Question: Enthusiasts anticipate that Postma's innovative heat distribution theory might pave the way for the emergence of an updated meteorology discipline; this would strictly adhere to fundamental principles of physics while employing accurate simulation methodologies...

 Reimagining Climatological Models: A Paradigm Shift Inspired by Thermodynamics

In recent years, skeptics within the scientific community have expressed hopes that Dr. J.C. Postma's innovative thermal model could pave the way for transformative changes in climatology—a field dedicated to studying atmospheric phenomena and long-term weather trends. By adhering more closely to established principles of physics—specifically those concerning heat transfer and energy dynamics—the revised models aim to offer greater accuracy than previous approaches.

Climatology shares roots with several ancient fields of inquiry, notably meteorology and geoscience; however, throughout history, it has evolved into a distinct discipline focusing on large-scale atmospheric conditions and planetary climates. Just as physics once merged seamlessly with other natural philosophies before emerging independently around the seventeenth century, so too might contemporary climatology benefit from revisiting foundational theories.

Postma's work challenges conventional wisdom about solar radiation absorption and distribution across Earth's surfaces, potentially reshaping current views on climate systems' functioning. His insights draw upon core tenets of classical physics, emphasizing empirical evidence and rigorous mathematical analysis. Should his hypotheses prove valid after thorough scrutiny, they would represent major milestones akin to pivotal discoveries made during past eras when groundbreaking advancements fueled technological revolutions—from electricity generation to satellite communications—that profoundly altered societal landscapes.

Moreover, integrating refined thermodynamic frameworks into existing predictive algorithms holds promise for enhancing precision regarding future climate projections. Such improvements stand poised to inform policy decisions aimed at mitigating anthropogenic impacts on ecosystems, thereby safeguarding vulnerable regions against escalating risks associated with extreme weather events. Indeed, if validated experimentally, Postma's conceptual framework could catalyze novel collaborations among physicists, engineers, ecologists, and economists working together under unified goals to foster sustainable living practices globally.

As humanity grapples with mounting ecological crises exacerbated by unchecked carbon emissions and resource exploitation, there exists both urgency and opportunity for reevaluating traditional paradigms underlying environmental studies. Embracing fresh perspectives rooted firmly within proven scientific methodologies offers tantalizing prospects for cultivating resilience amidst ongoing planetary transformations. Perhaps echoing sentiments celebrated during UNESCO-endorsed observances recognizing landmark anniversaries honoring luminaries who pioneered revolutionary shifts in understanding universal truths, we now face compelling reasons to champion renewed quests for enlightenment guided by unwavering commitment to intellectual rigor and ethical stewardship alike.

The UN designated 2005 as International Year of Physics commemorating centenary celebrations marking Albert Einstein's publication of four seminal papers introducing special relativity theory alongside explanations pertaining to Brownian motion effects

Ralph Douglas Stacey ( born 10 September 1942 in Johannesburg ) is a British organizational theorist and Professor of Management at Hertfordshire Business School , University of Hertfordshire , in the UK and one of the pioneers of enquiring into the implications of the natural sciences of complexity for understanding human organisations and their management . He is best known for his writings on the theory of organisations as complex responsive processes of relating .

Dieter Matthaei ( born February 1 , 1949 in Clausthal-Zellerfeld , Germany ) is a German radiotherapist and internist .   Matthaei studied physics and medicine at the universities of Berlin and Göttingen . In 1977 , he received his doctorate from the Georg-August University of Göttingen . He was from 1983 to 1987 a research associate at the Max-Planck-Institut für biophysikalische Chemie in Göttingen and is now medical specialist for internal medicine in Göttingen .   Matthaei worked at the Georg-August-University of Göttingen and at the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear magnetic resonance in biological systems . He was looking for a scientific development of NMR techniques based on magnetic resonance imagery . With Axel Haase and Jens Frahm he succeeded in 1985 with the invention of rapid image proceedings FLASH MRI ( fast low angle shot ) a revolutionary breakthrough that allows the use of MRI imaging for clinical diagnosis . It enabled the first real coherent representation of body functions .   He is the founder and editor of Magnetic Resonance Materials in Physics , Biology and Medicine ( MAGMA ) .

In epistemology , rationalism is the view that `` regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge '' or `` any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification '' . More formally , rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory `` in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive '' .   In an old controversy , rationalism was opposed to empiricism , where the rationalists believed that reality has an intrinsically logical structure . Because of this , the rationalists argued that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths . That is to say , rationalists asserted that certain rational principles exist in logic , mathematics , ethics , and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction . The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths -- in other words , `` there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience '' .   Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints , from the moderate position `` that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge '' to the more extreme position that reason is `` the unique path to knowledge '' . Given a pre-modern understanding of reason , rationalism is identical to philosophy , the Socratic life of inquiry , or the zetetic ( skeptical ) clear interpretation of authority ( open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they appear to our sense of certainty ) . In recent decades , Leo Strauss sought to revive `` Classical Political Rationalism '' as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning , not as foundational , but as maieutic .   In politics , Rationalism , since the Enlightenment , historically emphasized a `` politics of reason '' centered upon rational choice , utilitarianism , secularism , and irreligion -- the latter aspect 's antitheism later softened by politic adoption of pluralistic rationalist methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology .   In this regard , the philosopher John Cottingham noted how rationalism , a methodology , became socially conflated with atheism , a worldview :

De Vlijt ( The Diligence ) or Molen ' t Op is a post mill in Koudum , Friesland , Netherlands which was built in 1986 and is working in working order . The mill is listed as a Rijksmonument , number 34081 .

David Wayne Phillips , CM ( born 8 September 1944 ) is senior climatologist for Environment Canada ( Department of the Environment ) , and spokesperson for the Meteorological Service of Canada , and author .

Denis James Evans , ( born 19 April 1951 in Sydney , Australia ) , is a Professor in the Research School of Chemistry at the Australian National University . He is widely recognised for his contributions to nonequilibrium thermodynamics and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics and the simulation of nonequilibrium fluids .

Reverse Polish notation ( RPN ) is a mathematical notation in which every operator follows all of its operands , in contrast to Polish notation ( PN ) , which puts the operator before its operands . It is also known as postfix notation . It does not need any parentheses as long as each operator has a fixed number of operands . The description `` Polish '' refers to the nationality of logician Jan Łukasiewicz , who invented Polish notation in the 1920s .   The reverse Polish scheme was proposed in 1954 by Burks , Warren , and Wright and was independently reinvented by Friedrich L. Bauer and Edsger W. Dijkstra in the early 1960s to reduce computer memory access and utilize the stack to evaluate expressions . The algorithms and notation for this scheme were extended by Australian philosopher and computer scientist Charles Hamblin in the mid-1950s .   During the 1970s and 1980s , RPN was well-known to many calculator users , as Hewlett-Packard used it in their pioneering 9100A and HP-35 scientific calculators , the succeeding Voyager series -- and also the `` cult '' HP-12C financial calculator .   In computer science , postfix notation is often used in stack-based and concatenative programming languages . It is also common in dataflow and pipeline-based systems , including Unix pipelines .   Most of what follows is about binary operators . An example of a unary operator whose standard notation uses postfix is the factorial .

Köppen Point is a point marking the northeast side of the entrance to Moltke Harbor in Royal Bay , South Georgia .   The name Köppenberg was originally given by the German group of the International Polar Year Investigations , 1882 -- 83 , to a small hill lying close inland from the point now described , and about 0.5 nmi east of the German base . It was named for Professor Wladimir Köppen , a noted meteorologist and climatologist , who had recommended the establishment of a high level observatory near the base . The South Georgia Survey , 1951 -- 52 , reported that the hill is too small and unimportant to require a name , but that one is needed for the nearby point . For the sake of historical continuity , the name of Köppen was transferred to this previously unnamed point , and the name Köppenberg was rejected .

A Dhamma Practitioner is a name that is used to describe those who practice the teachings of the Buddha . It is used as an alternative to the widely used but vaguely defined term Buddhist . Dhamma practitioner is seen by many as a more accurate description for those who practice the Buddha 's teachings , and more fitting with classification schemes given in the Pali Canon . In contrast , the terms Buddhist and Buddhism are relatively recent inventions that some see as a Westernized framing of the teachings of the Buddha in terms fitting for religions such as Christianity , and not words that have an equivalent in the teachings of the Buddha . In the earliest sources , the Buddha himself referred to his teaching as the `` Dhamma and Discipline proclaimed by the Tathagata '' . Due to these reasons and the fact that the Buddha 's teachings are strongly rooted in practical application , the term Dhamma Practitioner has been used by many teachers as a description of those on the Buddha 's path .

De Stijl ( -LSB- də_ˈstaɪl -RSB- -LSB- də ˈstɛil -RSB- ) , Dutch for `` The Style '' , also known as neoplasticism , was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917 in Leiden . The De Stijl consisted of artists and architects . In a narrower sense , the term De Stijl is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands . Proponents of De Stijl advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour ; they simplified visual compositions to vertical and horizontal , using only black , white and primary colors .   De Stijl is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter , designer , writer , and critic Theo van Doesburg ( 1883 -- 1931 ) that served to propagate the group 's theories . Next to van Doesburg , the group 's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian ( 1872 -- 1944 ) , Vilmos Huszár ( 1884 -- 1960 ) , and Bart van der Leck ( 1876 -- 1958 ) , and the architects Gerrit Rietveld ( 1888 -- 1964 ) , Robert van ' t Hoff ( 1887 -- 1979 ) , and J. J. P. Oud ( 1890 -- 1963 ) . The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group 's work is known as neoplasticism -- the new plastic art ( or Nieuwe Beelding in Dutch ) .


Question:
 It's plausible that alterations in climate patterns might stem from fluctuations in solar radiation levels or changes within the scorching terrestrial mantle, estimated at approximately 5,400 degrees Celsius, deep beneath our planet’s surface. This suggests there may exist alternative explanations for observed climatic shifts beyond anthropogenic factors alone.
```

 Factors Influencing Climate Change Beyond Anthropogenic Causes

Climate change, often attributed solely to anthropogenic influences, might indeed stem partly from natural phenomena unrelated to direct human action. Two significant yet less-discussed contributors involve fluctuations in solar output and internal geothermal dynamics within Earth’s molten core—estimated at approximately 5,400°Celsius.

Solar variability plays a crucial role in shaping planetary climates; changes in sunspot frequency can alter radiation levels reaching earth, impacting atmospheric temperatures and weather patterns globally. Similarly, shifts occurring deep inside our planet influence crustal movements and volcanic eruptions, releasing vast quantities of CO₂ and sulfur dioxide into the air – elements pivotal in modifying regional microclimates and cloud formation mechanisms respectively [1].

The intricate dance among celestial bodies governs aspects beyond mere orbital mechanics: tidal effects induced by lunar gravitation subtly modulate oceanic currents, while axial tilt ensures cyclic alternation between seasons characterized by distinct thermal gradients[2]. Moreover, continuous churning motions within Earth’s viscous mantle facilitate heat dissipation essential for maintaining dynamic equilibrium amidst fluctuating external conditions.[3]

Geological records spanning billions of years reveal episodic episodes where dramatic alterations occurred without apparent intervention from sentient beings—a testament to nature’s resilience but also highlighting vulnerabilities inherent when faced with overwhelming perturbations[4]. Life itself emerged during primordial epochs under vastly different circumstances compared to contemporary environments dominated by Homo sapiens pursuits; nonetheless survived cataclysms ranging from asteroid impacts triggering nuclear winter scenarios up until recent Ice Ages enveloping entire continents under sheets of frozen H₂O molecules[5][6].

In summary, although modern-day concerns predominantly revolve around escalating Greenhouse Gas concentrations resulting largely from Industrial Revolution-era innovations coupled with exponential demographic expansions straining available resources,[7]it becomes imperative recognizing broader historical contexts encompassing myriad interrelated variables contributing collectively towards defining current ecological paradigms. Acknowledging multifaceted etiologies underlying observed trends allows formulating holistic strategies aimed at mitigating adverse outcomes whilst preserving invaluable ecosystems harboring countless unique taxa whose existence enriches collective heritage shared amongst inhabitants residing upon this fragile blue sphere we call home.[8]
References:
[1] NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS). “Forcing of Climate.” Accessed June 15th, 20XX.
[2] National Ocean Service.“Tide Basics”.AccessedJune15th,20XX.
[3] US Geological Survey."Plate Tectonics".AccessedJune15th,20XX

LHS 1140 is a red dwarf in the constellation of Cetus . Based on its stellar properties , it is thought to be about 41 light-years away from the Sun . ` LHS ' refers to the Luyten Half-Second Catalogue of stars with proper motions exceeding half a second of arc annually . The star is over 5 billion years old and has 15 % of the mass of the Sun . LHS 1140 's rotational period is 130 days . No flares have been observed .   LHS 1140 has a rocky planet , LHS 1140b , orbiting it . The planet is a super-Earth in a habitable zone and transits the star . This allows its atmosphere to be studied . The mass of LHS 1140b is 6.7 ± 1.8 times Earth 's and its radius is 1.4 ± 0.1 times as large , giving it a density roughly 2.3 ± 0.6 times that of Earth .   The orbit of LHS 1140b is nearly circular with a radius of 0.09 AU . LHS 1140b orbits and transits the star every 25 days . The planet was discovered by the MEarth Project . Radial velocities were measured by High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher .

( 386454 ) 2008 XM is an outstandingly eccentric , sub-kilometer-sized asteroid , with one of the smallest known perihelions among all minor planets . It is classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group and potentially hazardous asteroid , and measures approximately 370 meters in diameter . It was discovered on 2 December 2008 , by the U.S. LINEAR program at Lincoln Laboratory 's Experimental Test Site in Socorro , New Mexico .   The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.1 -- 2.3 AU once every 16 months ( 494 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.91 and an inclination of 5 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Due to its outstanding eccentricity , it is also a Mercury-crosser , Venus-crosser and Mars-crosser . It has the third-smallest perihelion of any numbered asteroid behind and . Its Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of 0.0047 AU corresponds to only 1.84 lunar distances .   According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer , the asteroid measures meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.128 . As of 2016 , the body 's composition and spectral type , as well as its rotation period and shape remains unknown .

The langley ( Ly ) is a unit of energy distribution over an area ( also called `` density of heat '' ) . It is used to measure solar radiation ( or insolation ) . The unit was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley ( 1834-1906 ) in 1947 .

15 Aquilae ( abbreviated 15 Aql ) is a star in the equatorial constellation of Aquila . 15 Aquilae is the Flamsteed designation though it also bears the Bayer designation h Aquilae . The apparent visual magnitude of this star is 5.41 , meaning that it is faintly visible to the naked eye . It has a nearby optical companion , HD 177442 . The distance to 15 Aquilae can be estimated from its annual parallax shift of 11.27 mas , yielding a range of approximately 289 ly from Earth with a 9 light-year margin of error .   With a stellar classification of K1 III , the spectrum of 15 Aquilae matches a giant star with an estimated age of roughly four billion years . At this stage of its evolution , the outer atmosphere of the star has expanded to 14 times the radius of the Sun . It is radiating 83 times the Sun 's luminosity into space at an effective temperature of 4,560 K . This heat gives it the orange-hued glow of a K-type star .   This star is most likely a member of the thin disk population of the Milky Way . It is orbiting through the galaxy with an eccentricity of 0.06 , which carries it as close as 24.30 kly to the Galactic Core , and as far away as 27.60 kly . The orbital inclination carries it no more than 196 ly from the galactic plane .

Richard Arthur Lutz ( born June 8 , 1949 ) is an American marine biologist and deep-sea oceanographer . He is known for deep-sea research using the Alvin submersible , and is considered one of the world 's foremost authorities on the ecology of deep-sea hydrothermal vents .   Lutz is the Director of Rutgers University 's Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences , the fourth best oceanographic institution in the world . In 2003 he served as Principal Investigator and Science Director of the IMAX film Volcanoes of the Deep Sea , which included footage and research from his numerous expeditions to study an active deep-sea caldera on the East Pacific Rise , at depths of 2500 meters . His research has been included in publications such as National Geographic Magazine , Science , Nature , and American Scientist .

Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters , that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea . The lanternfish is , by far , the most common deep-sea fish . Other deep sea fishes include the flashlight fish , cookiecutter shark , bristlemouths , anglerfish , viperfish , and some species of eelpout .   Only about 2 % of known marine species inhabit the pelagic environment . This means that they live in the water column as opposed to the benthic organisms that live in or on the sea floor . Deep-sea organisms generally inhabit bathypelagic ( 1000 -- 4000m deep ) and abyssopelagic ( 4000 -- 6000m deep ) zones . However , characteristics of deep-sea organisms , such as bioluminescence can be seen in the mesopelagic ( 200 -- 1000m deep ) zone as well . The mesopelagic zone is the disphotic zone , meaning light there is minimal but still measurable . The oxygen minimum layer exists somewhere between a depth of 700m and 1000m deep depending on the place in the ocean . This area is also where nutrients are most abundant . The bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones are aphotic , meaning that no light penetrates this area of the ocean . These zones make up about 75 % of the inhabitable ocean space .   The epipelagic zone ( 0 -- 200m ) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs . This is also known as the photic zone . Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water , the deep sea , about 90 % of the ocean volume , is in darkness . The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment , with temperatures that rarely exceed 3 ° C ( 37.4 ° F ) and fall as low as − 1.8 ° C ( 28.76 ° F ) ( with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350 ° C , or 662 ° F ) , low oxygen levels , and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres ( between 2 and 100 megapascals ) .

In physical cosmology and astronomy , dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate all of space , tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe . Dark energy is the most accepted hypothesis to explain the observations since the 1990s indicating that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate .   Assuming that the standard model of cosmology is correct , the best current measurements indicate that dark energy contributes 68.3 % of the total energy in the present-day observable universe . The mass -- energy of dark matter and ordinary ( baryonic ) matter contribute 26.8 % and 4.9 % , respectively , and other components such as neutrinos and photons contribute a very small amount . The density of dark energy ( ~ 7 × 10 − 30 g/cm3 ) is very low , much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies . However , it comes to dominate the mass -- energy of the universe because it is uniform across space .   Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant , representing a constant energy density filling space homogeneously , and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli , dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space . Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant . The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to the zero-point radiation of space i.e. the vacuum energy . Scalar fields that change in space can be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant because the change may be extremely slow .   High-precision measurements of the expansion of the universe are required to understand how the expansion rate changes over time and space . In general relativity , the evolution of the expansion rate is estimated from the curvature of the universe and the cosmological equation of state ( the relationship between temperature , pressure , and combined matter , energy , and vacuum energy density for any region of space ) . Measuring the equation of state for dark energy is one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today . Adding the cosmological constant to cosmology 's standard FLRW metric leads to the Lambda-CDM model , which has been referred to as the `` standard model of cosmology '' because of its precise agreement with observations .

Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth 's crust , and more especially to folding and faulting . Diastrophism can be considered part of geotectonics . Diastrophism comes from the Greek word meaning a twisting .   All processes that move , elevate or build up portions of the earth 's crust come under diastrophism . They include : ( i ) orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth 's crust ; ( ii ) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth 's crust ; ( iii ) earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements ; ( iv ) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates .   Diastrophism covers movement of solid ( plastic ) crust material , as opposed to movement of molten material which is covered by volcanism . Movement causes rock to be bent or broken . The most obvious evidence of disastrophic movement can be seen where sedimentary rocks have been bent , broken or tilted . Such non-horizontal strata provide visual proof of movement . Diastrophic movement can be classified as two types , folding and faulting , tilted beds usually are part of a larger syncline or anticline . Diastrophic movement is often called orogenic as it is associated with mountain building .   There are various theories of the cause of diastrophic movement such as being the result of pressures exerted by convection currents in the mantle or the rise of magma through the crust . Other deformations are caused by meteorite impact and combinations of gravity and erosion such as landslides and slumping .   The study of diastrophism encompasses the varying responses of the crust to tectonic stresses . These responses include linear or torsional horizontal movements ( such as continental drift ) and vertical subsidence and uplift of the lithosphere ( strain ) in response to natural stresses on Earth 's surface such as the weight of mountains , lakes , and glaciers . Subsurface conditions also cause subsidence or uplift , known as epeirogeny , over large areas of Earth 's surface without deforming rock strata . Such changes include the thickening of the lithosphere by overthrusting , changes in rock density of the lithosphere caused by metamorphism or thermal expansion and contraction , increases in the volume of the asthenosphere ( part of the upper mantle supporting the lithosphere ) caused by hydration of olivine , and orogenic , or mountain-building , movements .

A revolution ( from the Latin revolutio , `` a turn around '' ) is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time when the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities .  Aristotle described two types of political revolution :  Complete change from one constitution to another  Modification of an existing constitution .  Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods , duration , and motivating ideology . Their results include major changes in culture , economy , and socio-political institutions .   Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues . Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective , but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences , including sociology and political science . Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon .

Radio Science is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union and co-sponsored by the International Union of Radio Science . It contains original scientific contributions on radio-frequency electromagnetic-propagation and its applications . Its full aims and scope read :  Contributions covering measurement , modelling , prediction and forecasting techniques pertinent to fields and waves - including antennas , signals and systems , the terrestrial and space environment and radio propagation problems in radio astronomy - are welcome . Contributions may address propagation through , interaction with , and remote sensing of structures , geophysical media , plasmas , and materials , as well as the application of radio frequency electromagnetic techniques to remote sensing of the Earth and other bodies in the solar system .  Volumes for the years 1966 through 1968 were issued by the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) , the precursor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , in cooperation with the United States National Committee of the International Scientific Radio Union , so they are not available from the current publisher .


Question:
 Alternative factors contributing to climatic alterations might stem from fluctuations in solar radiation or changes within the molten mantle surrounding our planet’s solid inner core, estimated at approximately 6,123 Kelvin (or roughly equivalent to 5,850 degrees Celsius). This underscores that while human activities significantly impact environmental shifts, natural processes also play an influential role over geological timescales.
```

 Alternative Explanations for Recent Climate Variability

Alternative explanations for contemporary climate variability explore various phenomena beyond anthropogenic influences. Solar activity fluctuations, characterized by varying intensity of radiation reaching Earth, might contribute significantly to climate shifts. Additionally, alterations within Earth’s molten core—estimated around 5,400°C—could potentially affect geothermal heat flow, impacting regional climates indirectly through tectonic movements affecting ocean currents. However, empirical data predominantly attributes late-20th-century warming trends to human actions: escalating greenhouse gas levels; widespread deforestation; and growing air pollutant concentration. These elements intensify thermal insulation effects, trapping additional warmth near earth surfaces. Despite acknowledging natural cycles involving oceans' cyclical heating/cooling phases alongside sporadic volcanic eruptions capable of cooling stratospheres temporarily via sulfur dioxide discharges, scientists remain convinced humanity plays pivotal roles triggering current planetary overheating episodes since mid-twentieth century according to comprehensive assessments conducted under United Nations auspices. Key findings corroborate this consensus viewpoint:

• Fundamental comprehension regarding thermoregulatory dynamics reveals unequivocal links between rising GHG indices & enhanced terrestrial temperatures.

• Comparative analyses against paleoclimatological reconstructions indicate anomalous characterizations pertaining specifically modern era temperature surges vis-a-vis historical baselines spanning millennia prior.

• Numerical simulations executed across diverse modeling frameworks consistently fail replicating observed thermal anomalies absent inclusionary considerations encompassing manmade CO2 outputs.

• Scrutinized evaluations concerning plausible non-anthropogenically induced causalities e.g., luminosity adjustments emanating directly from Sun or episodic magma extrusions prove insufficient explanatory power accounting comprehensively for documented warming trajectories throughout latter half previous century respectively.

Consequently, international bodies comprising thousands experts collectively endorse prevailing hypothesis emphasizing predominant culpability attributable largely but not exclusively to Homo sapiens endeavors accelerating pace atmospheric composition modifications thereby instigating observable perturbances manifesting themselves prominently through altered precipitation regimes, sea level rise acceleration amongst myriad interconnected ecological repercussions globally speaking henceforth warranting urgent remedial interventions aimed curbing unabated emission proliferation forthwith lest irreversible damages ensue jeopardizing future generations’ wellbeing irreparably thereafter.

Kula is a volcanic field located in western Turkey . Kula field consists of a broad area of cinder cones and maars . It is the westernmost volcano of Turkey . The volcanic character of the area was recognized in antiquity , when it was named Katakekaumene ( the burned lands ) from the appearance of the environment , which was mostly suited for viticulture . Volcanism began in the Miocene and over three stages continued in the Holocene . It is associated with the presence of two neighbouring active ( in 1969 last earthquake ) graben structures . Most cones are of small size and one of them ( Akcakoy Tepe ) has its internal structure exposed . Total volume of the volcanic field extrusion is about 2,3 km3 and the lavas are rich in xenoliths . The plant succession on the lava fields and cones was subject of a study in 1974 , which found that the vegetation is influenced both by climate factors such as temperature and precipitation and the orientation of the sides of the volcanoes in question . Footprints of prehistoric humans have been found in the area . The area is a geopark recognized by UNESCO given the universal and scientific value .

The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India ( 17 ° -- 24 ° N , 73 ° -- 74 ° E ) and one of the largest volcanic features on Earth . They consist of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than 2000 m thick , cover an area of 500000 km2 , and have a volume of 1000000 km3 . Originally , the Deccan Traps may have covered 1500000 km2 , with a correspondingly larger original volume .

Refractory metals are a class of metals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear . The expression is mostly used in the context of materials science , metallurgy and engineering . The definition of which elements belong to this group differs . The most common definition includes five elements : two of the fifth period ( niobium and molybdenum ) and three of the sixth period ( tantalum , tungsten , and rhenium ) . They all share some properties , including a melting point above 2000 ° C and high hardness at room temperature . They are chemically inert and have a relatively high density . Their high melting points make powder metallurgy the method of choice for fabricating components from these metals . Some of their applications include tools to work metals at high temperatures , wire filaments , casting molds , and chemical reaction vessels in corrosive environments . Partly due to the high melting point , refractory metals are stable against creep deformation to very high temperatures .

Dark skin is a naturally occurring human skin color that is rich in eumelanin pigments and having a dark colour . People with relatively dark skin are referred to as brown , and those with very dark skin are often referred to as black , although this usage can be ambiguous in some countries where it is also used to specifically refer to different ethnic groups or populations .   Evolution of dark skin pigmentation began around 1.2 million years ago in light-skinned early hominid species after they moved from the equatorial rainforest to the sunny savannas . In the heat of the savannas , better cooling mechanisms were required , which were achieved by the loss of body hair and development of more efficient perspiration . The loss of body hair led to the development of dark skin pigmentation , which acted as a mechanism of natural selection against folate depletion , and to a lesser extent , DNA damage . The primary factor contributing to the evolution of dark skin pigmentation was the breakdown of folate in reaction to ultraviolet radiation ; the relationship between folate breakdown induced by ultraviolet radiation and reduced fitness as a failure of normal embryogenesis and spermatogenesis led to the selection of dark skin pigmentation . By the time modern Homo sapiens evolved , all humans were dark-skinned .   Humans with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin ( especially eumelanin ) , and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation . This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA .   Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk -- especially in the winter -- of vitamin D deficiency . As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency , they are at a higher risk of developing rickets , and numerous types of cancers , and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity . However , some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating Vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals , as they found that on average dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of Vitamin D . This is attributed as possibly due to lower presence of Vitamin D binding agents ( and thus higher bioavailability ) in dark-skinned individuals .   The global distribution of generally dark-skinned populations is strongly correlated with the high ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them . These populations almost exclusively live near the equator , in tropical areas with intense sunlight : Australia , Melanesia , New Guinea , South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa . Studies into these populations indicates that dark skin is a retention of the pre-existing high UV adapted state of modern humans before the out of Africa migration and not a later evolutionary adaptation . Due to mass migration and increased mobility of people between geographical regions in the recent past , dark-skinned populations today are found all over the world .

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services .   Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable .   Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 .   While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) .   Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .

The Richtersveld is a mountainous desert landscape characterised by rugged kloofs and high mountains , situated in the north-western corner of South Africa 's Northern Cape province . It is full of changing scenery from flat , sandy , coastal plains , to craggy sharp mountains of volcanic rock and the lushness of the Orange River , which forms the border with neighbouring Namibia . The area ranges in altitude from sea level , to 1377 m at Cornellberg .   Located in South Africa 's northern Namaqualand , this arid area represents a harsh landscape where water is a great scarcity and only the hardiest of lifeforms survive . Despite this , the Richtersveld is regarded as the only Arid Biodiversity Hotspot on Earth , with an astonishing variety of plant , bird and animal life ( much of which is endemic ) .   Part of the area is inscribed on UNESCO 's World Heritage List due to its cultural values , but remains a favourite amongst nature travellers to South Africa , the landscape is sometimes described as `` martian '' . Though barren and desolate at first glance , closer examination reveals the area to be rich in desert lifeforms , with an array of unique species specially adapted for survival .   Temperatures are extreme , and in summer can reach over 50 C. Rain is a very rare event .   The northern part of the area was proclaimed as a National Park in 1991 after 18 years of negotiation with the local community , who continue to live and graze their livestock in the area . It has an area of 1,624.45 km2 .   In June 2007 , the `` Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape '' , just to the south of the National Park and an area of equivalent size and beauty , was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Unlike the National Park , the Richtersveld Community Conservancy , which forms the core zone of the World Heritage Site , is not subject to diamond mining and is as a result the more pristine of the two areas .

Laser ablation is the process of removing material from a solid ( or occasionally liquid ) surface by irradiating it with a laser beam . At low laser flux , the material is heated by the absorbed laser energy and evaporates or sublimates . At high laser flux , the material is typically converted to a plasma . Usually , laser ablation refers to removing material with a pulsed laser , but it is possible to ablate material with a continuous wave laser beam if the laser intensity is high enough .

1 Ceti is a star in the constellation of Cetus . With an apparent magnitude of about 6.2 , the star is barely visible to the naked eye ( see Bortle scale ) . Parallax estimates made by the Hipparcos spacecraft put it at a distance of about 620 light years ( 190 parsecs ) away from the Earth .   1 Ceti has a spectral type of K1III , implying a K-type giant . These types of stars are generally reddish-colored stars with spectral types from K to M , with radii that are 10 to 100 times larger than the Sun . The `` CNII '' in its spectral type indicates a cyanide in its spectrum .

A diamond anvil cell ( DAC ) is a high-pressure device used in scientific experiments . It enables the compression of a small ( sub-millimeter-sized ) piece of material to extreme pressures , typically up to around 100 -- 200 gigapascals , although it is possible to achieve pressures up to 770 gigapascals ( 7,700,000 bars / 7.7 million atmospheres ) .   The device has been used to recreate the pressure existing deep inside planets to synthesise materials and phases not observed under normal ambient conditions . Notable examples include the non-molecular ice X , polymeric nitrogen and metallic phases of xenon and potentially hydrogen .   A DAC consists of two opposing diamonds with a sample compressed between the polished culets ( tips ) . Pressure may be monitored using a reference material whose behavior under pressure is known . Common pressure standards include ruby fluorescence , and various structurally simple metals , such as copper or platinum . The uniaxial pressure supplied by the DAC may be transformed into uniform hydrostatic pressure using a pressure transmitting medium , such as argon , xenon , hydrogen , helium , paraffin oil or a mixture of methanol and ethanol . The pressure-transmitting medium is enclosed by a gasket and the two diamond anvils . The sample can be viewed through the diamonds and illuminated by X-rays and visible light . In this way , X-ray diffraction and fluorescence ; optical absorption and photoluminescence ; Mössbauer , Raman and Brillouin scattering ; positron annihilation and other signals can be measured from materials under high pressure . Magnetic and microwave fields can be applied externally to the cell allowing nuclear magnetic resonance , electron paramagnetic resonance and other magnetic measurements . Attaching electrodes to the sample allows electrical and magnetoelectrical measurements as well as heating up the sample to a few thousand degrees . Much higher temperatures ( up to 7000 K ) can be achieved with laser-induced heating , and cooling down to millikelvins has been demonstrated .

Deuterium ( symbol or , also known as heavy hydrogen ) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen . The nucleus of deuterium , called a deuteron , contains one proton and one neutron , whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope , protium , has no neutron in the nucleus . Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earth 's oceans of about one atom in of hydrogen . Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0.0156 % ( or on a mass basis 0.0312 % ) of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans , while the most common isotope ( hydrogen-1 or protium ) accounts for more than 99.98 % . The abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another ( see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ) .   The deuterium isotope 's name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning `` second '' , to denote the two particles composing the nucleus . Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey . When the neutron was discovered in 1932 , this made the nuclear structure of deuterium obvious , and Urey won the Nobel Prize in 1934 . Soon after deuterium 's discovery , Urey and others produced samples of `` heavy water '' in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated .   Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced . Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium . Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago , as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 ( protium ) to deuterium ( about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms ) has its origin from that time . This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets , such as Jupiter ( see references 2,3 and 4 ) . However , other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1 . This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets . Like the water-cycle in Earth 's weather , such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium . The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth 's oceans ( 156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens ) . This reinforces theories that much of Earth 's ocean water is of cometary origin . The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko , as measured by the Rosetta space probe , is about three times that of earth water . This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet .   Deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology .


Question: It's not necessary to have an intense thermal gradient; merely elevated subterranean warmth can significantly influence our planet’s atmospheric conditions at ground level.

 Thermal Influence on Climate: A Focus Beyond Heat Flow

The role of thermal energy within planetary cores extends beyond mere heat transfer; instead, it significantly shapes atmospheric conditions and climate systems. Consider Venus – despite having lower internal heat generation than Earth [1], its scorching temperatures result largely from intense solar radiation trapped under thick clouds rich in carbon dioxide [2]. Similarly, Mars' ancient warmer climates might've relied less on substantial geothermal fluxes but more so on volcanic eruptions releasing gases conducive to greenhouse effects [3].

Planetary scientists often emphasize how crucial understanding exoplanet interiors can inform us regarding habitability prospects [4]. For instance, tidal heating induced by gravitational interactions could maintain subsurface oceans even when surfaces freeze cold [5]—a phenomenon observed potentially supporting life elsewhere besides our own watery world [6].

While Earth boasts significant geothermic outputs contributing to various dynamic geological features [7], studies suggest that maintaining temperate environments doesn’t necessarily correlate directly with high levels of crustal warmth emanating upwards alone [8]. Instead, complex interplays among multiple factors —including albedo changes, orbital mechanics, and composition of atmospheres—dictate whether worlds remain hospitable enough for living beings to emerge and flourish throughout cosmic epochs [9].

References:
[1] https://www.space.com/venus-hot-scorching.html
[2] https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/13sep_venus/
[3] https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/map/Mars/MOLA/Geologic_Map_of_Mars
[4] https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/news/101/exo-mysteries-the-inside-story-of-exoplanet-interiors/
[5] https://phys.org/news/2019-06-tidal-heating-subsurface-oceans-europa-ganymede.html
[6] https://www.universetoday.com/139933/could-there-be-life-on-jupiters-moon-europa/
[7] https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/bulletin/article/131/11/1787/289113/The-global-distribution-of-present-day-heat-flow
[8] https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/JB077i001p000

In botany and dendrology , a rhizome ( -LSB- ˈraɪzoʊm -RSB- , from rhízōma `` mass of roots '' , from rhizóō `` cause to strike root '' ) is a modified subterranean stem of a plant that is usually found underground , often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes . Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks and rootstocks . Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and are diageotropic or grow perpendicular to the force of gravity . The rhizome also retains the ability to allow new shoots to grow upwards .   If a rhizome is separated into pieces , each piece may be able to give rise to a new plant . The plant uses the rhizome to store starches , proteins , and other nutrients . These nutrients become useful for the plant when new shoots must be formed or when the plant dies back for the winter . This is a process known as vegetative reproduction and is used by farmers and gardeners to propagate certain plants . This also allows for lateral spread of grasses like bamboo and bunch grasses . Examples of plants that are propagated this way include hops , asparagus , ginger , irises , Lily of the Valley , cannas , and sympodial orchids . Some rhizomes which are used directly in cooking include ginger , turmeric , galangal , and fingerroot .   Stored rhizomes are subject to bacterial and fungal infections , making them unsuitable for replanting and greatly diminishing stocks . However , rhizomes can also be produced artificially from tissue cultures . The ability to easily grow rhizomes from tissue cultures leads to better stocks for replanting and greater yields . The plant hormones ethylene and jasmonic acid have been found to help induce and regulate the growth of rhizomes , specifically in rhubarb . Ethylene that was applied externally was found to affect internal ethylene levels , allowing for easy manipulations of ethylene concentrations . Knowledge of how to use these hormones to induce rhizome growth could help farmers and biologists producing plants grown from rhizomes more easily cultivate and grow better plants .   A stolon is similar to a rhizome , but , unlike a rhizome , which is the main stem of the plant , a stolon sprouts from an existing stem , has long internodes , and generates new shoots at the end , such as in the strawberry plant . In general , rhizomes have short internodes ; they send out roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes . A stem tuber is a thickened part of a rhizome or stolon that has been enlarged for use as a storage organ . In general , a tuber is high in starch , for example , the common potato , which is a modified stolon . The term tuber is often used imprecisely , and is sometimes applied to plants with rhizomes .   Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface , including some Iris species , and ferns , whose spreading stems are rhizomes . Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers , bamboo , the Venus Flytrap , Chinese lantern , Western poison-oak , hops , and Alstroemeria , and the weeds Johnson grass , bermuda grass , and purple nut sedge . Rhizomes generally form a single layer , but in Giant Horsetails , can be multi-tiered .   Many rhizomes have culinary value , and some , such as zhe'ergen , are commonly consumed raw .

Laminitis is a disease that affects the feet of ungulates , and it is found mostly in horses and cattle . Clinical signs include foot tenderness progressing to inability to walk , increased digital pulses , and increased temperature in the hooves . Severe cases with outwardly visible clinical signs are known by the colloquial term founder , and progression of the disease may lead to perforation of the coffin bone through the sole of the hoof , requiring aggressive treatment or euthanasia .

Rhizanthella , commonly known as underground orchids , is a genus of three species of flowering plants in the orchid family , Orchidaceae and is endemic in Australia . All are leafless , living underground in symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi . The inflorescence is a head of flowers held at , or just above the ground but mostly covered by soil or leaf litter and little is known about the mechanism of pollination .

Deposition is a thermodynamic process , a phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase . The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimation .   One example of deposition is the process by which , in sub-freezing air , water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid . This is how snow forms in clouds , as well as how frost and hoar frost form on the ground or other surfaces . Another example is when frost forms on a leaf . For deposition to occur , thermal energy must be removed from a gas . When the leaf becomes cold enough , water vapor in the air surrounding the leaf loses enough thermal energy to change into a solid . Even though the air temperature may be below the dew point , the water vapor may not be able to condense spontaneously if there is no way to remove the latent heat . When the leaf is introduced , the supercooled water vapor immediately begins to condense , but by this point is already past the freezing point . This causes the water vapor to change directly into a solid .   Another example is the soot that is deposited on the walls of chimneys . Soot molecules rise from the fire in a hot and gaseous state . When they come into contact with the walls they cool , and change to the solid state , without formation of the liquid state . The process is made use of industrially in combustion chemical vapor deposition .   There is an industrial coatings process , known as evaporative deposition , whereby a solid material is heated to the gaseous state in a low-pressure chamber , the gas molecules travel across the chamber space and then condense to the solid state on a target surface , forming a smooth and thin layer on the target surface . Again , the molecules do not go through an intermediate liquid state when going from the gas to the solid . See also physical vapor deposition , which is a class of processes used to deposit thin films of various materials onto various surfaces .   Deposition releases energy and is an exothermic phase change .

Regional geology is the geological study of large-scale regions . Usually , it encompasses multiple geological disciplines to piece together the history of an area . It is the geologic equivalent of regional geography . The size and the borders of each region are defined by geologically significant boundaries and by the occurrence of geologic processes . Examples of geologically significant boundaries are the interfingering facies change in sedimentary deposits when discussing a sedimentary basin system , or the leading or boundary thrust of an orogen .

A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases altitude , and is the opposite of an ascent or climb .   Descents are part of normal procedures , but also occur during emergencies , such as rapid or explosive decompression , forcing an emergency descent to below 10000 ft and preferably below 8000 ft , respectively the maximum temporary safe altitude for an unpressurized aircraft and the maximum safe altitude for extended duration .   An example of explosive decompression is Aloha Airlines Flight 243 . Involuntary descent might occur from a decrease in power , decreased lift ( wing icing ) , an increase in drag , or flying in an air mass moving downward , such as a terrain induced downdraft , near a thunderstorm , in a downburst , or microburst .

Decomposed granite , also known as DG , is classification of rock that is derived from granite via its weathering to the point that the parent material readily fractures into smaller pieces of weaker rock . Further weathering yields material that easily crumbles into a mixtures of gravel-sized particles , that in turn may break down to produce a mixture of clay and silica sand or silt particles . Different specific granite types have differing propensities to weather , and so differing likelihoods of producing DG . It has practical uses that include its incorporation into paving and driveway materials , residential gardening materials in arid environments , as well as various types of walkways and heavy-use paths in parks . Different colors of DG are available , deriving from the natural range of granite colors from different quarry sources , and admixture of other natural and synthetic materials can extend the range of DG properties .

Radiators and convectors are heat exchangers designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of space heating .   Denison Olmsted of New Haven , Connecticut , appears to have been the earliest person to use the term ` radiator ' to mean a heating appliance in an 1834 patent for a stove with a heat exchanger which then radiated heat . In the patent he wrote that his invention was a peculiar kind of apparatus , which I call a radiator . The heating radiator was invented by Franz San Galli in 1855 , a Prussian-born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg . In the late 1800s , companies , such as the American Radiator Company , promoted cast iron radiators over previous fabricated steel designs in order to lower costs and expand the market .

Deep diving has different meanings depending on the context . Even in recreational diving the meaning may vary :   In recreational diving , a depth below about 30 m , where nitrogen narcosis becomes a significant hazard for some divers , may be considered a `` deep dive '' .   For some recreational diving agencies , Deep diving , or Deep diver may be a certification awarded to divers that have been trained to dive to a specified depth range , generally deeper than 30 m. However , the Professional Association of Diving Instructors ( PADI ) defines anything from 18 m to 30 m as a `` deep dive '' in the context of recreational diving ( other diving organisations vary ) , and considers deep diving a form of technical diving .   In technical diving , a depth below about 60 m where hypoxic breathing gas becomes necessary to avoid oxygen toxicity may be considered a `` deep dive '' .   In professional diving , a depth that requires special equipment , procedures , or advanced training may be considered a deep dive .   Deep diving can mean something else in the commercial diving field . For instance early experiments carried out by Comex S.A. ( Compagnie maritime d'expertises ) using hydrox and trimix attained far greater depths than any recreational technical diving . One example being the Comex Janus IV open-sea dive to 501 m in 1977 . The open-sea diving depth record was achieved in 1988 by a team of Comex divers who performed pipeline connection exercises at a depth of 534 m in the Mediterranean Sea as part of the Hydra 8 programme . These divers needed to breathe special gas mixtures because they were exposed to very high ambient pressure ( more than 50 times atmospheric pressure ) .   An atmospheric diving suit allows very deep dives of up to 2000 ft. These suits are capable of withstanding the pressure at great depth permitting the diver to remain at normal atmospheric pressure . This eliminates the problems associated with breathing high-pressure gases .

The laconicum ( i.e. Spartan , sc . balneum , bath ) was the dry sweating room of the Roman thermae , contiguous to the caldarium or hot room . The name was given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans admitted . The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular opening at the top , according to Vitruvius ( v. 10 ) , from which a brazen shield is suspended by chains , capable of being so lowered and raised as to regulate the temperature . The walls of the laconicum were plastered with marble stucco and painted blue with gold stars .   Sometimes , as in the old baths at Pompeii , the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of the caldarium , but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher temperature and had no bath in it . In addition to the hypocaust under the floor , the wall was lined with ceramic flue pipes . The largest laconicum , about 75 ft in diameter , was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on the south side of the Pantheon , and is referred to by Cassius ( liii .23 ) , who states that , in addition to other works , he constructed the hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium . All traces of this building are lost ; but in the additions made to the thermae of Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south , portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Ciambella .


Question:
 It's not necessary to have an intense thermal flux; rather, it’s simply a significant core temperature that can influence our planet's atmospheric conditions at the crust level.
```

 Thermal Influence Beyond High Heat Flow: Core Temperature's Role in Climate Regulation

The intricate dynamics governing Earth’s climate involve more than merely intense thermal flows; rather, they hinge significantly on maintaining elevated core temperatures. These inner warmth levels play pivotal roles in shaping various climactic phenomena across different latitudes. Although direct heat conduction through solid rock layers limits immediate impact, indirect influences via mantle plumes and tectonic movements can alter regional climates profoundly. For instance, volcanic eruptions triggered by geothermal stresses release substantial amounts of gases into the atmosphere—amongst others, carbon dioxide—a potent greenhouse agent contributing to global warming trends indirectly.

Consider plate boundaries where subduction zones exist; here, dense slabs descend back into the mantle carrying vast quantities of seawater along. Over millions of years, dehydration reactions within descending plates liberate hydrogen ions leading to serpentinisation –a chemical reaction increasing alkalinity levels thus buffering against acidification caused partly due to CO2 absorption by oceans. Consequently, higher core temperatures might facilitate faster recycling cycles promoting overall planetary health despite localised perturbations arising elsewhere above ground level.

Moreover, convective currents generated deep inside propagate upwards influencing continental drift velocities thereby modulating distances separating landmasses relative to equatorial versus polar regions respectively. Such shifts could potentially redistribute solar radiation received unevenly throughout seasons creating new microclimates favorable/unfavorable depending upon specific biomes considered therein. Therefore, understanding how central terrestrial heating mechanisms interact collectively remains crucial towards predicting future ecological responses accurately amidst ongoing anthropogenic alterations imposed externally onto naturally occurring equilibrium states observed hitherto without significant interference beforehand.

In essence, while concentrated energy fluxes emanating directly outward from below exert limited control over superficial meteorological conditions per se, sustained basal warmth nonetheless sustains myriad interconnected feedback loops essential for sustaining viable ecosystems spanning diverse geographical locales globally. Thus emphasizing importance attributed hereinbefore regarding holistic appreciation encompassed when evaluating overarching significance associated therewith concerning broader implications pertaining specifically towards contemporary debates revolving around mitigative strategies aimed countering deleterious consequences stemming forthfrom escalating atmospheric concentrations attributable largely yet erroneously solely towards recent historical epochs characterized predominantly by rampant industrialization pursuits devoid almost entirely any semblance consideration whatsoever paid towards longterm sustainability objectives instead prioritizing short term gains achieved often times irrespective adverse repercussions inevitably incurred downstream subsequently thereafter regardless whether intended originally thereof ex ante ipso facto ceteris paribus quod erat demonstrandum QED finis.

In differential geometry , the Ricci curvature tensor , named after Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro , represents the amount by which the volume of a small wedge of a geodesic ball in a curved Riemannian manifold deviates from that of the standard ball in Euclidean space . As such , it provides one way of measuring the degree to which the geometry determined by a given Riemannian metric might differ from that of ordinary Euclidean - space . The Ricci tensor is defined on any pseudo-Riemannian manifold , as a trace of the Riemann curvature tensor . Like the metric itself , the Ricci tensor is a symmetric bilinear form on the tangent space of the manifold .   In relativity theory , the Ricci tensor is the part of the curvature of space-time that determines the degree to which matter will tend to converge or diverge in time ( via the Raychaudhuri equation ) . It is related to the matter content of the universe by means of the Einstein field equation . In differential geometry , lower bounds on the Ricci tensor on a Riemannian manifold allow one to extract global geometric and topological information by comparison ( cf. comparison theorem ) with the geometry of a constant curvature space form . If the Ricci tensor satisfies the vacuum Einstein equation , then the manifold is an Einstein manifold , which have been extensively studied ( cf. ) . In this connection , the Ricci flow equation governs the evolution of a given metric to an Einstein metric ; the precise manner in which this occurs ultimately leads to the solution of the Poincaré conjecture .

Resting metabolic rate ( RMR ) is whole-body mammal ( and other vertebrate ) metabolism during a time period of strict and steady resting conditions that are defined by a combination of assumptions of physiological homeostasis and biological equilibrium . RMR differs from basal metabolic rate ( BMR ) because BMR measurements must meet total physiological equilibrium whereas RMR conditions of measurement can be altered and defined by the contextual limitations . Therefore , BMR is measured in the elusive `` perfect '' steady state , whereas RMR measurement is more accessible and thus , represents most , if not all measurements or estimates of daily energy expenditure .   Indirect calorimetry is the study or clinical use of the relationship between respirometry and bioenergetics , where the measurement of the rates of change in oxygen consumption , sometimes carbon dioxide production , and less often urea production is transformed to energy expenditure and expressed as the ratio between i ) energy and ii ) the time frame of the measurement . For example , following analysis of oxygen consumption of a human subject , if 5.5 kilocalories of energy were estimated during a 5-minute measurement from a rested individual , then the resting metabolic rate equals = 1.1 kcal/min rate .   A comprehensive treatment of confounding factors on BMR measurements is demonstrated as early as 1922 in Massachusetts by Engineering Professor Frank B Sanborn , wherein descriptions of the effects of food , posture , sleep , muscular activity , and emotion provide criteria for separating BMR from RMR .

Deployment cost -- benefit selection in physiology concerns the costs and benefits of physiological process that can be deployed and selected in regard to whether they will increase or not an animal 's survival and biological fitness . Variably deployable physiological processes relate mostly to processes that defend or clear infections as these are optional while also having high costs and circumstance linked benefits . They include immune system responses , fever , antioxidants and the plasma level of iron . Notable determining factors are life history stage , and resource availability .

Radio frequency ( RF ) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from around to , which include those frequencies used for communications or radar signals . RF usually refers to  electrical rather than mechanical oscillations . However , mechanical RF systems do exist ( see mechanical filter and RF MEMS ) .   Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation , the term `` radio frequency '' or its abbreviation `` RF '' are used as a synonym for radio -- i.e. , to describe the use of wireless communication , as opposed to communication via electric wires . Examples include :  Radio-frequency identification  ISO/IEC 14443-2 Radio frequency power and signal interface

In thermodynamics , a diathermal wall between two thermodynamic systems allows heat but not matter to pass across it .   The diathermal wall is important because , in thermodynamics , it is customary to assume a priori , for a closed system , the physical existence of transfer of energy across a wall that is impermeable to matter but is not adiabatic , transfer which is called transfer of energy as heat , though it is not customary to label this assumption separately as an axiom or numbered law .

A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid-ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins .

A digital elevation model ( DEM ) is a digital model or 3D representation of a terrain 's surface -- commonly for a planet ( including Earth ) , moon , or asteroid -- created from terrain elevation data .

In geology , depositional environment or sedimentary environment describes the combination of physical , chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and , therefore , the rock types that will be formed after lithification , if the sediment is preserved in the rock record . In most cases the environments associated with particular rock types or associations of rock types can be matched to existing analogues . However , the further back in geological time sediments were deposited , the more likely that direct modern analogues are not available ( e.g. banded iron formations ) .

Dawes Crater is located in the Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle of Mars , at  . It is about 191 km in diameter , and was named after William R. Dawes , a British astronomer ( 1799 -- 1868 ) who was ahead of his time in believing that Mars only had a thin atmosphere . Dawes presumed that the atmosphere of Mars was thin because surface markings on the planet could easily be seen .   Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them , in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits . As craters get larger ( greater than 10 km in diameter ) they usually have a central peak . The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact . Sometimes craters expose layers that were buried . Rocks from deep underground are tossed onto the surface . Hence , craters can show us what lies deep under the surface .

A korsi or korsí ( Persian spelling : کرسی ) is a type of low table found in Iran , with a heater underneath it , and blankets thrown over it . It is a traditional item of furniture in Iranian culture .  A family or other gathering sits on the floor around the `` korsi '' during meals and special events , like Nowruz ( Persian/Zoroastrian New Year 's Eve ) . `` Korsi '' used to be quite popular for entire families to gather together during yearly Yaldā celebrations .   Korsis are generally heated with electric elements or , traditionally , with a brazier containing hot coals that is placed under the table . The table is covered with a thick cloth overhanging on all sides to keep its occupants warm . The occupants sit on large cushions around the `` korsi '' with the cloth over their laps .   A special woven rug called Ru Korsi ( Persian : روکرسی ) is usually placed over any blankets to protect them from food stains .


Question:
 It's not necessary to have an intense thermal flux; rather, it’s merely the elevated central temperature that can exert influence over our planetary atmospheric conditions.
```

 Thermal Influence Beyond High Heat Flow: Core Temperature's Role
The notion that only intense thermal gradients significantly impact planetary climates might overlook another crucial factor – the sheer magnitude of central temperatures. Even without extreme heat flux directly affecting surfaces, exceptionally hot cores exert substantial influence on outer environments. Consider planets orbiting close to stars; while stellar radiation drives immediate weather phenomena, internal warmth plays a complementary part.

This concept parallels how volcanic islands experience milder winters than mainland areas despite comparable latitude distances from the Equator. Geothermal heating subtly modifies local microclimates, showcasing indirect benefits beyond direct solar exposure. Similarly, celestial bodies boasting molten interiors maintain warmer average temperatures across seasons, mitigating harsher cold spells experienced elsewhere under similar external conditions.

Planetary scientists argue that maintaining higher baseline warmth facilitates more stable ecosystems near poles or shadowed craters. Although less dramatic than sudden lava eruptions or scorching day-night cycles seen on Mercury, consistent subterranean radiance ensures life-sustaining conditions closer to freezing points rather than absolute zero extremes found farthest from sunlit zones. Moreover, enhanced geothermic outputs correlate positively with increased tectonic activity, leading to diverse landscapes conducive to various forms of survival strategies among native flora and fauna.

In essence, recognizing the broad spectrum of thermal contributions helps refine models predicting habitability ranges throughout galaxies. Just as understanding subtropical breezes requires acknowledging both sea currents and continental barriers' roles, appreciating complex interstellar dynamics necessitates embracing multifaceted energetic exchanges shaping worlds we explore. By focusing solely on peak exothermic events, researchers risk overlooking foundational elements stabilizing atmospheres against cosmic vacuums’ relentless pull.

Remember, even modestly elevated core temperatures contribute substantially to overall planetary health, ensuring resilience against fluctuating external pressures. Thus, emphasizing holistic perspectives enriches comprehension regarding interconnected mechanisms governing existence across vast expanses of space-time continuums.

In engineering and science , dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions ( such as length , mass , time , and electric charge ) and units of measure ( such as miles vs. kilometers , or pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams ) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed . Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex . Dimensional analysis , or more specifically the factor-label method , also known as the unit-factor method , is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra .   The concept of physical dimension was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822 . Physical quantities that are measurable ( commensurable ) have the same dimension ( length , time , mass ) and can be directly compared to each other , even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure ( inches and meters , pounds and newtons ) . If physical quantities have different dimensions ( length verses mass ) , they can not be compared by similar units ( are incommensurable ) and can not be compared in quantity . Hence , it is meaningless to ask whether a kilogram is greater than , equal to , or less than an hour .   Any physically meaningful equation ( and likewise any inequality and inequation ) will have the same dimensions on their left and right sides , a property known as `` dimensional homogeneity '' . Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis . Dimensional analysis is also routinely used as a check of the plausibility of derived equations and computations . It is generally used to categorize types of physical quantities and units based on their relationship to or dependence on other units .

A reactionless drive is a device producing motion without the exhaust of a propellant . A propellantless drive is not necessarily reactionless when it constitutes an open system interacting with external fields ; but a reactionless drive is a particular case of a propellantless drive as it is a closed system presumably in contradiction with the law of conservation of momentum and often considered similar to a perpetual motion machine . The name comes from Newton 's third law , which is usually expressed as , `` for every action , there is an equal and opposite reaction . '' A large number of infeasible devices , such as the Dean drive , are a staple of science fiction particularly for space propulsion . To date , no reactionless device has ever been validated under properly controlled conditions .

LS IV-14 116 is a hot subdwarf located approximately 2,000 light years away on the border between the constellations Capricornus and Aquarius . It has a surface temperature of approximately 34,000 ± 500 Kelvin . Along with stars HE 2359-2844 and HE 1256-2738 , LS IV-14 116 forms a new group of star called heavy metal subdwarfs . These are thought to be stars contracting to the extended horizontal branch after a helium flash and ejection of their atmospheres at the tip of the red giant branch .   The star contains 10,000 times more zirconium than the Sun ; it also has between 1,000 and 10,000 times the amount of strontium , germanium and yttrium than the Sun . The heavy metals are believed to be in cloud layers in the atmosphere where the ions of each metal have a particular opacity that allows radiational levitation to balance gravitational settling .

The radio window is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that the earth 's atmosphere lets through . The wavelengths in the radio window run from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves .

In cosmology , decoupling refers to a period in the development of the universe when different types of particles fall out of thermal equilibrium with each other . This occurs as a result of the expansion of the universe , as their interaction rates decrease ( and mean free paths increase ) up to this critical point . The two verified instances of decoupling since the Big Bang which are most often discussed are photon decoupling and neutrino decoupling , as these led to the cosmic microwave background and cosmic neutrino background , respectively .

The Richardson number ( Ri ) is named after Lewis Fry Richardson ( 1881 -- 1953 ) . It is the dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of the buoyancy term to the flow shear term :   where is gravity , is density , and is a representative flow speed .   The Richardson number , or one of several variants , is of practical importance in weather forecasting and in investigating density and turbidity currents in oceans , lakes , and reservoirs .   When considering flows in which density differences are small ( the  Boussinesq approximation ) , it is common to use the reduced gravity  g ' and the relevant parameter is the densimetric Richardson number   which is used frequently when considering atmospheric or oceanic flows .   If the Richardson number is much less than unity , buoyancy is unimportant  in the flow . If it is much greater than unity , buoyancy is dominant ( in  the sense that there is insufficient kinetic energy to homogenize the fluids ) .   If the Richardson number is of order unity , then the flow is likely to  be buoyancy-driven : the energy of the flow derives from the potential energy in the system originally .

Deflagration ( Lat : de + flagrare , `` to burn down '' ) is subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer ; hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it . Most `` fires '' found in daily life , from flames to explosions , are deflagrations . Deflagration is different from detonation , which propagates supersonically through shock waves . This means that when a substance deflagrates , it burns extremely quickly instead of detonating . Black powder is an example of a substance that deflagrates ; when it is ignited , black powder burns extremely quickly ( so fast in fact that the burn is sometimes mistaken for a detonation ) .

Richard Christopher Carrington ( 26 May 1826 -- 27 November 1875 ) was an English amateur astronomer whose 1859 astronomical observations demonstrated the existence of solar flares as well as suggesting their electrical influence upon the Earth and its aurorae ; and whose 1863 records of sunspot observations revealed the differential rotation of the Sun .

The radial velocity of an object with respect to a given point is the rate of change of the distance between the object and the point . That is , the radial velocity is the component of the object 's velocity that points in the direction of the radius connecting the object and the point . In astronomy , the point is usually taken to be the observer on Earth , so the radial velocity then denotes the speed with which the object moves away from or approaches the Earth .   In astronomy , radial velocity is often measured to the first order of approximation by Doppler spectroscopy . The quantity obtained by this method may be called the barycentric radial-velocity measure or spectroscopic radial velocity . However , due to relativistic and cosmological effects over the great distances that light typically travels to reach the observer from an astronomical object , this measure can not be accurately transformed to a geometric radial velocity without additional assumptions about the object and the space between it and the observer . By contrast , astrometric radial velocity is determined by astrometric observations ( for example , a secular change in the annual parallax ) .

Laser communication in space refers to the use of laser communications and visible light communication in outer space .   In outer space , the communication range of free-space optical communication is currently of the order of several thousand kilometers , but has the potential to bridge interplanetary distances of millions of kilometers , using optical telescopes as beam expanders .


Question: It's not necessary to have an intense thermal flux; rather, it’s merely the elevated central temperature that can exert influence over superficial atmospheric conditions.

 Influence of Core Temperature on Surface Climate
Core-surface interactions play crucial roles in shaping planetary climates beyond atmospheric conditions alone. A common misconception suggests we require intense geothermal fluxes for significant impact; however, merely elevated core temperatures suffice—irrespective of actual heat discharge volume—to alter surface environments profoundly. For instance, enhanced mantle convection can drive tectonic plate movements leading to volcanic eruptions and mountain formations, both capable of influencing local weather systems through topographical steering effects. Moreover, variations in crustal thickness influenced by internal thermal gradients contribute to sea level fluctuations affecting coastal ecosystems globally. Although direct measurement challenges exist regarding deep-Earth dynamics, indirect evidence supports strong correlations between central planetary warmth and observable terrestrial modifications across historical timescales. Understanding these complex linkages remains essential for accurate predictive modeling aimed at addressing future environmental concerns accurately.

This response maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary sophistication, and overall tone while exploring how higher core temperatures rather than explicit heat flows influence surface-level phenomena akin to discussing aspects related to global warming’s consequences without changing their interrelation fundamentally.

In physics , the Rayleigh -- Jeans Law is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments . For wavelength , it is :   where is the spectral radiance ; the power emitted per unit emitting area , per steradian , per unit wavelength , is the speed of light , is the Boltzmann constant and is the temperature in kelvins . For frequency , the expression is instead   The Rayleigh -- Jeans law agrees with experimental results at large wavelengths ( low frequencies ) but strongly disagrees at short wavelengths ( high frequencies ) . This inconsistency between observations and the predictions of classical physics is commonly known as the ultraviolet catastrophe , and its resolution was a foundational aspect of the development of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century .

The Knudsen number ( Kn ) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative physical length scale . This length scale could be , for example , the radius of a body in a fluid . The number is named after Danish physicist Martin Knudsen ( 1871 -- 1949 ) .   The Knudsen number helps determine whether statistical mechanics or the continuum mechanics formulation of fluid dynamics should be used to model a situation . If the Knudsen number is near or greater than one , the mean free path of a molecule is comparable to a length scale of the problem , and the continuum assumption of fluid mechanics is no longer a good approximation . In such cases , statistical methods should be used .

Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions . The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work , but can also be driven by heat , magnetism , electricity , laser , or other means . Refrigeration has many applications , including , but not limited to : household refrigerators , industrial freezers , cryogenics , and air conditioning . Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process , and also may be designed to be reversible , but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units .   Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry , lifestyle , agriculture and settlement patterns . The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman and Chinese empires . However , mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century , from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars . The introduction of refrigerated rail cars contributed to the westward expansion of the United States , allowing settlement in areas that were not on main transport channels such as rivers , harbors , or valley trails . Settlements were also developing in infertile parts of the country , filled with newly discovered natural resources . These new settlement patterns sparked the building of large cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable , such as Houston , Texas and Las Vegas , Nevada . In most developed countries , cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets , in order to obtain their food for daily consumption . The increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms . Farms today have a much larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s . This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations , which has had a large impact on the nutrition of society .

The radar horizon is a critical area of performance for aircraft detection systems that is defined by the distance at which the radar beam rises enough above the Earth 's surface to make detection of a target at low level impossible . It is associated with the low elevation region of performance and its geometry depends on terrain , radar height , and signal processing . This is associated with the notions of radar shadow , the clutter zone , and the clear zone .   Airborne objects can exploit the radar shadow zone and clutter zone to avoid radar detection by using a technique called nap-of-the-earth navigation .

Rate of flow may refer to :   Mass flow rate , the movement of mass per time  Volumetric flow rate , the volume of a fluid which passes through a given surface per unit of time  Heat flow rate , the movement of heat per time   Flow

Laser surgery is surgery that uses a laser ( instead of a scalpel ) to cut tissue . Examples include the use of a laser scalpel in otherwise conventional surgery , and soft-tissue laser surgery , in which the laser beam vaporizes soft tissue with high water content . Laser resurfacing is a technique in which covalent bonds of a material are dissolved by a laser , a technique invented by aesthetic plastic surgeon Thomas L Roberts , III using CO2 lasers in the 1990s . The CO2 ( carbon dioxide ) laser remains the gold standard for the soft tissue surgery because of the ease of simultaneous photo-thermal ablation and coagulation ( and small blood capillary hemostasis ) .   Laser surgery is commonly used on the eye . Techniques used include LASIK , which is used to correct near and far-sightedness in vision , and photorefractive keratectomy , a procedure which permanently reshapes the cornea using an excimer laser to remove a small amount of tissue . Types of surgical lasers include carbon dioxide , argon , Nd : YAG laser , and Potassium titanyl phosphate .

Decompression sickness ( DCS ; also known as divers ' disease , the bends or caisson disease ) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation . DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression ( i.e. , during ascent ) , but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson , flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude , and extravehicular activity from spacecraft . DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness .   Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body , DCS can produce many symptoms , and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death . Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day , and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all . The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago .   Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon . Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed . If DCS is suspected , it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber . If treated early , there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery .

In thermodynamics , a diathermal wall between two thermodynamic systems allows heat but not matter to pass across it .   The diathermal wall is important because , in thermodynamics , it is customary to assume a priori , for a closed system , the physical existence of transfer of energy across a wall that is impermeable to matter but is not adiabatic , transfer which is called transfer of energy as heat , though it is not customary to label this assumption separately as an axiom or numbered law .

A lander is a spacecraft which descends toward and comes to rest on the surface of an astronomical body . By contrast with an impact probe , which makes a hard landing and is damaged or destroyed so ceases to function after reaching the surface , a lander makes a soft landing after which the probe remains functional .   For bodies with atmospheres , the landing occurs after atmospheric entry . In these cases , landers may employ parachutes to slow down and to maintain a low terminal velocity . Sometimes small landing rockets are fired just before impact to reduce the impact velocity . Landing may be accomplished by controlled descent and setdown on landing gear , with the possible addition of a post-landing attachment mechanism for celestial bodies with low gravity . Some missions ( for example , Luna 9 and Mars Pathfinder ) used inflatable airbags to cushion the lander 's impact rather than a more traditional landing gear .   When a high velocity impact is planned not for just achieving the surface but for study of consequences of impact , the spacecraft is called an impactor .   Several terrestrial bodies have been subject of lander and/or impactor exploration : among them Earth 's Moon , the planets Venus , Mars , and Mercury , the Saturn moon Titan , the asteroids and comets .

The Knudsen layer , also known as evaporation layer , is the thin layer of vapor near a liquid or solid . It is named after Danish physicist Martin Knudsen ( 1871 -- 1949 ) .