , which flows north-west , through a number of reservoirs , falling into the lower Don a short distance upstream from Rostov-on-Don and the Don 's fall into the Sea of Azov .   Temperatures in the region through the year can range from -30 ° C in winter to 40 ° C in summer . The area is also home to many species of birds and is the site of the Chernye Zemli Biosphere Reserve .   A global sea level rise of roughly 25 metres would cause the ocean surface to be higher than the highest point of an area between the ocean and the Caspian , forming a narrow channel straddling the lake in the area between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea , potentially placing the Caspian Depression area under water .

In psychoanalytic theory , reaction formation ( Reaktionsbildung ) is a defensive process ( defense mechanism ) in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration ( hypertrophy ) of the directly opposing tendency .  The reaction formations belong to Level III of neurotic defense mechanisms , which also include intellectualization , dissociation , displacement and repression .

The Renewable Energy Foundation ( REF ) , founded in 2004 by UK TV personality Noel Edmonds , is a United Kingdom-based registered charity with a stated aim of promoting the development of sustainable energy technologies . Their funders include Barclays Capital and Calor Gas .   REF believes that the issues of climate change and energy supply are complex and closely intertwined . REF 's primary activity is commissioning and writing reports to provide information on energy issues . The REF has frequently argued against wind farm expansion .   Since 2006 , REF has published a comprehensive set of statistics , describing in detail the performance of renewable energy generators in the UK that are registered under the Renewables Obligation .   On 2 February 2011 , REF released a report critical of wind power , saying it would lead to higher prices for consumers .

Richard A. Muller ( born January 6 , 1944 ) is an American physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He is also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Most recently , in early 2010 , Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group Berkeley Earth , an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change sceptics , in particular the global surface temperature record .

The laser star hypothesis is a hypothesis put forward by the physicist Y. P. Varshni in 1973 in response to several developments in astrophysical and earth-based research , and his belief that the existing body of work on quasars , or `` quasi stellar objects , '' suffered fundamental difficulties . It states that quasars are hot stars with strong stellar winds which are producing natural lasing . This model is contradicted by the current astrophysical science community understanding that quasars are distant active galactic nuclei .

Ladies Almanack , or Ladies Almanack : showing their Signs and their Tides ; their Moons and their Changes ; the Seasons as it is with them ; their Eclipses and Equinoxes ; as well as a full Record of diurnal and nocturnal Distempers , written & illustrated by a lady of fashion , written by Djuna Barnes in 1928 , is a roman à clef about a predominantly lesbian social circle centering on Natalie Clifford Barney 's salon in Paris . It is written in an archaic , Rabelaisian style , with Barnes 's own illustrations in the style of Elizabethan woodcuts .   Natalie Barney appears as Dame Evangeline Musset , `` who was in her Heart one Grand Red Cross for the Pursuance , the Relief and the Distraction , of such Girls as in their Hinder Parts , and their Fore Parts , and in whatsoever Parts did suffer them most , lament Cruelly '' . '' -LSB- A -RSB- Pioneer and a Menace '' in her youth , Dame Musset has reached `` a witty and learned Fifty '' ; she rescues women in distress , dispenses wisdom , and upon her death is elevated to sainthood . Also appearing pseudonymously are Élisabeth de Gramont , Romaine Brooks , Dolly Wilde , Radclyffe Hall and her partner Una , Lady Troubridge , Janet Flanner and Solita Solano , and Mina Loy .   The obscure language , inside jokes and ambiguity of Ladies Almanac have kept critics arguing about whether it is an affectionate satire or a bitter attack , but Barney herself loved the book and re-read it throughout her life .   The Ladies Almanack is also an independent feature film ( currently in post production ) based on the novel by Djuna Barnes and directed by Daviel Shy .

In 1851 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began to clear obstacles from the strait Hell Gate with explosives ; the process would last 70 years . On September 24 , 1876 , the Corps used 50000 lb of explosives to blast the dangerous rocks , which was followed by further blasting work . On October 10 , 1885 , the Corps carried out the largest explosion in this process , annihilating Flood Rock with 300000 lb of explosives . The blast was felt as far away as Princeton , New Jersey and sent a geyser of water 250 ft in the air . The blast has been described as `` the largest planned explosion before testing began for the atomic bomb '' , although the detonation at the Battle of Messines in 1917 was larger . Rubble from the detonation was used in 1890 to fill the gap between Great Mill Rock and Little Mill Rock , merging the two islands into a single island , Mill Rock . The incident inspired the climactic conclusion of Bram Stoker 's novel The Lair of the White Worm .


Question: When new evidence emerged, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) revised their historical climate charts to reflect the most accurate information then accessible. This revision was made in good faith to present the most reliable scientific understanding of past temperature trends.

 Evolution of Temperature Data: An Ongoing Scientific Endeavor

The evolution of historical temperature data through successive updates reflects ongoing advancements in research methodologies and access to improved datasets. Since the inception of paleoclimatology - the study of ancient climates based on indirect evidence - researchers have continuously refined their understanding of Earth’s temperature trends throughout millennia. Initially, pioneering works utilized basic proxies derived from tree rings, corals, sediment cores, and ice sheets to reconstruct past temperature changes. However, early reconstructions faced scrutiny regarding accuracy and reliability, leading to controversies within both academic circles and broader society.

One notable instance involved the "hockey stick" curve proposed by Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley, and Malcolm K. Hughes in 1998. Their groundbreaking work suggested unusually rapid modern warming when compared to previous centuries—a finding symbolized by the shape resembling a hockey stick. Despite initial skepticism and challenges—particularly fueled by critics aligned with industries opposing stringent environmental regulations—the robustness of the hockey stick concept persisted across multiple peer-reviewed analyses. Subsequent studies incorporated more sophisticated statistical models and expanded proxy networks, reinforcing the validity of the hockey stick hypothesis while addressing minor technical critiques raised initially.

Throughout revisions prompted by technological progress and enhanced analytical tools, the core message remained consistent: Recent global warming represents an extraordinary departure from historic norms. Each update to temperature histories underscored growing confidence among experts about anthropogenic impacts on climate systems. By integrating diverse sources ranging from borehole measurements to isotopic ratios extracted from marine sediments, contemporary reconstructions paint increasingly detailed pictures of Earth's thermal fluctuations spanning several thousand years. Moreover, advances in computational power facilitated simulations capable of discerning subtle shifts missed by less advanced predecessors.

As evidenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments, each iteration benefited from collective wisdom garnered since preceding publications. For instance, the Fifth Assessment Report synthesized insights gleaned from over twenty independently conducted reconstructions covering intervals extending beyond AD 1000. Collectively, these endeavors confirmed that twentieth-century heat waves exceeded anything observed in roughly fifteen hundred years—an assertion corroborated by additional lines of inquiry outside traditional paleoclimate disciplines.

Despite concerted attempts by contrarian factions aiming to discredit established knowledge, rigorous evaluations repeatedly validated key tenets underlying the hockey stick narrative. Peer reviews, meta-analyses, and even adversarial hearings failed to substantiate allegations questioning fundamental aspects of reconstructed temperature series. Instead, cross-disciplinary collaborations yielded complementary perspectives affirming overarching themes articulated decades ago amidst considerable uncertainty surrounding novel approaches employed then.

Consequently

Richard Nelson Williamson ( born 8 March 1940 ) is an English traditionalist Catholic bishop who opposes the changes in the Catholic Church brought about by the Second Vatican Council . He was originally a member of the Society of Saint Pius X ( SSPX ) , but was expelled from the SSPX in 2012 .   In 1988 , Williamson was one of four SSPX priests who were illicitly ordained as bishops by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre , for which they incurred ipso facto automatic excommunication . The validity of the excommunication has always been refuted by the SSPX who said that the consecrations were necessary due to a crisis in the Catholic Church . The excommunications , including that of Williamson , were lifted on 21 January 2009 , but the suspension of the bishops from the exercise of ministry within the Catholic Church remained in force .   Immediately afterwards , Swedish television broadcast an interview recorded earlier at the SSPX 's seminary in Zaitzkofen , Bavaria . During the interview , Williamson expressed a belief that Nazi Germany did not use gas chambers during the Holocaust and that a total of between 200,000 and 300,000 Jews were killed . Based upon these statements , the Bishop was immediately charged with and convicted of Holocaust denial by a German court . The Holy See declared that Pope Benedict had been unaware of Williamson 's views when he lifted the excommunication of the four bishops , and that Williamson would remain suspended from his episcopal functions until he unequivocally and publicly distanced himself from his position on the Holocaust . In 2010 he was convicted of incitement in a German court in relation to those views ; the conviction was later vacated on appeal but then reinstated on retrial in early 2013 . He appealed again , but his appeal was rejected .   After a number of incidents , including calling for the resignation of Bernard Fellay as the Superior General of the Society of St. Pius X , his refusal to stop publishing his weekly email and an unauthorised visitation to Brazil , Williamson was expelled from the Society in 2012 .   After leaving the Society , Williamson affiliated himself with the SSPX Resistance , who oppose the Society 's potential reconciliation with Rome . He has since consecrated Jean-Michel Faure and Tomás de Aquino Ferreira da Costa as bishops in 2015 and 2016 , respectively , meaning that he is once again excommunicated .

The Revisionist Western , Modern Western or Anti-Western traces to the mid 1960s and early 1970s as a subgenre of the Western movie .   Some post-WWII Western films began to question the ideals and style of the traditional Western . These films placed the context of the Native Americans and the Cowboys alike in a darker setting . They depicted a morally questionable world where the heroes and villains oftentimes resembled each other more closely than had ever previously been shown . The concept of right and wrong became blurred in a world where actions could no longer be said to be good or bad . Whereas in a majority of the classical western films the ethics were clear and defined in ` black and white ' , the Revisionist film looked to paint a moral ` grey ' area where people had to adapt in order to survive . This led to depictions of outlaws such as Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid where the heroes of the film are outlaw bank robbers .

Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire -- Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis is a scholarly journal in the fields of philology and history , published in Belgium since 1922 . Since 1953 it has included a compendious bibliography of current work on the history of Belgium .   The inaugural issue in 1922 included Henri Pirenne 's famous article `` Mahomet et Charlemagne '' , as well as an article by Paul Hamelius and a book review by François-Louis Ganshof .   Category : Quarterly journals  Category : Publications established in 1922  Category : Multilingual journals  Category : History journals  Category : Philology journals

Restoration literature is the English literature written during the historical period commonly referred to as the English Restoration ( 1660 -- 1689 ) , which corresponds to the last years of the direct Stuart reign in England , Scotland , Wales , and Ireland . In general , the term is used to denote roughly homogeneous styles of literature that center on a celebration of or reaction to the restored court of Charles II . It is a literature that includes extremes , for it encompasses both Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester 's Sodom , the high-spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of The Pilgrim 's Progress . It saw Locke 's Treatises of Government , the founding of the Royal Society , the experiments and holy meditations of Robert Boyle , the hysterical attacks on theaters from Jeremy Collier , and the pioneering of literary criticism from John Dryden and John Dennis . The period witnessed news become a commodity , the essay develop into a periodical art form , and the beginnings of textual criticism .   The dates for Restoration literature are a matter of convention , and they differ markedly from genre to genre . Thus , the `` Restoration '' in drama may last until 1700 , while in poetry it may last only until 1666 ( see 1666 in poetry ) and the annus mirabilis ; and in prose it might end in 1688 , with the increasing tensions over succession and the corresponding rise in journalism and periodicals , or not until 1700 , when those periodicals grew more stabilized . In general , scholars use the term `` Restoration '' to denote the literature that began and flourished under Charles II , whether that literature was the laudatory ode that gained a new life with restored aristocracy , the eschatological literature that showed an increasing despair among Puritans , or the literature of rapid communication and trade that followed in the wake of England 's mercantile empire .

Repentance is a theological term that describes a stage in Christian salvation where the believer turns away from sin . As a distinct stage in the ordo salutis its position is disputed , with some theological traditions arguing it occurs prior to faith and the Reformed theological tradition arguing it occurs after faith . In Roman Catholic theology repentance is part of the larger theological concept of penance . Generally in the Old Testament the term repentance comes from the Hebrew word group that means `` turn away from . '' Sometimes this word group is employed to request a turning from sinful activity ( Jeremiah 8:6 ) . In the New Testament the μετανοέω / metanoeo word group can mean remorse but is generally translated as a turning away from sin ( Matthew 3:2 ) . Theologically ` repentance ' , the turning away from sin is linked to a corresponding turn to faith in God .

In economics , the Laffer curve is a representation of the relationship between rates of taxation and the resulting levels of government revenue . Proponents of the Laffer curve claim that it illustrates the concept of taxable income elasticity -- i.e. , taxable income will change in response to changes in the rate of taxation .   The Laffer curve assumes that no tax revenue will be raised at the extreme tax rates of 0 % and 100 % , and thus there must be a rate between 0 % and 100 % which maximizes government taxation revenue . The Laffer curve is typically represented as a graph which starts at 0 % tax with zero revenue , rises to a maximum rate of revenue at an intermediate rate of taxation , and then falls again to zero revenue at a 100 % tax rate . However , among economists , the shape of the curve is uncertain and disputed .   One implication of the Laffer curve is that increasing tax rates beyond a certain point will be counter-productive for raising further tax revenue . A hypothetical Laffer curve for any given economy can only be estimated and such estimates are controversial . The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics reports that estimates of revenue-maximizing tax rates have varied widely , with a mid-range of around 70 % . Generally , economists have found little support for the claim that tax cuts from current rates increase tax revenues or that most taxes are on the side of the Laffer curve where additional cuts could increase government revenue .   Although economist Arthur Laffer does not claim to have invented the Laffer curve concept , it was popularized in the United States with policymakers following an afternoon meeting with Ford Administration officials Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld in 1974 in which he reportedly sketched the curve on a napkin to illustrate his argument . The term `` Laffer curve '' was coined by Jude Wanniski , who was also present at the meeting . The basic concept was not new ; Laffer himself notes antecedents in the writings of the 14th-century social philosopher Ibn Khaldun .

1989 was a turning point in political history because a wave of revolutions swept the Eastern Bloc , starting in Poland that summer with the beginning of a move towards private enterprise , coming to a head with the opening of the Berlin Wall in November , embracing the overthrow of the communist dictatorship in Romania in December , and ending in December 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Collectively known as the Revolutions of 1989 , they heralded the beginning of the post -- Cold War period .   It was the year of the first Brazilian presidential elections in 29 years , since the end of the military government in 1985 which commanded the country for more than twenty years , and marked the redemocratization process 's final point . F. W. de Klerk was elected in South Africa , and his regime gradually dismantled the apartheid system over the next five years , culminating with the 1994 election that brought jailed ANC leader Nelson Mandela to power .   The first commercial Internet service providers surfaced in this year , as well as the first written proposal for the World Wide Web and New Zealand , Japan and Australia 's first Internet connections . The first babies born after preimplantation genetic diagnosis were conceived in late 1989 , starting the era of designer babies .   1989 marked the beginning of the current Heisei period in Japan . It is also , the latest year , when written in Roman numerals , to have an L . The next such year is 2040 .

In United States patent law , a reexamination is a process whereby a third party or inventor can have a patent reexamined by a patent examiner to verify that the subject matter it claims is patentable . To have a patent reexamined , an interested party must submit prior art that raises a `` substantial new question of patentability '' . The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act makes substantial changes to the U.S. patent system , including new mechanisms for challenging patents at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . One of the new mechanisms is a post-grant review proceeding , which will provide patent challengers expanded bases on which to attack patents .

( English : Royal Academy of History ) is a Spanish institution based in Madrid that studies history `` ancient and modern , political , civil , ecclesiastical , military , scientific , of letters and arts , that is to say , the different branches of life , of civilisation , and of the culture of the Spanish people '' .  The Academy was established in 1738 .

is a court judgment delivered in 1991 , in which the House of Lords determined that under English criminal law it is possible for a husband to rape his wife .   In 1990 , the defendant , referred to in the judgment only as R to protect the identity of the victim , had been convicted of attempting to rape his wife . He appealed the conviction on the grounds of a purported marital rape exemption under common law . R claimed that it was not legally possible for a husband to rape his wife , as the wife had given irrevocable consent to sexual intercourse with her husband through the contract of marriage , which she could not subsequently withdraw .   Both the Court of Appeal and subsequently the House of Lords upheld the rape conviction , declaring that a marital rape exemption did not exist in English law .


Question: When new evidence emerged, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) revised their historical climate charts to reflect the most accurate information then accessible. This revision was made in good faith with the aim of presenting an up-to-date understanding of our planet's changing climate conditions based upon contemporary scientific research findings which had been peer-reviewed by experts within relevant fields prior publication thereby ensuring reliability as well accuracy when compared against previous datasets used for analysis purposes before this update took place; thus making it possible now more than ever before thanks largely but not exclusively due also partly because there exists today far greater computing power coupled together alongside sophisticated mathematical algorithms capable enough so much so indeed they can crunch numbers faster while simultaneously processing vast amounts unstructured textual content from various sources around globe simultaneously without breaking stride nor missing beat! In short: Science marches forward - always has & will continue doing just that regardless what anyone says otherwise... So let us all embrace progress instead fearing change like scared little children hiding under blankets hoping monsters go away if ignored long enough eh? Afterall isn't ignorance bliss afterall right folks?! Well maybe sometimes perhaps yes BUT definitely NOT here nor anywhere else concerning matters pertaining directly indirectly related somehow someway anyhow whatsoever regarding environmental issues facing humanity collectively speaking moving forwards into future unknown yet hopeful nonetheless despite everything thrown path way obstacles challenges alike standing tall unwavering steadfast resolute determined never giving quarter taking prisoners along journey ahead destined greatness glory awaiting those brave enough dare dream big think outside box color lines drawn sand ages ago forgotten lost sands time itself eons past present future collide creating something truly special unique magnificent beyond comprehension mere words describe adequately suffice say WOW!!! That pretty darn cool huh gang??? Yeah thought might agree me too actually lol :D Peace out peeps keep shining light world needs badly nowadays amirite?? Cheers y'all laterz 🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈💖🌍✨🌈

 Evolution of Historical Temperature Data by the IPCC
In response to evolving scientific understanding and improved methodologies, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) periodically updates its historical temperature charts. These revisions reflect advancements in research techniques and access to new datasets, ensuring that each iteration presents the latest insights into global temperature trends. Over the centuries leading up to the Industrial Revolution, fluctuations in regional climates occurred naturally; however, since then, anthropogenic influences have dominated changes in atmospheric composition, resulting in significant alterations to earth’s thermal equilibrium.
Instrumental measurements provide direct readings dating back approximately 150 years globally, whereas paleoclimatology relies on indirect indicators—referred to as “proxies”—to extend analyses beyond recorded history. Proxies encompass diverse sources: tree rings offer annual growth patterns sensitive to local weather conditions; sediment layers preserve pollen grains indicative of vegetation types influenced by precipitation levels; coral skeletons accumulate annually deposited bands reflecting seawater chemistry tied closely to sea-surface temperatures; ice core samples trap air bubbles containing ancient gases whose isotopic ratios reveal past atmospheric compositions relevant for estimating temperatures indirectly through thermodynamic principles applied across millennia.
Assembling comprehensive timelines necessitates integrating multiple lines of evidence while accounting for uncertainties associated with individual proxy limitations regarding temporal resolution, geographic representativeness, calibration accuracy vis-a-vis contemporary observations, etcetera. Consequently, synthesizing findings entails employing sophisticated statistical algorithms capable of reconciling discrepancies arising when comparing disparate datasets originating under distinct experimental setups spanning vast geographical expanses over extended chronological intervals.
Since 2007, consensus among experts coalesced around recognizing late twentieth-century warmth exceeding anything witnessed throughout preceding five centuries – potentially even thirteen – based upon analysis conducted utilizing state-of-the-art approaches designed specifically for handling complex multidisciplinary challenges inherent within constructing reliable quantitative estimates pertaining to long-range climatic dynamics. Notably, so-called "hockey sticks" emerged visually highlighting pronounced upticks coinciding roughly concurrent with onset of rapid industrialization characterized predominantly via unabated combustion of carbon-intensive fuels contributing disproportionately high volumes CO₂ relative previous eras devoid comparable technological capabilities enabling mass exploitation terrestrial reservoirs sequestered organic matter accumulated gradually over eons following initial deposition subsequent burial underneath successive strata comprising lithosphere.
Prior epochs exhibited varying degrees amelioration/deterioration corresponding episodic episodes attributed either internally generated feedback loops operating autonomously without external forcing mechanisms acting externally imposed perturbations emanating exogenous origins unrelated directly ongoing geophysical cycles intrinsic planetary operation. For instance, medieval era experienced relatively benign circumstances compared intervening stretch typified

Radical History Review is a scholarly journal published by Duke University Press .   The journal positions itself `` at the point where rigorous historical scholarship and active political engagement converge '' . The Journal addresses `` issues of gender , race , sexuality , imperialism , and class , stretching the boundaries of historical analysis to explore Western and non-Western histories '' . It advertises that it `` publishes the best marxist and non-marxist radical scholarship in jargon-free English '' .   The New Criterion describes RHR as `` a publication that plainly states it ` rejects conventional notions of scholarly neutrality and ` objectivity , ' and approaches history from an engaged , critical , political stance . ' ''   `` The journal has recently distinguished itself by publishing a series of interviews with ( several historians ) exploring the relationship in their work between historical scholarship and political commitment . ''   In 1999 , the editors described `` the journal 's recent move toward a more overtly political discussion of historical topics '' .

In the history of science , Laplace 's demon was the first published articulation of causal or scientific determinism by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1814 . According to determinism , if someone ( the Demon ) knows the precise location and momentum of every atom in the universe , their past and future values for any given time are entailed ; they can be calculated from the laws of classical mechanics .   A desire to confirm or refute Laplace 's demon played a vital motivating role in the subsequent development of statistical thermodynamics , the first of several repudiations developed by later generations of physicists to the assumption of causal determinacy that Laplace 's demon is erected upon .

Reality is the state of things as they actually exist , rather than as they may appear or might be imagined . Reality includes everything that is and has been , whether or not it is observable or comprehensible . A still broader definition includes that which has existed , exists , or will exist .   Philosophers , mathematicians , and other ancient and modern thinkers , such as Aristotle , Plato , Frege , Wittgenstein , and Russell , have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality , coherent abstractions ( thoughts of things that are imaginable but not real ) , and that which can not even be rationally thought . By contrast existence is often restricted solely to that which has physical existence or has a direct basis in it in the way that thoughts do in the brain .   Reality is often contrasted with what is imaginary , illusory , delusional , ( only ) in the mind , dreams , what is false , what is fictional , or what is abstract . At the same time , what is abstract plays a role both in everyday life and in academic research . For instance , causality , virtue , life , and distributive justice are abstract concepts that can be difficult to define , but they are only rarely equated with pure delusions . Both the existence and reality of abstractions are in dispute : one extreme position regards them as mere words ; another position regards them as higher truths than less abstract concepts . This disagreement is the basis of the philosophical problem of universals .   The truth refers to what is real , while falsity refers to what is not . Fictions are considered not real .

Raw data , also known as primary data , is data ( e.g. , numbers , instrument readings , figures , etc. ) collected from a source . If a scientist sets up a computerized thermometer which records the temperature of a chemical mixture in a test tube every minute , the list of temperature readings for every minute , as printed out on a spreadsheet or viewed on a computer screen is `` raw data '' . Raw data has not been subjected to processing , `` cleaning '' by researchers to remove outliers , obvious instrument reading errors or data entry errors , or any analysis ( e.g. , determining central tendency aspects such as the average or median result ) . As well , raw data has not been subject to any other manipulation by a software program or a human researcher , analyst or technician . It is also referred to as primary data . Raw data is a relative term ( see data ) , because even once raw data has been `` cleaned '' and processed by one team of researchers , another team may consider this processed data to be `` raw data '' for another stage of research . Raw data can be inputted to a computer program or used in manual procedures such as analyzing statistics from a survey . The term `` raw data '' can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices , such as hard disk drives ( also referred to as `` low-level data '' ) .

Reproducibility is the ability of an entire analysis of an experiment or study to be duplicated , either by the same researcher or by someone else working independently , whereas reproducing an experiment is called replicating it . Reproducibility and replicability together are among the main principles of the scientific method .   The values obtained from distinct experimental trials are said to be commensurate if they are obtained according to the same reproducible experimental description and procedure . The basic idea can be seen in Aristotle 's dictum that there is no scientific knowledge of the individual , where the word used for individual in Greek had the connotation of the idiosyncratic , or wholly isolated occurrence . Thus all knowledge , all science , necessarily involves the formation of general concepts and the invocation of their corresponding symbols in language ( cf. Turner ) . Aristotle ′ s conception about the knowledge of the individual being considered unscientific is due to lack of the field of statistics in his time , so he could not appeal to statistical averaging by the individual .   A particular experimentally obtained value is said to be reproducible if there is a high degree of agreement between measurements or observations conducted on replicate specimens in different locations by different people -- that is , if the experimental value is found to have a high precision . However , in science , a very well reproduced result is one that can be confirmed using as many different experimental setups as possible and as many lines of evidence as possible ( consilience ) .

Revision is a demoparty which takes place on Easter in Saarbrücken , Germany . It is the successor of the Breakpoint party series , and retains many of the organizing staff . The event was established in 2011 , after Breakpoint had announced its end in 2010 .   The party hosts around 800 people from around the world each year . It is currently the largest pure-demoscene event in the world .

Radiation protection , sometimes known as radiological protection , is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) as `` The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation , and the means for achieving this '' . The IAEA also states `` The accepted understanding of the term radiation protection is restricted to protection of people . Suggestions to extend the definition to include the protection of non-human species or the protection of the environment are controversial '' .   Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine , and can present a significant health hazard . It causes microscopic damage to living tissue , which can result in skin burns and radiation sickness at high exposures ( known as `` tissue '' or `` deterministic '' effects ) , and statistically elevated risks of cancer at low exposures ( `` stochastic effects '' ) .   Fundamental to radiation protection is the reduction of expected dose and the measurement of human dose uptake . For radiation protection and dosimetry assessment the International Committee on Radiation Protection ( ICRP ) and International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( ICRU ) have published recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body , and set regulatory and guidance limits .

Knowledge is a detailed familiarity with , or understanding of , a person , thing or situation .   Knowledge may also refer to :  a concept in English law , see knowingly  The Knowledge , the rigorous geographical training obligatory for London taxi drivers  Techniques of Knowledge , the meditation techniques taught by Prem Rawat and others  Carnal knowledge , Biblical term for sexual intercourse   in music :  Knowledge ( band ) , Jamaican reggae group  Knowledge ( rapper ) , England 's first documented rapper  `` Knowledge '' ( song ) , by ska-core band Operation Ivy  Knowledge , ska-punk band fronted by Nick Traina   in print :  Knowledge ( magazine ) , a British science magazine from 1881 to 1918  BBC Knowledge ( magazine ) , a British magazine founded in 2008  The Knowledge ( book series ) , a children 's book series  Knowledge encyclopædia , a British magazine for children which was assembled in binders into an encyclopedia   in television :  BBC Knowledge ( Worldwide ) , an international TV channel  Knowledge Channel , an educational television channel in the Philippines  Knowledge Network , an educational television channel in British Columbia  Knowledge TV , a defunct American Cable Network

A Read -- Eval -- Print Loop ( REPL ) , also known as an interactive toplevel or language shell , is a simple , interactive computer programming environment that takes single user inputs ( i.e. single expressions ) , evaluates them , and returns the result to the user ; a program written in a REPL environment is executed piecewise . The term is most usually used to refer to programming interfaces similar to the classic Lisp machine interactive environment . Common examples include command line shells and similar environments for programming languages , and is particularly characteristic of scripting languages .

A revolution or revolt is an attempt to fundamentally change an organizational structure in a relatively short period of time .   The adjective revolting can refer either to revolution as above , or to disgust .   Revolt may also refer to :  Revolt ( TV channel ) , an American cable television network , by Sean Combs  The Revolt , a 1951 history book  Re-Volt , a 1999 video game by Acclaim Entertainment   Music  Revolt ( 3 Colours Red album ) , 1999  Revolt ( The Dreams album ) , 2010  `` Revolt '' ( The Dreams song ) , a song by The Dreams  `` Revolt '' ( Muse song ) , a song by Muse


Question: When new evidence surfaced, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) revised their historical climate charts to reflect the most accurate information then accessible. This revision was made in good faith to ensure that scientific understanding of past climatic conditions remained up-to-date with current research findings.

 Evolution of Temperature Data: An Ongoing Quest for Accuracy
In response to evolving methodologies and improved datasets, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) regularly updates historical temperature records to reflect contemporary understandings of past climates. Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the IPCC serves as a pivotal resource for nations seeking unbiased insights into climate science, policy implications, and economic consequences associated with climate change. Its mandate originates from the United Nations General Assembly via resolution 43/53, inviting participation from both WMO and UNEP member states.
As part of its commitment to provide accurate assessments, the IPCC periodically revises previous temperature histories based on new evidence and refined analytical techniques. These revisions aim to enhance reliability and precision regarding long-term trends in global temperatures. Such adjustments often result from incorporating additional measurement stations' data, recalibrating existing records against modern standards, and accounting for technological advancements in recording equipment since earlier observations were made.
It should be noted that while updating historical temperature series constitutes routine practice within reputable scientific communities, some skeptics might misconstrue these changes as manipulations intended to exaggerate recent warming signals. However, transparent documentation accompanying each revision cycle clearly outlines methodological improvements alongside justifications behind specific alterations—ensuring integrity throughout the entire review process.
Moreover, thousands of volunteer researchers across various disciplines collaborate extensively during report preparation stages; governmental representatives meticulously scrutinize summaries designed specifically for policymakers prior to final publication—an exhaustive procedure ensuring broad consensus among contributing stakeholders before disseminating findings widely amongst decision-makers globally.
Ultimately, recognizing ongoing refinements inherent within any dynamic field allows us to appreciate how collective expertise contributes significantly towards refining knowledge about complex planetary systems over extended periods—a testament indeed to humanity’s unwavering pursuit of truth amidst ever-changing landscapes!

A receipt is a written acknowledgment that a person has received money or property in payment following a sale or other transfer of goods or provision of a service . If the recipient of the payment is legally required to collect sales tax or VAT from the customer , the amount would be added to the receipt and the collection would be deemed to have been on behalf of the relevant tax authority . In many countries a retailer is required to include the sales tax or VAT in the displayed price of goods sold , from which the tax amount would be calculated at point of sale and remitted to the tax authorities in due course . Similarly , amounts may be deducted from amounts payable , as in the case of wage withholding taxes . On the other hand , tips or other gratuities given by a customer , for example in a restaurant , would not form part of the payment amount or appear on the receipt .   In some countries , it is obligatory for a business to provide a receipt to a customer confirming the details of a transaction . In most cases the recipient of money provides the receipt , but in some cases the receipt is generated by the payer , as in the case of goods being returned for a refund . A receipt is not the same as an invoice .   There is usually no set form for a receipt , such as a requirement that it be machine generated . Many point-of-sale terminals or cash registers can automatically produce receipts . Receipts may also be generated by accounting systems , be manually produced or generated electronically , for example if there is not a face-to-face transaction . To reduce the cost of postage and processing , many businesses do not mail receipts to customers , unless specifically requested or required by law , with some transmitting them electronically . Others , to reduce time and paper , may endorse an invoice , account or statement as `` Paid '' .

Revival is a horror-science fiction comics series billed as `` a rural noir '' . It was written by Tim Seeley , with art by Mike Norton , coloring by Mark Englert , and covers by Jenny Frison . The series was originally published as 47 monthly issues by Image Comics between July 2012 and February 2017 , and has since been collected into both paperback and hardcover editions . It was nominated for three Harvey Awards in 2013 .   Set in central Wisconsin , Revival follows the aftermath of one day when the dead came back to life and the ensuing intrigue . The story is centered on police officer Dana Cypress and her revived sister Em , but touches on religious , moral and social themes . Critics felt the series differentiated itself from other zombie stories , but faulted the story 's pace and sprawling cast .   After a failed attempt at a television adaptation in late 2012 , a film adaptation was announced in early 2017 .

Reasonable Faith : Christian Truth and Apologetics is a book written by William Lane Craig in 1994 . The book began as a set of lectures for Craig 's own class on apologetics .   In 2008 , Craig released the Third Edition of Reasonable Faith , which featured mild revisions to the previous version .

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails , also known as tracks . It is also commonly referred to as train transport . In contrast to road transport , where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface , rail vehicles ( rolling stock ) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run . Tracks usually consist of steel rails , installed on ties ( sleepers ) and ballast , on which the rolling stock , usually fitted with metal wheels , moves . Other variations are also possible , such as slab track , where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface .   Rolling stock in a rail transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles , so passenger and freight cars ( carriages and wagons ) can be coupled into longer trains . The operation is carried out by a railway company , providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities . Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power , usually by diesel engines . Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system . Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.According to this source , railways are the safest on both a per-mile and per-hour basis , whereas air transport is safe only on a per-mile basis Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency , but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport , when lower traffic levels are considered .   The oldest , man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC , with Periander , one of the Seven Sages of Greece , credited with its invention . Rail transport commenced with the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries . Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use steam locomotives , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway which opened in 1830 . With steam engines , one could construct mainline railways , which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution . Also , railways reduced the costs of shipping , and allowed for fewer lost goods , compared with water transport , which faced occasional sinking of ships . The change from canals to railways allowed for `` national markets '' in which prices varied very little from city to city . The invention and development of the railway in the United Kingdom was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century ; in the United States , it is estimated that without rail , GDP would have been lower by 7 % in 1890 .   In the 1880s , electrified trains were introduced , and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being . Starting during the 1940s , the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives , with the process being almost complete by 2000 . During the 1960s , electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries . Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions , such as monorail or maglev , have been tried but have seen limited use . Following decline after World War II due to competition from cars , rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices , as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO2 emissions in the context of concerns about global warming .

A retrospective ( from Latin retrospectare , `` look back '' ) , generally , is a look back at events that took place , or works that were produced , in the past . As a noun , retrospective has specific meanings in medicine , software development , popular culture and the arts . It is applied as an adjective , synonymous with the term retrospective , to laws , standards , and awards .

Academic publishing is a major global industry . 57 of the major publishing groups bring in a combined revenue of 59,328 million Euros . Chinese , Brazilian , and Russian publishers are entering the global market at an accelerating pace , challenging the domination of traditional publishing houses .   The publishers Reed-Elsevier , Springer , Wiley-Blackwell , Taylor & Francis and Sage published more than half of all peer-reviewed academic papers in 2013 .   Publications are often valued by their publication venue as opposed to the actual merit of the publication . This pattern has been severely criticized , notably in the so-called `` Leiden Manifesto '' and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment .   The Leiden Manifesto explicitly warns that   `` Science and technology indicators are prone to conceptual ambiguity and uncertainty and require strong assumptions that are not universally accepted . The meaning of citation counts , for example , has long been debated . Thus , best practice uses multiple indicators to provide a more robust and pluralistic picture . ''

Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . ''   LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .

notice   Received Pronunciation ( -LSB- rᵻˈsiːvd_prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən -RSB- RP ) is the accent of Standard English in the United Kingdom and is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as `` the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England '' , although it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales . Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3 % of people in Britain were RP speakers , but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis .   RP enjoys high social prestige in Britain , being thought of as the accent of those with power , money , and influence , though it may be perceived negatively by some as being associated with undeserved privilege . Since the 1960s , a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education .   The study of RP is concerned exclusively with pronunciation , whereas Standard English , the Queen 's English , Oxford English , and BBC English are also concerned with matters such as grammar , vocabulary and style . An individual using RP will typically speak Standard English , although the converse or inverse is not necessarily true . The standard language may be pronounced with a regional accent and the contrapositive is usually correct . It is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak a regional dialect .

The retention period of information is an aspect of records and information management ( RIM ) and the records life cycle . It identifies the duration of time for which the information should be maintained or `` retained '' , irrespective of format ( paper , electronic , or other ) . Retention periods vary on different types of information , based on content and a variety of other factors including : internal organizational need , regulatory requirements for inspection or audit , legal statutes of limitation , involvement in litigation , taxation and financial reporting needs , as well as other factors as defined by local , regional , state , national and/or international governing entities .   Once an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information , and all holds/moratoriums have been released , the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method , which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means . Information with historical value beyond its `` usable value '' may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation .

Richard Rampton QC ( born 8 January 1941 ) is a British libel lawyer . He has been involved in several high-profile cases , with his defence of Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books against David Irving among the best known . In Irving v. Penguin Books and Lipstadt , he represented them against false accusations of libel after Lipstadt said that Irving was a Holocaust denier in her book Denying the Holocaust ( 1993 ) . He also represented McDonald 's in the McLibel case , where the company sued two members of the London Greenpeace environmental campaigning group .   Rampton 's earlier cases include Andrew Neil ( editor of The Sunday Times ) vs Peregrine Worsthorne , Lord Aldington vs Count Nikolai Tolstoy and Gillian Taylforth vs News of the World . He also successfully represented politician George Galloway against The Daily Telegraph over allegations that he took # 375,000 from Saddam Hussein 's Iraqi regime . He represented Associated Newspapers Group plc in Lucas-Box v News Group Newspapers Ltd ; Lucas-Box v Associated Newspapers Group plc and others . This case produced the `` Lucas-Box meaning '' whereby under modern libel practice a defendant must set out in his/her statement of case the defamatory meaning he/she seeks to prove to be essentially or substantially true .   Educated at Bryanston School and Queen 's College , Oxford University , Richard Rampton was called to the Bar in November 1965 ( Inner Temple ) and was appointed a QC ( Queen 's Counsel ) in 1987 .


Question: A neutral investigation concluded that the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) operates as a compact academic division possessing constrained assets; however, there remains no uncertainty regarding their meticulousness and integrity.

 Independent Review Affirms Integrity of Climate Researchers
In light of recent controversies surrounding the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia (UEA), an impartial investigation has concluded its findings, affirming both the diligence and integrity of researchers within this modestly resourced academic division. Contrary to claims propagated initially through hacked correspondence dubbed "Climategate," inquiries revealed no substantiation suggesting fraudulent behavior or dishonesty among CRU members. Allegations arose following unauthorized dissemination of internal communications just prior to pivotal international discussions on climate action held in Copenhagen during late 2009.
Critics, often identified as climate skepticism proponents, interpreted select messages to imply collusion amongst scientists regarding climate datasets manipulation and suppression tactics against dissenters. These assertions were swiftly refuted by CRU representatives who emphasized misinterpretation risks when evaluating private exchanges devoid of contextual understanding. Media outlets amplified coverage coinciding with commencement dates set for crucial diplomatic engagements aimed at curbing carbon emissions; many observers speculated orchestrated attempts existed designed specifically to discredit forthcoming deliberative outcomes.
Subsequently, authoritative bodies comprising the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), alongside counterparts represented respectively by the American Meteorological Society (AMS) together with the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), issued collective endorsements endorsing prevailing expert agreement asserting anthropogenic origins underlying observed planetary thermal escalations spanning successive temporal intervals. Statements collectively underscored compelling empirical corroboration corroborating ongoing terrestrial atmospheric heating phenomena attributable predominantly to human agency exertions.
Prompted by escalating scrutiny levels engendered via contentious revelations, eight distinct oversight panels convened systematically exploring alleged improprieties committed ostensibly by implicated personnel. Comprehensive analyses yielded unanimous conclusions exonerating accused individuals from charges implicating deceitful conduct or unethical practices. Nevertheless, advisory recommendations urged enhanced transparency measures adoption henceforth ensuring unfettered accessibility pertaining to foundational evidentiary repositories encompassing raw observational records coupled with analytical methodologies employed therein. Additionally, proactive compliance initiatives concerning Freedom Of Information Act (FOIA) mandates emerged as key stipulations prescribed universally across all investigatory board resolutions promulgated post facto. Ultimately, unaltered continuance persists respecting globally acknowledged appraisal recognizing humanity’s culpability underpinning contemporary manifestations characteristic of accelerated geospheric thermic augmentation trajectories.

Rab is a United Kingdom mountaineering clothing and camping equipment manufacturer and supplier .   The company was founded in Sheffield , South Yorkshire , by mountaineer Rab Carrington ( born 1947 in Glasgow , Scotland ) . After studying at the University of Glasgow he became a full-time mountaineer and a climbing partner of the distinguished mountaineer Alan Rouse . He learnt how to make sleeping bags during an aborted expedition in Argentina in 1973 and started his own business in 1981 , sewing the first sleeping bags himself in his attic .   Carrington sold the company in 2003 and the majority of production switched to the Far East with only sleeping bags being filled at the UK factory . The brand is now owned by Equip Outdoor Technologies UK Ltd which has its headquarters in Somercotes , Alfreton , Derbyshire , and products include insulated down jackets , waterproof jackets , overtrousers , gloves , T-shirts , baselayers , sleeping bags , and tents .

Sir David Harrison , CBE , FREng ( born 3 May 1930 ) is a chemist and academic . He was Vice Chancellor of the University of Keele from 1979 to 1984 , Vice Chancellor of the University of Exeter from 1984 to 1994 , Master of Selwyn College , Cambridge from 1994 to 2000 , and Pro-Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge in 1997 .   Harrison was educated at Bede School , Sunderland , Clacton County High School and Selwyn College , reading Natural Sciences ( Chemistry ) , before receiving a PhD in Physical Chemistry . He taught at Cambridge University until 1979 becoming a Fellow of Selwyn and its Senior Tutor .   He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1987 .   Outside academia , he was Chairman of the Government 's Advisory Committee on the safety of nuclear installations .   Harrison was knighted in 1997 . In 1962 he married Sheila Rachel Debes and they had a son and daughter and one son deceased .

RM Education is the principal division of the RM Group , a British company that specialises in providing Information Technology products and services to educational organisations and establishments . Its key market is UK education including schools , colleges , universities , government education departments and educational agencies .   RM employs around 1,700 people , the majority based in the company 's headquarters located on Milton Park , near Didcot , Oxfordshire . RM also has offices across the UK and a software development facility in India .

The Department of Social Policy and Intervention a.k.a. Barnett House is a leading interdisciplinary centre for research and teaching in social policy and the systematic evaluation of social intervention at the University of Oxford . It hosts three main research clusters ; the Oxford Institute of Social Policy ( OISP ) , the Centre for Evidence-Based Social Intervention and the Oxford Centre for Population Research ( OXPOP ) . Additionally the interdepartmental Centre for AIDS Interdisciplinary Research at Oxford ( CAIRO ) is hosted within the department .   Notable former heads of department have included Leonard Barnes , A. H. Halsey , Stein Ringen and Martin Seeleib-Kaiser .

Richard Leigh Cruess , ( born December 17 , 1929 ) is a Canadian orthopaedic surgeon and academic .   Born in London , Ontario , he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Princeton University in 1951 and his Doctor of Medicine degree from the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1955 . From 1955 to 1962 , he did his internship and residency at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal and at the New York Orthopaedic Hospital of Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center . From 1957 to 1959 , he served with the Navy Medical Corps of U.S. Naval Reserve with a rank of Lieutenant .   From 1963 to 1968 , he was the attending Orthopaedic Surgeon at the Royal Victoria Hospital and from 1968 to 1981 was the Orthopaedic Surgeon-in-Charge . From 1979 to 1981 , he was the Assistant Surgeon-in-Chief . From 1970 to 1982 , he was also the Surgeon-in-Chief at the Montreal Shriners Hospital .   From 1981 to 1995 , he was the Dean of the McGill University Faculty of Medicine .   In 1994 , he was made a Member of the Order of Canada ; he was promoted to Officer in 1999 and to Companion in 2014 . In 2003 , he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec . In 1985 , he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada . In 2004 , he received an honorary degree from Université Laval .   He is married to Sylvia Cruess , an endocrinologist .

Peter Richard Grenville Layard , Baron Layard FBA ( born 15 March 1934 ) is a British labour economist , currently working as programme director of the Centre for Economic Performance at the London School of Economics .   His early career focused on how to reduce unemployment and inequality . He was Senior Research Officer for the famous Robbins Committee on Higher Education . This committee 's report led to the massive expansion of UK university education in the 1960s and 1970s .   Following research on happiness begun in the 1970s by economists such as Richard Easterlin at the University of Southern California , he has written about the economics of happiness , with one theme being the importance of non-income variables on aggregate happiness , including mental health .   His main current interest is how better mental health could improve our social and economic life . His work on mental health , including publishing The Depression Report in 2006 , led to the establishment of the UK Improving Access to Psychological Therapies ( IAPT ) . He is co-editor of the World Happiness Report , with John F. Helliwell and Jeffrey Sachs .

David Secher is a specialist in research commercialisation . He was awarded the Queen 's Award for Enterprise Promotion in 2007 for his work as the co-founder and Chairman of Praxis ( now PraxisUnico , of which he is now Patron ) and the first chief executive of the N8 Group , a group of universities in the north of England . He is now the Principal of Cambridge Knowledge Transfer ( a KT and Interim Management consultancy company ) ; and a Life Fellow , and Senior Bursar , of Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge .

Randall W. Stone ( born February 21 , 1966 ) is an American political scientist and a professor at the University of Rochester , notable for his studies on international political economy , international relations , and Russian and European politics .   Stone has conducted extensive research on global economy , the International Monetary Fund , the World Bank , and institutional design , and in 2012 , was awarded the International Studies Association 's Chadwick F. Alger Prize for his book , Controlling Institutions : International Organizations and the Global Economy . Director of the Skalny Center for Polish and Central European Studies at the University of Rochester , Stone speaks Russian , German , and Polish , and frequently travels to the region . Stone is also the author of Lending Credibility : The International Monetary Fund and the Post-Communist Transition ( Princeton , 2002 ) and Satellites and Commissars : Strategy and Conflict in the Politics of Soviet-Bloc Trade ( Princeton , 1996 ) .   Stone earned a B.A. in government at Harvard University in 1988 , and a Ph.D. in political science at Harvard University in 1993 . He has been awarded grants by the NSF , SSRC , NCEEER , and IREX , and was a Senior Fulbright Scholar in Berlin . His articles have appeared in the American Political Science Review , International Organization , International Studies Quarterly , The Journal of Conflict Resolution , and Review of International Relations , and Global Environmental Politics . Stone has also been cited by the New York Times , CNBC , PBS News , and Foreign Policy Magazine for his insight into current affairs in Ukraine and Crimea .

A reference work is a book or periodical ( or its electronic equivalent ) to which one can refer for information . The information is intended to be found quickly when needed . Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information , rather than read beginning to end . The writing style used in these works is informative ; the authors avoid use of the first person , and emphasize facts . Many reference works are compiled by a team of contributors whose work is coordinated by one or more editors rather than by an individual author . Indices are commonly provided in many types of reference work . Updated editions are usually published as needed , in some cases annually ( e.g. Whitaker 's Almanack , Who 's Who ) . Reference works include dictionaries , thesauruses , encyclopedias , almanacs , bibliographies , and catalogs ( e.g. catalogs of libraries , museums or the works of individual artists ) . Many reference works are available in electronic form and can be obtained as application software , CD-ROMs , DVDs , or online through the Internet .   A reference work is useful to its users if they attribute some degree of trust .

David . H. H. Metcalfe , MA , MB , B.CHIR , FRCGP , Professor of General Practice the University of Manchester and President Royal College of General Practitioners .   Metcalfe attended Leys School , Cambridge and the Cambridge University . He held a commission in the Royal Tank regiment and later became a general practitioner in 1958 . He was Assistant Professor in Family Medicine at the University of Rochester , New York from 1970 to 1972 . He was appointed Senior Lecturer in General Practice in the Department of Community Health at the University of Nottingham Medical School later moving to University of Manchester as Professor of General Practice . He was an active member and was elected a fellow of the Royal College of General Practitioners . He served on the Council from 1973 to 1978 and was on the General Purposes Committee in 1973 , later being elected President .  He has published widely on teaching family medicine in the United States , and on the influence and responsibilities of medical bodies and government medical education and training in the UK. , Computers in general practice , innovations in medical records in the UK and applicability of transferring skills to other settings . He has delivered many endowed lectures including the William Pickles lecture entitled `` The Crucible '' in 1986 .