Question: The negligible quantity of thermal energy emanating from our planet renders it insignificant for practical consideration in scientific studies.

 Heat Energy within Earth: A Negligible Factor?
The notion that geothermal heat emanating from Earth’s depths significantly impacts global temperatures is largely unfounded. Despite being a fascinating aspect of planetary science, internal heat generation constitutes but a minuscule fraction compared to solar radiation received daily. Geologists estimate that while radioactive decay contributes roughly 20 terawatts annually—equivalent to half humanity’s total power usage—it pales against the sun’s contribution. Our star provides approximately 174 petawatts continuously, dwarfing any subterranean warmth. Moreover, understanding how this residual heat dissipates helps elucidate various geological phenomena, including volcanic eruptions and continental drift; yet when discussing atmospheric heating mechanisms, it plays second fiddle unequivocally.

To put things into perspective, consider Earth—a celestial body teeming with life thanks partly to its unique position relative to Sol. Formed some 4.54 billion years back during nebular condensation stages following stellar collapse, our blue marble orbits at just right Goldilocks Zone distance ensuring conditions conducive enough for complex organic molecules formation without boiling away essential volatiles necessary for sustaining ecosystems we know well now. However, despite harboring vast reservoirs capable of generating considerable thermal output via nuclear reactions occurring deep underground chambers housing uranium thorium potassium isotopes undergoing spontaneous disintegration cycles releasing photons carrying kinetic energies manifesting themselves upon reaching crustal layers as hotspots triggering seismic shifts resulting mountain building episodes alongside igneous intrusions forming magma chambers feeding volcanoes spewing molten rock ash gases high up stratospheric realms affecting weather patterns globally, still nothing compares mightily luminous ball fire burning brightly sky day night cycle regulating diurnal rhythms flora fauna alike.

Indeed, Earth’s dynamic nature owes itself greatly to ongoing geophysical processes taking place far below surface level where convection currents drive tectonic movements responsible shaping topography seen today. Water covers nearly three-quarters globe spread across interconnected bodies called seas oceans connected major river systems draining inland areas replenished precipitation falling regularly throughout seasons influenced axial tilt creating distinct meteorological zones characterized varying degrees humidity rainfall intensity duration depending latitude longitude coordinates location specific point interest study. Ice sheets dominate polar extremes locking massive volumes freshwater preventing salinity levels rising uncontrollably causing catastrophic changes marine biology food chains reliant stable saline concentrations maintain equilibrium state overall health aquatic environments.

Life emerged early stages evolutionary timeline possibly around hydrothermal vents located abyssopelagic trenches providing refuge extremophiles thriving extreme pressure low oxygen concentration acidic alkaline pH scales. These primordial beings laid foundations

Lambertian reflectance is the property that defines an ideal `` matte '' or diffusely reflecting surface . The apparent brightness of a Lambertian surface to an observer is the same regardless of the observer 's angle of view . More technically , the surface 's luminance is isotropic , and the luminous intensity obeys Lambert 's cosine law . Lambertian reflectance is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert , who introduced the concept of perfect diffusion in his 1760 book Photometria .

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

Laser ablation is the process of removing material from a solid ( or occasionally liquid ) surface by irradiating it with a laser beam . At low laser flux , the material is heated by the absorbed laser energy and evaporates or sublimates . At high laser flux , the material is typically converted to a plasma . Usually , laser ablation refers to removing material with a pulsed laser , but it is possible to ablate material with a continuous wave laser beam if the laser intensity is high enough .

A radiant heating and cooling system refer to temperature-controlled surfaces that exchange heat with their surrounding environment through convection and radiation . By definition , in radiant heating and cooling systems , thermal radiation covers more than 50 % of heat exchange within the space .  Hydronic radiant heating and cooling system is water based radiant system . It refers to panels or embedded building components ( floors , ceilings or walls ) . Other types include air-based and electrical systems ( which use electrical resistance for heating purpose mainly ) . Important portions of building surfaces are usually required for the radiant exchange .

In mathematics , Laplace 's equation is a second-order partial differential equation named after Pierre-Simon Laplace who first studied its properties . This is often written as :     where ∆ = ∇ 2 is the Laplace operator and is a scalar function .   Laplace 's equation and Poisson 's equation are the simplest examples of elliptic partial differential equations . The general theory of solutions to Laplace 's equation is known as potential theory . The solutions of Laplace 's equation are the harmonic functions , which are important in many fields of science , notably the fields of electromagnetism , astronomy , and fluid dynamics , because they can be used to accurately describe the behavior of electric , gravitational , and fluid potentials . In the study of heat conduction , the Laplace equation is the steady-state heat equation .

Dense-rock equivalent is a volcanologic calculation used to estimate volcanic eruption volume . One of the widely accepted measures of the size of a historic or prehistoric eruption is the volume of magma ejected as pumice and volcanic ash , known as tephra during an explosive phase of the eruption , or the volume of lava extruded during an effusive phase of a volcanic eruption . Eruption volumes are commonly expressed in cubic kilometers ( km3 ) .   Historical and geological estimates of tephra volumes are usually obtained by mapping the distribution and thickness of tephra deposits on the ground after the eruption is over . For historical volcanic explosions , further estimates must be made of tephra deposits that might have changed significantly over time by other geological processes including erosion . Tephra volumes measured in this way must then be corrected for void spaces ( vesicles - bubbles within the pumice , empty spaces between individual pieces of pumice or ash ) to get an estimate of the original volume of magma erupted . This correction can be made by comparing the bulk density of the tephra deposit with the known density of the original gas-free rock-type that makes up the tephra . The result is referred to as the dense-rock equivalent of the erupted volume .   Dense-rock equivalent calculations can also be used to measure the sizes of volcanic eruptions on other planetary bodies , such as Mars . However , the challenge to making these estimates is accurately estimating the density of the tephra deposit or of the dense rock , measuring the thickness of tephra , determining if the tephra is related to the eruption studied or to a nearby one , and estimating changes resulting from other geological processes that may be less understood than on Earth .   Significant studies of the dense-rock equivalent erupted volumes of the Bronze-Age Minoan eruption in Santorini have provided data to archeologists to better understand the effect of the eruption on development of several civilizations including Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian cultures . Through careful analysis of pumice and ash deposits ( including deep sea core samples ) , researchers have been able to make dense-rock equivalent volume estimates for each of the major eruptions of Thera .

Respirometry is a general term that encompasses a number of techniques for obtaining estimates of the rates of metabolism of vertebrates , invertebrates , plants , tissues , cells , or microorganisms via an indirect measure of heat production ( calorimetry ) .

The Kuiper belt ( -LSB- ` kaipər -RSB- or -LSB- ` kœy̯pǝr -RSB- ) , sometimes called the Edgeworth -- Kuiper belt , is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the ( known ) planets , extending from the orbit of Neptune ( at 30 AU ) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun . It is similar to the asteroid belt , but is far larger -- 20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive . Like the asteroid belt , it consists mainly of small bodies , or remnants from the Solar System 's formation . While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal , most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles ( termed `` ices '' ) , such as methane , ammonia and water . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Makemake . Some of the Solar System 's moons , such as Neptune 's Triton and Saturn 's Phoebe , are thought to have originated in the region .   The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper , though he did not predict its existence . In 1992 , was discovered , the first Kuiper belt object ( KBO ) since Pluto . Since its discovery , the number of known KBOs has increased to over a thousand , and more than 100,000 KBOs over 100 km in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years . Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable , and that comets ' true place of origin is the scattered disc , a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago ; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun .   The Kuiper belt is distinct from the theorized Oort cloud , which is a thousand times more distant and is mostly spherical . The objects within the Kuiper belt , together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects , are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) . Pluto is the largest and most massive member of the Kuiper belt , and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO , surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc . Originally considered a planet , Pluto 's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 . It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt , and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs , known as `` plutinos '' , that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune .

Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events . A random sequence of events , symbols or steps has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination . Individual random events are by definition unpredictable , but in many cases the frequency of different outcomes over a large number of events ( or `` trials '' ) is predictable . For example , when throwing two dice , the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable , but a sum of 7 will occur twice as often as 4 . In this view , randomness is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome , rather than haphazardness , and applies to concepts of chance , probability , and information entropy .   The fields of mathematics , probability , and statistics use formal definitions of randomness . In statistics , a random variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space . This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events . Random variables can appear in random sequences . A random process is a sequence of random variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern , but follow an evolution described by probability distributions . These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the various applications of randomness .   Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties . Monte Carlo methods , which rely on random input ( such as from random number generators or pseudorandom number generators ) , are important techniques in science , as , for instance , in computational science . By analogy , quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasirandom number generators .   Random selection , when narrowly associated with simple random sample , is a method of selecting items ( often called units ) from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population . For example , with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles , a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with probability 1/10 . Note that a random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue . In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable , a random selection mechanism requires equal probabilities for any item to be chosen . That is , if the selection process is such that each member of a population , of say research subjects , has the same probability of being chosen then we can say the selection process is random .

The Knudsen number ( Kn ) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative physical length scale . This length scale could be , for example , the radius of a body in a fluid . The number is named after Danish physicist Martin Knudsen ( 1871 -- 1949 ) .   The Knudsen number helps determine whether statistical mechanics or the continuum mechanics formulation of fluid dynamics should be used to model a situation . If the Knudsen number is near or greater than one , the mean free path of a molecule is comparable to a length scale of the problem , and the continuum assumption of fluid mechanics is no longer a good approximation . In such cases , statistical methods should be used .


Question: The negligible quantity of thermal energy emanating from our planet's core renders it insignificant in environmental considerations.

 Minimal Contribution of Geothermal Energy to Earth’s Heat Budget

The concept of geothermal energy - the heat emanating from the depths of the Earth - often captures imaginations when discussing alternative sources of power. However, despite its intriguing nature and historical uses dating back centuries, the contribution of geothermal energy to the overall heat budget of the Earth remains negligible compared to solar radiation.

Originating predominantly from residual heat left during planetary formation and ongoing nuclear reactions decaying elements within the Earth, geothermal gradients facilitate steady heat transfer through the lithosphere. Yet, while temperatures can soar above 4000°C close to the core-mantle interface, triggering various geological phenomena like magma creation and mantle convection, the total output barely impacts the planet's atmospheric conditions significantly.

Historically utilized for therapeutic baths and residential warmth since antiquity, modern advancements have enabled harnessing this resource for electrical generation. By late 2013, approximately 11,700MW were harnessed globally; additionally, around 28GW dedicated solely to direct use encompassed communal heating systems, spa facilities, commercial operations, seawater purification projects, farming utilities among others circa 2010.

Despite being economically feasible, dependable, maintainable & eco-friendly, traditional constraints restricted availability largely confined regions adjacent fault lines until recent innovations broadened scope considerably particularly domestic utility purposes. Geothermally extracted fluids emit trace amounts green-house gasses nonetheless substantially lesser proportionate yield contrasted carbon-based derivatives.

Estimates suggest terrestrial geothermal reservoirs could potentially satisfy mankind's entire energetic demand hypothetically speaking yet practical extraction remains severely curtailed owing exorbitant drilling expenses involved exploring inaccessible strata. Prognostications concerning forthcoming developments hinge upon projected technical breakthroughs, fluctuating commodity valuations, governmental incentives, shifting continental plates' dynamics plus fiscal policies.

Illustrative initiatives akin Eugene Water & Electric Board's voluntary Renewable Electricity Scheme indicate clientele openness paying premium tariffs endorsing renewables exemplified geothermic solutions. Moreover declining manufacturing expenditures attributed enhanced investigative endeavors coupled sectorial expertise accrued last couple decades resulted quarter-century diminution associated kilowatt-hour pricing. Nonetheless, as recently documented circa early twenty-first century chronicles, procurement expense hovered approximate spectrum $0.02-$0.10/kWh bracket reflecting contemporary marketplace realities.
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A rice cooker or rice steamer is an automated kitchen appliance designed to boil or steam rice . It consists of a heat source , a cooking bowl , and a thermostat . The thermostat measures the temperature of the cooking bowl and controls the heat . Complex rice cookers may have many more sensors and other components , and may be multipurpose .

Relative thermal resistance is a measure of the energy required to mix water of two different temperatures ( and thus different densities ) . Comparisons will be made against the differences in the density of water at 3.98 ° C and 5 ° C. ( Wetzel 1983 ) Since this is a relative measure , there are no units involved .   It is calculated at intervals of 1 cm using the following equation :   where is the density at the bottom of the stratum being considered  and is the density at the top of the stratum being considered

Kundalini ( Sanskrit : कुण्डलिनी , , `` coiled one '' ) , in the concept of Dharma , refers to a form of primal energy ( or shakti ) said to be located at the base of the spine . Different spiritual traditions teach methods of `` awakening '' kundalini for the purpose of reaching spiritual enlightenment and a range of supernormal powers . Writer Joseph Campbell describes the concept of Kundalini as `` the figure of a coiled female serpent -- a serpent goddess not of `` gross '' but of `` subtle '' substance - which is to be thought of as residing in a torpid , slumbering state in a subtle center , the first of the seven , near the base of the spine : the aim of the yoga then being to rouse this serpent , lift her head , and bring her up a subtle nerve or channel of the spine to the so-called `` thousand-petaled lotus '' ( Sahasrara ) at the crown of the head ... She , rising from the lowest to the highest lotus center , will pass through and wake the five between , and with each waking the psychology and personality of the practitioner will be altogether and fundamentally transformed . ''   Kundalini awakening is said to result from deep meditation , and consequently enlightenment and bliss . However , as each individual is unique , Kundalini awakenings can happen through a variety of methods not limited to deep meditation . This awakening involves the Kundalini physically moving up the central channel to reach within the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head . Many systems of yoga focus on awakening Kundalini through meditation , pranayama breathing , the practice of asana and chanting of mantras . In physical terms , the Kundalini experience is frequently reported to be a feeling of electric current running along the spine .

The radio window is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that the earth 's atmosphere lets through . The wavelengths in the radio window run from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves .

Rare events are events that occur with low frequency , and the term is often used in particular reference to infrequent or hypothetical events that have potentially widespread impact and which might destabilize society . Rare events encompass natural phenomena ( major earthquakes , tsunamis , hurricanes , floods , asteroid impacts , solar flares , etc. ) , anthropogenic hazards ( warfare and related forms of violent conflict , acts of terrorism , industrial accidents , financial and commodity market crashes , etc. ) , as well as phenomena for which natural and anthropogenic factors interact in complex ways ( epidemic disease spread , global warming-related changes in climate and weather , etc. ) .

A deep vein is a vein that is deep in the body . This contrasts with superficial veins that are close to the body 's surface .   Deep veins are almost always beside an artery with the same name ( e.g. the femoral vein is beside the femoral artery ) . Collectively , they carry the vast majority of the blood . Occlusion of a deep vein can be life-threatening and is most often caused by thrombosis . Occlusion of a deep vein by thrombosis is called deep vein thrombosis .   Because of their location deep within the body , operation on these veins can be difficult .

In geology , lamination is a small scale sequence of fine layers ( so called laminae ) that occurs in sedimentary rocks . Laminations are normally smaller and less pronounced than bedding . Lamination is often regarded as planar structures one centimetre or less in thickness , whereas bedding layers are greater than one centimetre . However , structures from several millimetres to many centimetres have been described as laminae . A single sedimentary rock can have both laminae and beds .

The Kármán line , or Karman line , lies at an altitude of 100 km above the Earth 's sea level , and commonly represents the boundary between the Earth 's atmosphere and outer space . This definition is accepted by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) , which is an international standard-setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics and astronautics .   The line is named after Theodore von Kármán ( 1881 -- 1963 ) , a Hungarian-American engineer and physicist . He was active primarily in aeronautics and astronautics . He was the first to calculate that around this altitude , the atmosphere becomes too thin to support aeronautical flight , because a vehicle at this altitude would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift to support itself . The line is approximately at the turbopause , above which atmospheric gasses are not well-mixed . The mesopause atmospheric temperature minimum has been measured variously at 85 km or 100 km , which puts the line at or near the bottom of the thermosphere .

The Last Days on Earth is a 20/20 science special which aired on ABC in August 2006 and has been aired on The History Channel .   The show counts down the seven most likely ways in which human life could end , including gamma ray bursts , black holes , machine rule , asteroids , super volcanoes , nuclear war , pandemic flu , and climate change . It includes input from a number of scientists including Michio Kaku , Neil deGrasse Tyson , Stephen Hawking and Kevin Warwick . In 2007 it received an Emmy nomination for its graphic and artistic design .

The Declaration of Helsinki ( DoH ) is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association ( WMA ) . It is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human research ethics .   It is not a legally binding instrument under the international law , but instead draws its authority from the degree to which it has been codified in , or influenced , national or regional legislation and regulations . Its role was described by a Brazilian forum in 2000 in these words `` Even though the Declaration of Helsinki is the responsibility of the World Medical Association , the document should be considered the property of all humanity '' .


Question: Homo sapiens have encountered various climatic shifts in history - predominantly frigid episodes though. This highlights that while humans adapted during colder periods, current trends of rapid global warming present new challenges not widely seen previously. However, it's crucial to note that past adaptations might not directly correlate with effectiveness under contrasting conditions like those brought by unprecedented heat waves and environmental alterations we face today.

 Prehistoric Adaptations Through Climate Changes
Throughout human evolutionary history, particularly during the Paleolithic Era spanning approximately 2.6 million years ago until about 10,000 Before Present (BP), ancient hominids faced numerous challenges posed by shifting climates. Predominantly encountering colder conditions interspersed within cycles of glaciation and deglaciation, early humans demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability. These epochs saw significant advancements in tool-making techniques attributed originally to Homo habilis, marking humanity’s initial steps towards mastering its environment.

During the Paleolithic phase, social structures emerged amongst nomadic groups living off gathered flora alongside hunted fauna; yet, innovation extended beyond mere survival strategies. Knapping skills flourished, yielding rudimentary implements crafted predominantly from stones though supplemented occasionally using bones or woods—materials prone to decay hence underrepresented in historical records compared to durable rock-based creations termed ‘Paleoliths’.

Around fifty millennia back, cultural evolution accelerated dramatically across various continents: African sites yielded intricate bone objects coupled with artistic expressions indicative of cognitive leaps forward. Fishing practices arose concurrently, exemplified notably via discoveries made near coastal caves reminiscent of Blombos Cave situated along southern African shores. Subsequent analysis revealed sophisticated categorizations encompassing projectiles tips, cutting edges, burins suited for engraving tasks plus specialized drills/piercers – all testaments to burgeoning creativity amidst Homo Sapien ancestors. Such developments catalyzed demographic surges potentially contributing indirectly towards rival archaic lineages’ demise typified prominently by Neanderthal extinction hypotheses.

Anatomical transformations paralleled behavioral nuances emerging late-stage Paleolithic contexts wherein Homo erectus gave way eventually to Homo sapiens exhibiting full-blown modernity both physically & mentally circa ~40Kya. Concurrently, symbolic thought manifested vividly evidenced through pictorial representations adorning cave walls besides funerary rites suggesting nascent religiosity/spirituality. Climatologically speaking, alternating frigid/hot episodes punctuated Ice Ages facilitating episodic expansions/retractions of habitable zones. Paleoecological reconstructions propose ancestral communities thrived optimally amid open landscapes rich biologically whilst steering clear densely vegetated terrains presumably dominated then by formidable megafauna competitors.

By c.~70Ka, Australasian territories witnessed inaugural human occupation milestones achieved likely via island hopping routes originating Southeast Asia. European latitudes (~61°N) became inhabited subsequently around 35Ka whereas Japanese archipelago integration occurred circa 30Ka postulated based upon archaeological findings corroborating genealog

Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water . It may also refer to :  Landscape  Landform , physical feature comprises a geomorphological unit  Land ( economics ) , a factor of production comprising all naturally occurring resources  Land law  Real estate , a legal term for land , used in regard to ownership  Real property , a legal term similar to real estate   In music :  Land ( band ) , American rock band  Land ( Land album ) , the first album by the band  Land ( Týr album ) , an album by Týr  Land ( 1975 -- 2002 ) , an album by Patti Smith  Land ( The Comsat Angels album ) , an album by The Comsat Angels  Lands ( band ) , Japanese rock band  Dah ( band ) , a former Yugoslav/Belgian rock band , known as Land during 1975-1976 period   As a synonym for a region belonging to a people :  Country  Nation  Motherland  Fatherland  Homeland  - land , a suffix used in the names of several countries and other regions   As a geographical place :  Land , California  Land , Norway  Land Glacier , Antarctica   As a division of a country :  Länder of Austria ( singular : Land )  Lands of Denmark  Lands of Finland  Länder of Germany ( singular : Land )  Lands of Norway  Lands of Sweden  Ziemia , Polish for `` land '' , a unit of administration in Poland   Other usages :  Land ( surname )  Land Instruments International , A company specialising in infrared temperature measurement and emissions monitoring equipment  LAND , a type of denial-of-service attack  Landing , the end of a flight  In Rifling , lands are the raised areas between grooves in gun barrels  The Land ( magazine )  Drylands , areas with low amounts of water in the soil  `` Dry Land '' , a song by Joan Armatrading  Dry Land , the only album by How We Live

Dendrochronology ( or tree-ring dating ) is the scientific method of dating tree rings ( also called growth rings ) to the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in history . Dendrochronology is useful for determining the timing of events and rates of change in the environment ( most prominently climate ) and also in works of art and architecture , such as old panel paintings on wood , buildings , etc. . It is also used in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages .   New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark . A tree 's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes , resulting in visible growth rings . Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons , or one year , in the tree 's life . , the oldest tree-ring measurements in the Northern Hemisphere extend back 13,900 years . Dendrochronology derives from -LSB- wiktionary : δένδρον , δένδρον -RSB- ( dendron ) , meaning `` tree limb '' , -LSB- wiktionary : χρόνος , χρόνος -RSB- ( khronos ) , meaning `` time '' , and -LSB- wiktionary : - λογία , - λογία -RSB- ( -LSB- wiktionary : - logia , - logia -RSB- ) , `` the study of '' .

Retrotransposon markers are retrotransposons that are used as cladistic markers .   The analysis of SINEs -- Short INterspersed Elements -- LINEs -- Long INterspersed Elements -- or truncated LTRs -- Long Terminal Repeats -- as molecular cladistic markers represents a particularly interesting complement to DNA sequence and morphological data .   The reason for this is that retrotransposons are assumed to represent powerful noise-poor synapomorphies . The target sites are relatively unspecific so that the chance of an independent integration of exactly the same element into one specific site in different taxa is not large and may even be negligible over evolutionary time scales . Retrotransposon integrations are currently assumed to be irreversible events ; this might change since no eminent biological mechanisms have yet been described for the precise re-excision of class I transposons , but see van de Lagemaat et al. ( 2005 ) . A clear differentiation between ancestral and derived character state at the respective locus thus becomes possible as the absence of the introduced sequence can be with high confidence considered ancestral .   In combination , the low incidence of homoplasy together with a clear character polarity make retrotransposon integration markers ideal tools for determining the common ancestry of taxa by a shared derived transpositional event . The `` presence '' of a given retrotransposon in related taxa suggests their orthologous integration , a derived condition acquired via a common ancestry , while the `` absence '' of particular elements indicates the plesiomorphic condition prior to integration in more distant taxa . The use of presence/absence analyses to reconstruct the systematic biology of mammals depends on the availability of retrotransposons that were actively integrating before the divergence of a particular species .   Examples for phylogenetic studies based on retrotransposon presence/absence data are the definition of whales as members of the order Cetartiodactyla with hippos being their closest living relatives , hominoid relationships , the strepsirrhine tree , the marsupial radiation from South America to Australia , and the placental mammalian evolution .   Inter-Retrotransposons Amplified Polymorphisms ( IRAPs ) are alternative retrotransposon-based markers . In this method , PCR oligonucleotide primers face outwards from terminal retrotransposon regions . Thus , they amplify the fragment between two retrotransposon insertions . As retrotransposon integration patterns vary between genotypes , the number and size of the resulting amplicons can be used for differentiation of genotypes or cultivars , to measure genetic diversity or to reconstruct phylogenies . SINEs , which are small in size and often integrate within or next to genes represent an optimal source for the generation of effective IRAP markers .

Darwinius is a genus within the infraorder Adapiformes , a group of basal strepsirrhine primates from the middle Eocene epoch . Its only known species , Darwinius masillae , lived approximately 47 million years ago ( Lutetian stage ) based on dating of the fossil site .   The only known fossil , called Ida , was discovered in 1983 at the Messel pit , a disused quarry near the village of Messel , about 35 km ( 22 mi ) southeast of Frankfurt , Germany . The fossil , divided into a slab and partial counterslab after the amateur excavation and sold separately , was not reassembled until 2007 . The fossil is of a juvenile female , approximately 58 cm overall length , with the head and body length excluding the tail being about 24 cm . It is estimated that Ida died at about 80 -- 85 % of her projected adult body and limb length .   The genus Darwinius was named in commemoration of the bicentenary of the birth of Charles Darwin , and the species name masillae honors Messel where the specimen was found . The creature appeared superficially similar to a modern lemur .   The authors of the paper describing Darwinius classified it as a member of the primate family Notharctidae , subfamily Cercamoniinae , suggesting that it has the status of a significant transitional form ( a `` link '' ) between the prosimian and simian ( `` anthropoid '' ) primate lineages . Others have disagreed with this placement .   Concerns have been raised about the claims made about the fossil 's relative importance and the publicising of the fossil before adequate information was available for scrutiny by the academic community . Some of Norway 's leading biologists , among them Nils Christian Stenseth , have called the fossil an `` exaggerated hoax '' and stated that its presentation and popular dissemination `` fundamentally violate scientific principles and ethics . ''

Raymond Arthur Dart ( 4 February 1893 -- 22 November 1988 ) was an Australian anatomist and anthropologist , best known for his involvement in the 1924 discovery of the first fossil ever found of Australopithecus africanus , an extinct hominin closely related to humans , at Taung in the North of South Africa in the province Northwest .

10 Ways to End the World ( original title Mänsklighetens sista dagar , literally `` The Final Days of Humanity '' ) is a TV series documenting catastrophes that could endanger human existence . The series is produced by Sveriges Utbildningsradio ( UR ) and was aired on Kunskapskanalen ( in English : The Knowledge Channel ) in December 2010 under the Swedish name Mänsklighetens sista dagar ( Last days of Man ) and on National Geographic and Arte in 2012 . The series was nominated for the Scandinavian TV award , Kristallen in 2011 .   In the form of a top ten list , a set of doomsday scenarios -- disasters that have the capacity to wipe out our species -- is examined scientifically . The first part deals with threats to humanity from nature 's violent forces . The second part deals with various threats that human society has created .

The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other . The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres , connected by the corpus callosum . Although the macrostructure of the two hemispheres appears to be almost identical , different composition of neuronal networks allows for specialized function that is different in each hemisphere .   Lateralization of brain structures is based on general trends expressed in healthy patients ; however , there are numerous counterexamples to each generalization . Each human 's brain develops differently leading to unique lateralization in individuals . This is different from specialization as lateralization refers only to the function of one structure divided between two hemispheres . Specialization is much easier to observe as a trend since it has a stronger anthropological history . The best example of an established lateralization is that of Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas where both are often found exclusively on the left hemisphere . These areas frequently correspond to handedness however , meaning the localization of these areas is regularly found on the hemisphere corresponding to the dominant hand ( anatomically on the opposite side ) . Function lateralization such as semantics , intonation , accentuation , prosody , etc. has since been called into question and largely been found to have a neuronal basis in both hemispheres .

LGBT , or GLBT , is an initialism that stands for lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender . In use since the 1990s , the term is an adaptation of the initialism LGB , which was used to replace the term gay in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s . Activists believed that the term gay community did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred .   The initialism has become mainstream as a self-designation ; it has been adopted by the majority of sexuality and gender identity-based community centers and media in the United States , as well as some other English-speaking countries . The term is used also in some other countries , particularly those which languages use the initialism , such as Argentina , France , and Turkey .   The initialism , LGBT , is intended to emphasize a diversity of sexuality and gender identity-based cultures . It may be used to refer to anyone who is non-heterosexual or non-cisgender , instead of exclusively to people who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender . To recognize this inclusion , a popular variant adds the letter Q for those who identify as queer or are questioning their sexual identity ; LGBTQ has been recorded since 1996 . Those who add intersex people to LGBT groups or organizing use an extended initialism LGBTI . Some people combine the two acronyms and use the term LGBTIQ . Others use LGBT + to encompass a spectrum of gender and sexuality .

Dehumanization or an act thereof can describe a behavior or process that undermines individuality of and in others . Behaviorally , dehumanization describes a disposition towards others that debases the others ' individuality as either an `` individual '' species or an `` individual '' object , e.g. someone who acts inhumanely towards humans . As a process , it may be understood as the opposite of personification , a figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are endowed with human qualities ; dehumanization then is the disendowment of these same qualities or a reduction to abstraction , e.g. Technology revolutions cause the dehumanization of labor markets to the point of antiquation .   In almost all contexts , dehumanization is used pejoratively along a disruption of social norms , with the former applying to the actor ( s ) of behavioral dehumanization and the latter applying to the action ( s ) or processes of dehumanization . As social norms define what humane behavior is , reflexively these same social norms define what it is n't or inhumane . Dehumanization differs from inhumane behaviors or processes in its breadth to include the emergence of new competing social norms . This emergence then is the action of dehumanization until the old norms lose out to the competing new norms , which will then redefine the action of dehumanization . If the new norms lose acceptance then the action remains one of dehumanization and its severity is comparative to past examples throughout history . However , dehumanization 's definition remains in a reflexive state of a type-token ambiguity relative to both scales individual and societal .   Biologically , dehumanization can be described as an introduced species marginalizing the human species or an introduced person/process that debases other persons inhumanely .   In political science and jurisprudence , the act of dehumanization is the inferential alienation of human rights or denaturalization of natural rights , a definition contingent upon presiding international law rather than social norms limited by human geography . In this context , specialty within species need not apply to constitute global citizenship or its inalienable rights ; these both are inherit by human genome .   It is theorized to take on two forms : animalistic dehumanization , which is employed on a largely intergroup basis , and mechanistic dehumanization , which is employed on a largely interpersonal basis . Dehumanization can occur discursively ( e.g. , idiomatic language that likens certain human beings to non-human animals , verbal abuse , erasing one 's voice from discourse ) , symbolically ( e.g. , imagery ) , or physically ( e.g. , chattel slavery , physical abuse , refusing eye contact ) . Dehumanization often ignores the target 's individuality ( i.e. , the creative and interesting aspects of their personality ) and can hinder one from feeling empathy or properly understanding a stigmatized group of people .   Dehumanization may be carried out by a social institution ( such as a state , school , or family ) , interpersonally , or even within the self . Dehumanization can be unintentional , especially on the part of individuals , as with some types of de facto racism . State-organized dehumanization has historically been directed against perceived political , racial , ethnic , national , or religious minority groups . Other minoritized and marginalized individuals and groups ( based on sexual orientation , gender , disability , class , or some other organizing principle ) are also susceptible to various forms of dehumanization . The concept of dehumanization has received empirical attention in the psychological literature . It is conceptually related to infrahumanization , delegitimization , moral exclusion , and objectification . Dehumanization occurs across several domains ; is facilitated by status , power , and social connection ; and results in behaviors like exclusion , violence , and support for violence against others .   `` Dehumanisation is viewed as a central component to intergroup violence because it is frequently the most important precursor to moral exclusion , the process by which stigmatized groups are placed outside the boundary in which moral values , rules , and considerations of fairness apply . ''   David Livingstone Smith , director and founder of The Human Nature Project at the University of New England , argues that historically , human beings have been dehumanizing one another for thousands of years .

Diapsids ( `` two arches '' ) are a group of amniote tetrapods that developed two holes ( temporal fenestra ) in each side of their skulls about 300 million years ago during the late Carboniferous period . The diapsids are extremely diverse , and include all crocodiles , lizards , snakes , tuatara , turtles , and dinosaurs ( both avian and non-avian ) . Although some diapsids have lost either one hole ( lizards ) , or both holes ( snakes and turtles ) , or have a heavily restructured skull ( modern birds ) , they are still classified as diapsids based on their ancestry . At least 7,925 species of diapsid reptiles exist in environments around the world today ( nearly 18,000 when birds are included ) .


Question: Human civilizations have experienced climatic fluctuations in the past - predominantly colder periods though, and

 Prehistoric Adaptations Through Climate Changes

Prehistoric humans, specifically focusing here on Neanderthals, navigated significant climate fluctuations throughout history—often colder periods—that significantly shaped their evolution and survival strategies. These robust hominids inhabited regions stretching across Western Europe into Central and Eastern Asia, demonstrating remarkable resilience against harsh environments. Their genetic makeup shares striking similarities with contemporary Homo sapiens; approximately 99.7% identical genes reveal close ties despite diverging evolutionary paths around half a million years prior.

Archaeological findings suggest Neanderthals thrived during Ice Age conditions, crafting sophisticated stone tool cultures exemplified by the Mousterian tradition—a hallmark innovation marking reduced reliance on large handaxes favoring flake-based implements circa 160kya. Such advancements underscored adaptive behaviors crucial for enduring frigid climates characterized by seasonal extremes.

Physiologically adapted for efficiency within glacial landscapes, Neanderthals exhibited compact statures alongside stockier builds compared to slenderer anatomically modern counterparts. Reduced limb lengths coupled with increased body mass facilitated heat retention according to Bergmann’s principle—an evolutionary trait optimizing thermal regulation amidst freezing temperatures. Cranial measurements averaged voluminous braincases: males boasting up to ~1600cm³ while females maintained averages near ~1300cm³—substantially exceeding current human norms (~1350–1500cm³).

Genetic analyses conducted under the auspices of the Neanderthal Genome Project unveiled interspecific hybridizations occurring roughly between 50ka – 60ka BP wherein archaic lineages contributed genomic material to migrating Out-of-Africa groups. Subsequent admixtures took place earlier still (∼100ka), predating major dispersals beyond continental boundaries. Three discrete waves of gene flow have now been identified impacting various regional ancestries: initial encounters benefited non-sub-Saharan diasporas followed sequentially by additional exchanges enriching Oceanic then exclusively Northeast Asian pools respectively.

Controversies surrounding funerary practices among Neanderthals persistently engage scholarly discourse regarding intent behind burial customs—if indeed intentional—and associated cultural significances thereof. Notably, debates sparked following discoveries akin to those made at La Chapelle-aux-Saints where seemingly deliberate entombments suggested complex cognitive capabilities mirroring those observed amongst later Homo sapiens societies. Scrutiny continues unabated aiming to elucidate nuances underlying prehistoric mortuary rites potentially indicative of emergent symbolic thought.

Innovative sequencing techniques applied to ancient skeletal remains culminated recently in complete

December ( from Latin decem , `` ten '' ) or mensis December was originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar , following November ( novem , `` nine '' ) and preceding Ianuarius . It had 29 days . When the calendar was reformed to create a 12-month year starting in Ianuarius , December became the twelfth month , but retained its name , as did the other numbered months from Quintilis ( July ) through December . Its length was increased to 31 days under the Julian calendar reform .

Dhaka ( ঢাকা , -LSB- ɖʱaka -RSB- ; -LSB- ˈdɑːkə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈdækə -RSB- ) is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh . It is one of the world 's most populated cities , with a population of 17 million people in the Greater Dhaka Area . It is also the 3rd most densely populated city in the world . Located in an eponymous district and division , it lies along the east bank of the Buriganga River in the heart of the Bengal delta . The city is a microcosm of the entire country , with diverse religious and ethnic communities . Dhaka is the economic , cultural and political center of Bangladesh . Its name was romanized as Dacca until the current spelling was adopted in 1983 . It is the largest city in the Bengal region . It is also a major city of South Asia and among the OIC states .   The old city of Dhaka was the Mughal capital of Bengal . The city 's name was Jahangir Nagar ( City of Jahangir ) in the 17th century . It was a cosmopolitan commercial center and the hub of the worldwide muslin and silk trade . The city hosted two important caravansaries of the subcontinent : the Bara Katra and Choto Katra , located on the riverfront of the Buriganga . The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid out gardens , tombs , mosques , palaces and forts . Dhaka became known as the City of Mosques in Bengal . It was also described as the Venice of the East . The old city was home to various Eurasian merchant groups . At the height of its medieval glory , Dhaka was regarded as one of the wealthiest and most prosperous cities in the world . It was central to the economy of Mughal Bengal , which generated 50 % of Mughal GDP .   Modern Dhaka developed from the late 20th century under the administration of East Pakistan . Between 1905 and 1912 , it was the capital of British Eastern Bengal and Assam . In 1947 , after the region became known as Pakistan , it became the administrative capital of the eastern wing of Pakistan . It was declared as the legislative capital of Pakistan in 1962 . In 1971 , it became the capital of an independent Bangladesh . Architect Louis I Kahn 's acclaimed modernist National Capital Complex , based on the geography and heritage of Bengal , was inaugurated in Dhaka in 1982 as one of the largest legislative complexes in the world . The city has endured periods of famine , war and natural calamities . It continues to confront challenges faced by growing metropolises in developing countries , including poverty , pollution and congestion .   Dhaka is home to thousands of Bangladeshi businesses and the offices of many international corporations . The Dhaka Stock Exchange is one of the largest in South Asia in terms of trading volume and market capitalization . The city is home to a number of regional and international training and development organizations , including BIPSOT is a prestigious institute of Bangladesh dedicated to training of peacekeepers for employment in all types of UNPSO ( UN Peace Support Operations ) . This institute fulfills the requirement of UNDPKO as per General Assembly resolution which outlines ` the necessity and responsibility of every nation to train their armed forces before any deployment ' . the permanent secretariat of BIMSTEC . It hosts several major arts festivals , including the annual Ekushey Book Fair , the Dhaka Literature Festival and the biannual Dhaka Art Summit . The city has the largest number of cycle rickshaws and is known as the Rickshaw Capital of the World . Dhaka 's highly popular cuisine features distinctive biryanis , kebabs and bakarkhanis as a legacy of its rule by the Mughals and the Nawabs of Dhaka .

Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails , also known as tracks . It is also commonly referred to as train transport . In contrast to road transport , where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface , rail vehicles ( rolling stock ) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run . Tracks usually consist of steel rails , installed on ties ( sleepers ) and ballast , on which the rolling stock , usually fitted with metal wheels , moves . Other variations are also possible , such as slab track , where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface .   Rolling stock in a rail transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles , so passenger and freight cars ( carriages and wagons ) can be coupled into longer trains . The operation is carried out by a railway company , providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities . Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power , usually by diesel engines . Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system . Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport.According to this source , railways are the safest on both a per-mile and per-hour basis , whereas air transport is safe only on a per-mile basis Railway transport is capable of high levels of passenger and cargo utilization and energy efficiency , but is often less flexible and more capital-intensive than road transport , when lower traffic levels are considered .   The oldest , man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC , with Periander , one of the Seven Sages of Greece , credited with its invention . Rail transport commenced with the British development of the steam engine as a viable source of power in the 18th and 19th centuries . Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use steam locomotives , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway which opened in 1830 . With steam engines , one could construct mainline railways , which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution . Also , railways reduced the costs of shipping , and allowed for fewer lost goods , compared with water transport , which faced occasional sinking of ships . The change from canals to railways allowed for `` national markets '' in which prices varied very little from city to city . The invention and development of the railway in the United Kingdom was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century ; in the United States , it is estimated that without rail , GDP would have been lower by 7 % in 1890 .   In the 1880s , electrified trains were introduced , and also the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into being . Starting during the 1940s , the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives , with the process being almost complete by 2000 . During the 1960s , electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan and later in some other countries . Other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions , such as monorail or maglev , have been tried but have seen limited use . Following decline after World War II due to competition from cars , rail transport has had a revival in recent decades due to road congestion and rising fuel prices , as well as governments investing in rail as a means of reducing CO2 emissions in the context of concerns about global warming .

A diagram is a symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique . Diagrams have been used since ancient times , but became more prevalent during the Enlightenment . Sometimes , the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto a two-dimensional surface . The word graph is sometimes used as a synonym for diagram .

A registration district in the United Kingdom is a type of administrative region which exists for the purpose of civil registration of births , marriages , and deaths and civil partnerships . It has also been used as the basis for the collation of census information .

Oceania is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean . Conceptions of what constitutes Oceania vary , with it being defined in various ways , often geopolitically or geographically . In the geopolitical conception used by the United Nations , International Olympic Committee , and many atlases , the Oceanic region includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east , but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea . The term is sometimes used more specifically to denote Australasia as a geographic continent ,  or biogeographically as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone ( Wallacea and Australasia ) or the Pacific ecozone ( Melanesia , Polynesia , and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand or from mainland New Guinea ) .   Although Christmas Island and the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands belong to the Commonwealth of Australia and are inhabited , they are nearer Indonesia than the Australian mainland , and are commonly associated with Asia instead of Oceania .

A decade is a set of ten or an interval of length ten . The most common use is to refer to a period of ten years .   Decade , Decad , or Decades may also refer to :

Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 14th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe , demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture . Stylistically , Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture . Developed first in Florence , with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators , the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities . The style was carried to France , Germany , England , Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact .   Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry , proportion , geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture , of which many examples remained . Orderly arrangements of columns , pilasters and lintels , as well as the use of semicircular arches , hemispherical domes , niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings .

Reform ( reformo ) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong , corrupt , unsatisfactory , etc. . The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill 's Association movement which identified `` Parliamentary Reform '' as its primary aim .   Reform is generally distinguished from revolution . The latter means basic or radical change ; whereas reform may be no more than fine tuning , or at most redressing serious wrongs without altering the fundamentals of the system . Reform seeks to improve the system as it stands , never to overthrow it wholesale . Radicals on the other hand , seek to improve the system , but try to overthrow whether it be the government or a group of people themselves .   Rotation in office or term limits would , by contrast , be more revolutionary , in altering basic political connections between incumbents and constituents .   Developing countries may carry out a wide range of reforms to improve their living standards , often with support from international financial institutions and aid agencies . This can include reforms to macroeconomic policy , the civil service , and public financial management .   Religious Reforms are performed in religions and churches .

David ( -LSB- ˈdeɪvɪd -RSB- ; ISO 259-3 Dawid ; -LSB- Δαυίδ , Davíd -RSB- Davidus , David Gəˁəz : Dawit ) was , according to the Hebrew Bible , the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah , reigning in -- 970 BCE .   Depicted as a valorous warrior of great renown , a poet , and musician credited for composing many of the psalms contained in the Book of Psalms , King David is viewed in biblical sources as a righteous and effective king both in battle and in providing civil and criminal justice . He is described as a man after God 's own heart in and .   The Hebrew prophets regarded him as the ancestor of the future messiah . The New Testament says he was an ancestor of Jesus .


Question: According to Environment Minister Greg Hunt, the Coalition’s initiative for decreasing emissions through their dedicated fund costs approximately one percent compared to the previous administration led by Labor; specifically, it amounts to just $13.95 versus an alleged expense of $1,300 per metric ton when factoring in the erstwhile carbon pricing mechanism implemented under Labor governance. This comparison underscores significant financial efficiency gains achieved with current policy measures aimed at curbing greenhouse gas levels within Australia's national framework.

 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Australia’s Emissions Policies
Australia's environment minister, Greg Hunt, highlights that the coalition's emissions reduction fund costs approximately AUD$13.95 per tonne of carbon, significantly less than the previous labor administration's carbon pricing mechanism estimated at roughly AUD$1,300 per tonne. This stark contrast underscores differing approaches to mitigating carbon footprints within governmental policies.

Carbon offset programs play a pivotal role in balancing anthropogenic emissions against nature's capacity to absorb greenhouse gases. These initiatives aim to counterbalance emissions produced in one sector by funding environmentally beneficial actions elsewhere. Commonly quantified using units called "carbon credits," each credit equates to removing one metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) from atmospheric circulation.

Two distinct sectors engage actively in purchasing carbon offsets: first, there's the regulatory-driven compliance arena where corporations adhere strictly to legally mandated limits; second comes the discretionary voluntary segment involving self-motivated buyers seeking redemption for their ecological impact. Compliance-based transactions dominated proceedings back in 2006 when nearly USD$5.5B worth of credits exchanged hands—equivalent to eliminating ~1.6Gt CO2e globally. Conversely, voluntarist deals amounted only to circa USD$705M covering approximations near 123Mt CO2e removed annually since then.

Individuals often procure these services post-travel experiences aboard aircrafts aiming thereby minimizing guilt associated therewith while organizations integrate offerings seamlessly alongside core products/services ensuring customer satisfaction remains high throughout engagement cycles regardless of underlying motivations behind purchases being made hereunder. Renewable energies dominate discussions surrounding efficacy ratios amongst stakeholders whereas wind power installations rank highly too especially given how attractive returns appear compared against traditional investments vehicles available presently speaking thus far anyway...

Growing awareness concerning deleterious impacts emanating directly proportional to levels consumed fuels has led many Western societies embracing greener alternatives wholeheartedly nowadays indeed yes! International agreements like those enshrined within frameworks set forth via United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change (UNFCCC), specifically Article Six thereof pertaining exclusively unto mechanisms designed facilitating international cooperation aimed achieving collective goals outlined therein without prejudice whatsoever shown towards developing nations' needs necessarily requiring special attention paid henceforth moving forward together united always forevermore amen!

Critics argue however regarding validity claims put forth suggesting instead perhaps better ways exist tackling issues head-on rather relying solely upon externalities imposed artificially onto systems already strained beyond breaking points seemingly destined fail sooner later inevitably unfortunately regrettably alas sigh... Nevertheless, rigorous scrutiny

David Anthony Hunt AO QC ( born 15 February 1935 , Sydney , Australia ) is an Australian judge who served on the Supreme Court of New South Wales , where he was the Chief Judge at Common Law , and the Judicial Commission of New South Wales . Subsequent to his retirement in 1998 , Justice Hunt joined the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda . Gabrielle Louise McIntyre served as his legal adviser at the ICTY .   Justice Hunt is the father of political satirist Simon Hunt , sometimes known as Pauline Pantsdown .

Ray Evans ( 10 September 1939 -- 17 June 2014 ) was an Australian business leader , a conservative , and campaigner against climate change mitigation efforts .

Relationships Australia ( RA ) is an Australian not-for profit organisation providing professional services to support relationships across Australia that began in 1948 under the name of Marriage Guidance Council . Initially providing counselling services using volunteers , they now provide a range of professional relationship support services .   Relationships Australia is approved under the `` Family Relationships Services Program '' , which is administered by the Australian Department of Families , Community Services and Indigenous Affairs to provide services including : family therapy , mediation , skills training and children 's contact services . They also receive funding from Australian states and territories for services including : for people with a gambling problem , and their families , parenting skills , and family violence prevention .

The Department of Veterans ' Affairs is a department of the Government of Australia , established in 1976 , and charged with the responsibility of delivering government programs for war veterans , members of the Australian Defence Force , members of the Australian Federal Police , and their dependants . The Repatriation Commission 's Day-to-Day manager is the Department of Veterans ' Affairs .   For administration purposes , the department forms part of the Defence portfolio . Note . The Minister for Defence acts on behalf of the Minister for Veterans Affairs within the Inner Cabinet - of government .   The head of the department is the Secretary of the Department of Veterans ' Affairs , currently Simon Lewis , who is responsible to the Minister for Veterans ' Affairs and the Minister Assisting the Prime Minister for the Centenary of ANZAC , currently the Hon. Dan Tehan . The Secretary of the Department also has the responsibility of the Repatriation Commission .

Laurence Frederick `` Laurie '' McGinty MBE ( 16 January 1921 -- 2 July 1991 ) was an Australian politician . He was the member for Willoughby in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1968 to 1978 , firstly as a member of the Liberal Party and then as an Independent from 1977 . He was Minister for Housing and Co-operative Societies from 1973 to 1976 .   McGinty was born in Orange to Laurence Russell Leonard McGinty and Ellen Margaret Elizabeth Magee . He was educated at Christian Brothers High School at Lewisham and St Joseph 's College at Hunters Hill before studying at the University of Sydney , where he received a Bachelor of Laws in 1944 , having worked as an assessor for the Taxation Department from 1939 to 1942 . He enlisted in the army in 1942 , shortly afterwards transferring to the Royal Australian Navy , eventually becoming a lieutenant . After his return he was a legal officer with T.S. Skillman and Company from 1947 until 1955 , when he was admitted as a solicitor . He was elected to Willoughby Council in 1957 and was Mayor from 1960 to 1967 . He was also active in the local Liberal Party .   In 1968 , following the retirement of long-serving Liberal MP George Brain , McGinty was preselected as the Liberal candidate for Willoughby . In 1973 he was made Minister for Housing and Co-operative Services , holding these portfolios until 1976 . He lost preselection for Willoughby in September 1977 to Nick Greiner and resigned from the Liberal Party , sitting as an Independent . He contested the election as such and received 15.5 % of the vote , allowing Labor candidate Eddie Britt to defeat Greiner . He died in 1991 at Castle Cove .

Kym Charles Richardson ( born 16 March 1958 ) is an Australian politician . He was a Liberal member of the Australian House of Representatives between 2004 and 2007 , representing the South Australian electorate of Kingston .   Richardson joined the South Australia Police ( SAPOL ) at a young age , serving in the elite Star Force unit for thirteen years . Investigated for unethical behaviour while a police officer he was precluded from receiving the National Medal , but he did receive the Police Service Medal ( a SAPOL award ) . Richardson shared his police career with a number of other activities , only resigning from the force upon entering federal parliament in 2004 .   While actively involved in police duties , he also played Australian rules football for the West Torrens club , and spent several years coaching local teams . After retiring from football , he moved into sports management . His clients included international cricketer Jason Gillespie and football player Byron Pickett . While a police officer he was charged with six counts of promoting a pyramid marketing scheme . However no evidence was tendered in the case and all charges were dropped .   Richardson was a friend of former state MP Robert Brokenshire and was approached to stand as a Liberal candidate at the 1998 election , but declined for family reasons . In 2003 he was again approached , and this time accepted the offer to nominate for the seat of Kingston . There was some speculation that former Australian Football League player Nigel Smart was also being encouraged to nominate , but this did not eventuate . Richardson won preselection for the Kingston with broad factional support .   Kingston was held by the incumbent Australian Labor Party MP , Assistant Shadow Treasurer David Cox , by a narrow margin . Polling in the lead-up to the 2004 election suggested that Cox was likely hold the seat . Several commentators , including Antony Green , agreed with that conclusion . However , there was a swing to Richardson and the Liberal Party at the poll . After eleven days of counting Richardson overtook Cox on postal and absentee votes , eventually winning by 119 votes after preferences .   Richardson is socially conservative . In the abortion debate that occurred in 2005 , he argued that abortion is unacceptable in all cases apart from when rape is involved . However he largely concentrated on the issue of road safety , a focus of much of his career with the police force . He pushed for a number of reforms to decrease road deaths , including raising the driving age in South Australia to 17 , limiting the engine capacity of cars driven by young drivers , and doubling demerit points for speeding or drink-driving . He also repeatedly advocated the extension of the Noarlunga Centre railway line to Sellicks Beach , but no federal government funding was forthcoming .   Richardson 's Labor opponent for the 2007 federal election was psychologist Amanda Rishworth , who had previously stood for the State seat of Fisher . A January 2007 poll in the The Advertiser showed that on two party preferred terms , Rishworth was ahead in Kingston by 56 % to 44 % . A July poll in the same newspaper reported that Rishworth was ahead 57 % to 43 % . A mid-campaign October 2007 poll in The Advertiser had the margin at 56 % to 44 % and Richardson 's primary vote at 34 % .   In October 2007 , Richardson attracted controversy for pulling out of a debate on industrial relations with his Labor rival , arranging for industrial relations minister Joe Hockey to debate his challenger instead .  Richardson was defeated by Rishworth at the election .   Richardson was preselected to contest the state seat of Mawson at the 2010 election , but he stepped down amid revelations that he faced the criminal charge of impersonating a police officer . On 14 January 2010 a pre trial hearing into the matter was heard in the Adelaide Magistrates Court . It was revealed in the pre-trial hearing that the allegation was related to an attempt to dissuade a witness from testifying in an assault case against Richardson 's son . The telephone call had been traced to federal Parliament House where Richardson was then serving as an MP . Police did not proceed with a charge of impersonating a police officer as the statute of limitations had expired , and he was eventually acquitted on a charge of attempting to pervert the course of justice .   Richardson then became a real estate agent with the Morphett Vale branch of Elders Real Estate in South Australia , after a very short period he moved on to Professionals at Hallett Cove . He was elected as a councillor with the City of Onkaparinga , topping the poll for the Mid South Coast Ward in the 2010 council elections .   At the 2014 state election , he contested the seat of Kaurna as an independent and received 9.3 % of the vote , finishing fourth out of five candidates .

Reclaim Australia : Reduce Immigration ( RARI ) was a minor Australian political party that was active from 1996 to 1999 .  The party advocated reducing Immigration to Australia and was associated with the far right of Australian politics . The party was deregistered due to a lack of members , and was largely displaced by the more successful One Nation and , to a lesser extent , Australians Against Further Immigration ( AAFI ) . The party 's best electoral result was in the by-election following the retirement of former Prime Minister Paul Keating from the federal seat of Blaxland . In this by-election , the Liberal Party did not field a candidate to oppose the sitting Labor Party , and , although RARI finished behind AAFI on the primary vote , on preferences RARI was able to come second in the seat .

Kurnell is a suburb in Sydney , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . It is 21.4 km south of the Sydney central business district , in the local government area of the Sutherland Shire along the east coast .   Kurnell is on the south eastern headland of Botany Bay . Cronulla and Woolooware are the only adjacent suburbs . La Perouse is located opposite , on the northern headland of Botany Bay .   The eastern side of the peninsula is part of Botany Bay National Park . Towra Point Nature Reserve is located on the western side of the suburb .

The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . ''   The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .

David Tweed is an Australian businessman who conducts a business of offering to buy securities at either below market value , or at a price that is above market value but via installments . Paying in installments can disadvantage the seller due to the time value of money . Tweed 's business practices are controversial in some quarters and his success has attracted criticism from the media and ASIC . The Federal government has introduced legislation to regulate Tweed 's activities .


Question: According to Environment Minister Greg Hunt, the Coalition’s initiative for decreasing emissions through their dedicated fund costs approximately one percent in comparison to the previous administration led by Labor party; specifically, lowering each tonne of CO2 equivalent amounts to only $13.95 as opposed to an exorbitant figure nearing $1,300 when subjected to erstwhile carbon-pricing measures enacted earlier.

 Cost Analysis: Coalition vs. Former Labor's Carbon Policies
Environment Minister Greg Hunt asserts that the Coalition’s Emissions Reduction Fund operates at approximately 1% of the expense associated with carbon abatement under the previous administration led by the Australian Labor Party. Under the latter’s carbon pricing mechanism, the price tag reached $1,300 per metric ton of CO2, whereas the current regime costs just $13.95 per equivalent amount.

This stark contrast stems partly from the differing approaches each party took regarding climate policies. The Clean Energy Future plan introduced by Prime Minister Julia Gillard following her victory in the 2010 elections constituted a significant overhaul of national energy strategy. Initially conceptualized while Kevin Rudd served as opposition leader, his team initiated consultations via the Garnaut Climate Change Review—a comprehensive analysis conducted independently by all state governments controlled by labor parties back in early 2007. Upon winning power later that year, they released a draft proposal inviting public feedback before Treasury assessed how implementing various iterations would impact finances across sectors.

In late 2008, Rudd unveiled the definitive blueprint outlining commencement dates set initially for mid-2010; however, parliamentary gridlock prevented passage through both chambers—Senate rejection occurred twice thereby triggering conditions enabling snap polls. Amidst internal turmoil amongst conservative ranks, erstwhile chief Turnbull ceded control to staunch critic Abbott who vehemently opposed legislating measures aimed at curbing atmospheric pollutants. Consequently, Rudd postponed implementation indefinitely come springtime next annum.

Post-election scenarios witnessed another hung parliament wherein Greens held sway alongside independents allowing PM Gillard sufficient leverage needed to enact sweeping reforms encapsulated within what came known colloquially henceforth as "carbon tax". Effective since summer solstice two years prior, subsequent electoral outcomes ushered new occupants into Canberra leading incumbent premier Abbott dismantling aforementioned framework barely twelve months onward. Throughout entire episode characterized predominantly by high levels of ambiguity concerning future regulatory frameworks governing GHG output, Aussie firms exhibited reluctance engaging proactively investing substantial sums dedicated solely mitigating resultant effects stemming unabated release harmful gasses atmosphere wide.

The Defence Science and Technology Group ( abbreviated as DST Group or DST ) is part of the Australian Department of Defence dedicated to providing science and technology support for Australia 's defence and national security needs . It is Australia 's second largest government-funded science organisation after the CSIRO . The agency 's name was changed from Defence Science and Technology Organisation ( DSTO ) to Defence Science and Technology Group on 1 July 2015 .   To achieve its mission , DST provides scientific and technical support to current defence operations , investigates future technologies for defence and national security applications , advises on the purchase and smart use of defence equipment , develops new defence capabilities , and enhances existing systems by improving performance and safety and reducing the cost of owning defence assets .   The Chief Defence Scientist leads DST . The position is supported by an independent Advisory Board with representatives from defence , industry , academia and the science community . DST has an annual budget of approximately $ 440 million and employs over 2500 staff , predominantly scientists , engineers , IT specialists and technicians .   DST has establishments in all Australian states and the Australian Capital Territory with posted representatives in Washington , London and Tokyo . DST collaborates with science and technology organisations around the world to strengthen its technology base and works closely with Australian industry and universities to enhance defence capability . International engagement allows DST to explore potential technological opportunities at significantly less cost and provides access to overseas capabilities otherwise not available to the ADF . DST is a member of The Technical Cooperation Program ( TTCP ) with the United States , United Kingdom , Canada and New Zealand . It also has bilateral defence science agreements with USA , UK , France , Sweden , Netherlands , Norway and Singapore . In February 2012 , DST was given the whole-of-government responsibility to co-ordinate research and development for Australia 's national security .

Ravensthorpe Nickel Operations is a nickel mine and hydrometallurgical processing plant located 550 km south east of Perth , in the Ravensthorpe district of Western Australia .   Following a difficult commissioning phase under BHP Billiton , the operation is now in stable , commercial production under the ownership of First Quantum Minerals ' subsidiary FQM Australia Nickel Pty Ltd. .   Ravensthorpe cost BHP Billiton US$ 2.2 billion to build but led to $ 3.6 billion in write-downs when it was shut down in January 2009 , after less than a year of operation . The closure caused considerable bad publicity for the owner , prompting the operation to be placed on the market . The mine was sold in December 2009 to First Quantum Minerals for US$ 340 million .   First Quantum Minerals successfully returned the operation to commercial production in December 2011 , after 18 months of modifications and re-commissioning . The operation produced 32,884 tonnes of nickel in its first full year of operation in 2012 .

The Deputy Premier of Queensland is a role in the Government of Queensland assigned to a responsible Minister in the Australian state of Queensland . It has second ranking behind the Premier of Queensland in Cabinet , and its holder serves as Acting Premier during absence or incapacity of the Premier . The Deputy Premier may either be appointed by the Premier during the cabinet formation process , or may be elected by caucus ; during periods of Coalition government , the leader of the junior coalition partner is usually automatically selected for the role . Due to the contingent role of the Deputy Premier , they almost without exception always have additional ministerial portfolios .   Until December 1974 , although the role carried the same responsibilities ( especially during the absence of the Premier ) it was never formally recognised or titled as such ; the first reference in Hansard to a Deputy Premier was during the Forgan Smith Ministry in 1936 , but the term was in common use in newspapers from as early as 1892 , when a minister in the First Griffith Ministry was criticised for his performance in the role .

Race to the Top , abbreviated R2T , RTTT or RTT , is a $ 4.35 billion United States Department of Education competitive grant created to spur and reward innovation and reforms in state and local district K-12 education . It is funded by the ED Recovery Act as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and was announced by President Barack Obama and Secretary of Education Arne Duncan on July 25 , 2009 . States were awarded points for satisfying certain educational policies , such as performance-based evaluations for teachers and principals based on multiple measures of educator effectiveness ( and are tied to targeted professional development and feedback ) , adopting common standards ( though adoption of the Common Core State Standards was not required ) , adoption of policies that do not prohibit ( or effectively prohibit ) the expansion of high-quality charter schools , turning around the lowest-performing schools , and building and using data systems .

David John Hamill ' born at Ipswich , Queensland on 18 September 1957 , is a former Queensland ALP politician , who served in a number of positions including Minister for Transport and Minister Assisting the Premier on Economic and Trade Development , Minister for Education and Treasurer . He was elected to the Queensland Parliament as member for Ipswich in 1983 and held the seat until 2001 . He was awarded a Centenary Medal in 2001 and in 2009 he made a Member of the General Division of the Order of Australia award .   Married to Patricia Evatt , a great-niece of Dr H V Evatt , the former High Court Judge and Leader of the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party , they have four children . Awarded the Queensland Rhodes Scholarship in 1979 , David took a BA ( Hons ) from Queensland University and then an MA from Oxford . Prior to his election he had been a lecturer/tutor in political science at the University of Queensland and later a research officer with the then Federal leader of the ALP and later , Governor General Bill Hayden .   He was President of the Ipswich Electorate Executive 1982-89 . State President , Young Labor , 1978 ; President Oxley Federal Divisional Executive 1984-88 ; delegate to various Committees , State Council , State Conference and national Conference .   Elected on 22 October 1983 as the State Member for Ipswich following the retirement of Sir Llew Edwards . In Opposition between 1983 and 1989 he was variously Opposition Spokesperson on Family Services , Youth and Education .   From December 1989 until February 1996 he was a member of the Goss Labor Cabinet , initially as Minister for Transport and Minister Assisting the Premier on Economic and Trade Development , where he undertook fundamental reform of the transport system and particularly Queensland Rail , and then as Minister for Education . He served as Shadow Treasurer between 1996 and 1998 , before becoming Treasurer with the election of the Beattie Labor government . He held this position until his retirement from the parliament in 2001 . In his role as Treasurer he represented Queensland in negotiations leading to the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax in Australia .   After retiring from Parliament , Hamill undertook a PhD degree at the University of Queensland , and published his research as a book The impact of the new tax system on Australian Federalism '' . He has served as a director or chairman of several corporations and NGOs including Prime Infrastructure Holdings , the Australian Red Cross Blood Service , Queensland Museum , the Senate of the University of Queensland and Regional Development Australia , Ipswich and West Moreton Inc. . He is currently a director of Brookfield Infrastructure Partners LP and Brookfield Business Partners LP , and Chairs the Boards of the Gladstone Airport Corporation , UQ College and Ensham Workers ' Entitlements Fund . He is also a member of the Board of the Australian Red Cross Society .

Richard Mansell Colbeck ( born 5 April 1958 ) is an Australian politician . He was a Senator for the state of Tasmania representing the Liberal Party of Australia from 2002 to 2016 , having been first elected at the 2001 federal election . From September 2015 to July 2016 , Colbeck served as the Minister Assisting the Minister for Trade and Investment and the Minister for Tourism and International Education in the First Turnbull Ministry . He was defeated at the 2016 federal election .   He was born in Myrtleford , Victoria , and was educated at Devonport Technical College . He was a building estimator and supervisor , managing director and proprietor of a building consultancy before entering politics .

Kurnell is a suburb in Sydney , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . It is 21.4 km south of the Sydney central business district , in the local government area of the Sutherland Shire along the east coast .   Kurnell is on the south eastern headland of Botany Bay . Cronulla and Woolooware are the only adjacent suburbs . La Perouse is located opposite , on the northern headland of Botany Bay .   The eastern side of the peninsula is part of Botany Bay National Park . Towra Point Nature Reserve is located on the western side of the suburb .

In Australia , a redistribution is the process of redrawing the boundaries of electoral divisions of the House of Representatives , a process that in the United States is called redistricting . The Australian Electoral Commission , an independent statutory authority , completely independent of political considerations , oversees the redistribution process , taking into account many factors , including the one vote , one value principle . Members of Parliament and political parties may make submissions to the Commission on proposed new boundaries , but any interference with the Commission 's deliberations would be a serious offence .   Section 24 of the Constitution of Australia specifies that the number of members of the House of Representatives in each State is to be calculated by reference to their population , with a minimum of five members guaranteed for each original State . Each Territory is granted two members , irrespective of the total population of the Territory . After the number of members for each State and Territory is determined , the State and Territory is divided into that number of electoral divisions .   The Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 requires that all electoral divisions within a state or territory have approximately an equal numbers of enrolled voters . The Commonwealth Electoral Act ( No. 2 ) 1973 , passed at the joint sitting of Parliament , reduced the allowable quota variation of the number of electors in each division from 20 % to 10 % . Demographic changes both between States and within States requires a regular review of division boundaries to ensure that the number of electors in each division within a State or Territory does not deviate by more than 10 % ( plus or minus ) from the state or territory average . A redistribution ( sometimes called redrawing or `` revision '' ) of the geographic boundaries of divisions takes place at least once every seven years . When the Commission determines that population shifts within a state have caused some seats to have too many or too few voters , a redistribution is called and new boundaries are drawn up . Redistributions are also held when the Commission determines ( following a formula laid down in the Electoral Act ) that the distribution of seats among the states and territories must be changed because some states are growing faster than others .   For example , in 2003 , a review resulted in South Australia losing one seat , and Queensland gaining a seat . Redistributions were held in Victoria , Queensland and South Australia . Victoria kept the same number of seats , but one seat was abolished and one new seat created .

Deakin University is an Australian public university with approximately 53,000 higher education students in 2016 . Established in 1974 , the University was named after the leader of the Australian federation movement and the nation 's second Prime Minister , Alfred Deakin . Its main campuses are in Melbourne 's Burwood suburb , Geelong Waurn Ponds , Geelong Waterfront and Warrnambool , as well as the online Cloud Campus . Deakin also has learning centres in Dandenong , Craigieburn and Werribee , all in the state of Victoria . It was formally established in 1974 with the passage of the Deakin University Act 1974 . The sale of Stonnington Mansion by Deakin provoked public outrage as it involved the mansion which was at risk of redevelopment by property developers . Deakin is one of Australia 's fastest growing research universities . 89 % of Deakin 's research is rated at or above world class . Its combined research funding increased from A$ 4.5 million in 1997 to A$ 47.2 million in 2015 .

David Richard Lean ( born 16 March 1945 ) is an Australian politician . He was a Liberal Party of Australia member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly from 1996 to 1999 , representing the electorate of Carrum .   Lean was born in Melbourne , and educated at Melbourne Grammar School . He was the managing director of Stadiums Limited , his family 's business , prior to entering politics . He was a councillor of the City of Chelsea from 1990 to 1994 , and served as mayor in 1994 .   Lean was elected to the Legislative Assembly at the 1996 state election , defeating Labor MP and former Kirner government minister Mal Sandon . Lean 's victory in the formerly safe Labor seat fell against the tide of the 1996 election , the only seat gained by the Liberal government at an election at which they had a net loss of three seats to the Labor opposition . Lean was defeated by Labor candidate Jenny Lindell amidst the Liberal loss at the 1999 election .