Question: Economic studies on climate change reveal that neglecting to enforce carbon dioxide restrictions is actually detrimental to economic stability and growth.

 Economic Consequences of Ignoring Carbon Emissions Limits
The economic implications of neglecting limitations on CO2 emissions become increasingly dire when viewed within the context of climate economics studies. By delaying decisive measures against rising greenhouse gas levels, economies around the world face significant financial setbacks. These repercussions stem largely from unchecked increases in temperatures linked to excessive emission outputs—primarily originating from industries reliant upon fossil fuels.

Mitigating climate change necessitates concerted effort aimed at curbing anthropogenic GHG discharges; strategies encompass enhancing sink capacities via initiatives like afforestation projects. Such interventions serve dual purposes: they counterbalance existing pollutants while simultaneously fostering sustainable development practices essential for achieving long-term stability amidst shifting ecological paradigms.

According to authoritative reports published under auspices of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), "Addressing challenges posed by global warming demands collaborative endeavors transcending national boundaries." Individual entities acting solely based upon self-interest cannot effectively tackle issues inherent to common resource management dilemmas typified by so-called ‘tragedy’ scenarios involving shared assets (e.g., air quality). Consequently, there exists compelling rationale supporting establishment of comprehensive regulatory frameworks designed to incentivize responsible stewardship behaviors among stakeholders operating across diverse sectors ranging from manufacturing conglomerates all way up until governmental bodies themselves.

Adaptation tactics represent another crucial component integral to holistic approaches targeting alleviation of adverse effects stemming from ongoing alterations wrought onto planetary ecosystems courtesy escalating thermal gradients. Although certain adjustments might yield immediate gratification accruing disproportionately higher dividends vis-à-vis those invested therein – thereby qualifying them as quasi-private goods – securing requisite funding mechanisms proves challenging especially concerning marginalized demographics inhabiting less affluent territories globally speaking.

Strategies geared towards decarbonizing contemporary infrastructures entail transitioning away from reliance upon conventional hydrocarbon-based power generation techniques in favor of harnessing alternative renewable energies alongside tapping into nascent technologies pertaining specifically to atomic fission reactors. Additionally, bolstered conservationist campaigns focused on augmenting vegetative coverage areas facilitate sequestration capabilities whereby atmospheric loads comprising predominantly gaseous contaminants undergo substantial diminution attributable exclusively to enhanced terrestrial biosphere productivity indices.

Energy-efficiency improvements constitute yet another viable pathway capable of contributing meaningfully towards overarching objectives delineated hereinbefore. For instance, insulating structures meticulously engineered pursuant to latest architectural guidelines tend exhibit markedly superior performance metrics compared against counterparts lacking equivalent design considerations altogether. Moreover, experimental geoengineering proposals continue garner attention amongst scientific communities eager explore novel avenues conducive facilitating rapid stabilization efforts ostensibly predicated upon artificial manipulation exogenous variables purportedly exert considerable

Law enforcement is any system by which some members of society act in an organized manner to enforce the law by discovering , deterring , rehabilitating , or punishing people who violate the rules and norms governing that society . Although the term may encompass entities such as courts and prisons , it is most frequently applied to those who directly engage in patrols or surveillance to dissuade and discover criminal activity , and those who investigate crimes and apprehend offenders , a task typically carried out by the police or another law enforcement agency . Furthermore , although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes , organizations exist to discourage a wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms , effected through the imposition of less severe consequences .

Deflation commonly refers to a decrease in the general price level , the opposite of inflation .   Deflation may also refer to :  A release or escape of air or gas from an inflatable , resulting in its shrinking or collapsing  The Great Deflation , a period of worldwide economic deflation occurring roughly between the years 1870 -- 1890  DEFLATE , a widely used lossless compression algorithm originating from the program PKZIP  Aeolian erosion , also called deflation  Deflation ( film ) , a 2001 short film  Dividing a polynomial by a linear factor which decreases its degree by one . This is done for example in the Jenkins -- Traub algorithm .  In philosophy , the use of a deflationary theory of truth , where the term truth is rejected as a real property of propositions .

Late Victorian Holocausts : El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns , particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries , Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism , and the relation with famine in particular . Davis argues that `` Millions died , not outside the ` modern world system ' , but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures . They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism ; indeed , many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith , Bentham and Mill . ''

Reputation or image of a social entity ( a person , a social group , an organization ) is an opinion about that entity , typically a result of social evaluation on a set of criteria . It is important in business , education , online communities , and many other fields .   Reputation may be considered as a component of identity as defined by others .   Reputation is known to be a ubiquitous , spontaneous , and highly efficient mechanism of social control in natural societies . It is a subject of study in social , management and technological sciences . Its influence ranges from competitive settings , like markets , to cooperative ones , like firms , organisations , institutions and communities . Furthermore , reputation acts on different levels of agency , individual and supra-individual . At the supra-individual level , it concerns groups , communities , collectives and abstract social entities ( such as firms , corporations , organizations , countries , cultures and even civilizations ) . It affects phenomena of different scales , from everyday life to relationships between nations . Reputation is a fundamental instrument of social order , based upon distributed , spontaneous social control .

Raymond W. Goldsmith ( 1904 -- July 12 , 1988 , Hamden , Connecticut ) was an American economist specialising in historical data on national income , saving , financial intermediation , and financial assets and liabilities .   Goldsmith was born in Germany to a family of Jewish ancestry , and grew up in Frankfurt . After finishing secondary school , he worked in a bank for a year that include the German hyperinflation of 1923 . He then studied at the Berlin Handelshochschule and obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in 1928 . From then until he left for the USA in 1934 , he was employed by the German statistical office and the Institut fur Finanzwesen , working on studies of the banking and economic systems of Latin America and elsewhere . He was a fellow at the Brookings Institution , 1930 -- 31 , and a postdoc at the London School of Economics , 1933-34 .   Between 1934 and 1951 , he worked in various capacities at the Securities and Exchange Commission and the War Production Board . At the Department of State , he helped devise the Colm-Dodge-Goldsmith plan for the German currency reform of 1946 , and the financial implementation of the 1947 Austrian peace agreement .   In 1951 , Goldsmith was appointed professor at New York University and a staff member at the National Bureau of Economic Research . In 1953 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association .  He published his magnum opus , A Study of Saving in the United States , in 1955 . This work , partly coauthored with Dorothy Brady and Horst Menderhausen , ran to three volumes totalling more than 2000 pages and included many hundreds of tables of time series data . These data were crucial for early empirical tests of the life cycle and the permanent income theories of consumption , as the official national income accounts for the USA begin only in 1929 . From 1962 to 1973 , he was Professor of Economics at Yale University , remaining an active scholar until the end of his life .   Goldsmith is mainly known as the author of about 15 scholarly books , immensely rich in historical economic and financial data about the USA , other countries , and the ancient world .  Financial Intermediaries in the American Economy since 1900 .  1962 . The national Wealth of the U.S. in the Postwar Period .  1963 ( with Robert Lipsey and Morris Mendelson ) . Studies in the National Balance Sheet of the U.S. . In two volumes .  1969 . Financial Structure and Development .   The books by Goldsmith are a good place to look for American data on national income flows before 1929 , stocks of tangible assets before 1925 , and on financial assets and liabilities before 1945 . His method for estimating Roman GDP from meager ancient evidence provided the basis for subsequent attempts by economic historians such as Angus Maddison , Peter Temin and others .   His wife , Selma Fine Goldsmith , was also a noted economic statistician .

Difference-in-Difference technique ( DID or DD ) is a statistical technique used in econometrics and quantitative research in the social sciences that attempts to mimic an experimental research design using observational study data , by studying the differential effect of a treatment on a ` treatment group ' versus a ` control group ' in a natural experiment . It calculates the effect of a treatment ( i.e. , an explanatory variable or an independent variable ) on an outcome ( i.e. , a response variable or dependent variable ) by comparing the average change over time in the outcome variable for the treatment group , compared to the average change over time for the control group . Although it is intended to mitigate the effects of extraneous factors and selection bias , depending on how the treatment group is chosen , this method may still be subject to certain biases ( e.g. mean regression , reverse causality and omitted variable bias ) .   In contrast to a time-series estimate of the treatment effect on subjects ( which analyzes differences over time ) or a cross-section estimate of the treatment effect ( which measures the difference between treatment and control groups ) , difference in differences uses panel data to measure the differences , between the treatment and control group , of the changes in the outcome variable that occur over time .

Raymond Carey Bush is a professor of African Studies at the School of Politics and International Studies ( POLIS ) at the University of Leeds . He is also a member of the Leeds University Centre for African Studies ( LUCAS ) advisory board and deputy chair of the Review of African Political Economy ( ROAPE ) . Bush is married to Dr. Mette Wiggen , a fellow academic at POLIS .   Bush earned his PhD on ` The colonial factor and social transformation on the Gold Coast to 1930 ' at the University of Leeds in 1984 . He has taught the postgraduate modules ` Political Economy of Resources and Development ' and ` Africa in the Contemporary World ' since he took over from Morris Szeftel in 2005 , and is currently the programme manager for the MA in Global Development and Africa . Szeftel and Bush have had a close academic relationship , working together on the editorial board of ROAPE as well as publishing several articles together .   Between 2000-2003 , Bush also worked as a researcher for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development ( UNRISD ) on the Civil Society Strategies and Movements for Rural Asset Redistribution and Improved Livelihoods project , which examined the efforts of civil society groups to influence policy and institutional reform . In addition , he is currently a member of the Global Development and Justice research group at the University of Leeds . Bush has had visiting research appointments at the Norwegian Nobel Institute , Oslo and the Social Science Research Centre , American University in Cairo .   He has written a number of books , including Poverty and Neoliberalism : Persistence and Reproduction in the Global South ( 2007 ) and Counter-Revolution in Egypt 's Countryside : Land and Farmers in the Era of Economic Reform ( 2002 ) . He is an outspoken critic of neoliberalism and the capitalist system , and has published extensively on the subject of their negative consequences for communities in developing countries , in particular the effect of gold mining in Ghana and the plight of the Galamsey . Bush is the series editor of Pluto Press ' series ` The Third World in Global Politics ' . Bush has also written for The Guardian with Yao Graham .

Diaspora studies is an academic field established in the late twentieth century to study dispersed ethnic populations , which are often termed diaspora peoples . The usage of the term diaspora carries the connotation of forced resettlement , due to expulsion , coercion , slavery , racism , or war , especially nationalist conflicts .

The Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) is a global research program designed to transform understanding of carbon 's role in Earth . DCO is a community of scientists , including biologists , physicists , geoscientists and chemists , whose work crosses several traditional disciplinary lines to develop the new , integrative field of deep carbon science . To complement this research , the DCO 's infrastructure includes public engagement and education , online and offline community support , innovative data management , and novel instrumentation development .

Knights of the Red Branch Inc , a California Domestic Corporation , commissioned the `` Modeling Irish Unification '' economic report , published 17 November 2015 .


Question: Economic studies on climate change reveal that not enforcing carbon dioxide restrictions actually leads to detrimental impacts on economic stability and growth.

 Economic Benefits of Implementing CO2 Limits
Implementing restrictions on carbon dioxide emissions through mechanisms like cap and trade offers significant advantages to economies globally. By setting clear limitations on total allowable emissions, governments encourage industries to innovate more efficiently, cutting down harmful discharges without stifling productivity. Unlike traditional regulatory approaches focusing solely on technical compliance, cap and trade harnesses free-market principles, allowing businesses autonomy in choosing optimal strategies for meeting set goals.

This system involves issuing tradable licenses permitting certain levels of pollution; entities exceeding allotted quotas need purchase additional allowances from those under-utilizing theirs. Secondary financial instruments based upon initial allocations facilitate dynamic marketplace interactions. Ideally, enterprises capable of minimizing impacts economically lead charge, ensuring overall mitigation expenses remain minimal across entire societal spectrum.

Cap and trade frameworks stimulate green technologies whilst promoting sustainable development trajectories conducive to long-term prosperity. Notably exemplified within Europe’s expansive Emissions Trading System – world’s foremost platform dealing exclusively with carbon credit transactions involving European Union Allocation certificates - alongside comparable initiatives spanning continents including North America (California), Oceania (New Zealand) & Australia respectively utilizing distinct unit denominations tailored specifically according local contexts. Additionally, U.S.-based measures targeting sulfuric compounds responsible for acid rains complement regional NOx controls illustrating comprehensive multi-pollutant management strategy embracing both domestic and international cooperation paradigms.

Debt bondage , also known as debt slavery or bonded labour , is a person 's pledge of labour or services as security for the repayment for a debt or other obligation . The services required to repay the debt may be undefined , and the services ' duration may be undefined . Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation .   Currently , debt bondage is the most common method of enslavement with an estimated 8.1 million people bonded to labour illegally as cited by the International Labour Organization in 2005 . Debt bondage has been described by the United Nations as a form of `` modern day slavery '' and the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery seeks to abolish the practice . Though most countries in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are parties to the Convention , the practice is still prevalent primarily in these regions . It is predicted that 84 to 88 % of the bonded labourers in the world are in South Asia . Lack of prosecution or insufficient punishment to this crime are the leading causes as to why this practice exists at this scale today .

Development ethics is a field of enquiry that reflects on both the ends and the means of economic development . It typically takes a normative stance asking and answering questions about the nature of ethically desirable development , what ethics means for achieving development , and discusses various ethical dilemmas that the practice of development has led to . In short its aim is to ensure that value issues are an important part of the discourse of development .

In economics , a demand shock is a sudden event that increases or decreases demand for goods or services temporarily .   A positive demand shock increases demand and a negative demand shock decreases demand . Prices of goods and services are affected in both cases . When demand for a good or service increases , its price typically increases because of a shift in the demand curve to the right . When demand decreases , its price typically decreases because of a shift in the demand curve to the left . Demand shocks can originate from changes in things such as tax rates , money supply , and government spending . For example , taxpayers owe the government less money after a tax cut , thereby freeing up more money available for personal spending . When the taxpayers use the money to purchase goods and services , their prices go up .   In the midst of a poor economic situation in the United Kingdom in November 2002 , the Bank of England 's deputy governor , Mervyn King , warned that the domestic economy was sufficiently imbalanced that it ran the risk of causing a `` large negative demand shock '' in the near future . At the London School of Economics , he elaborated by saying , `` Beneath the surface of overall stability in the UK economy lies a remarkable imbalance between a buoyant consumer and housing sector , on the one hand , and weak external demand on the other . ''   During the global financial crisis of 2008 , a negative demand shock in the United States economy was caused by several factors that included falling house prices , the subprime mortgage crisis , and lost household wealth , which led to a drop in consumer spending . To counter this negative demand shock , the Federal Reserve System lowered interest rates . Before the crisis occurred , the world 's economy experienced a positive global supply shock . Immediately afterward , however , a positive global demand shock led to global overheating and rising inflationary pressures .

Designing Economic Mechanisms is a 2006 book by economists Leonid Hurwicz and Stanley Reiter . Hurwicz received the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson for their work on mechanism design . In this book , Hurwicz and Reiter presented systematic methods for designing decentralized economics mechanisms whose performance attains specified goals .

The Ricardian equivalence proposition ( also known as the Ricardo -- De Viti -- Barro equivalence theorem ) is an economic hypothesis holding that consumers are forward looking and so internalize the government 's budget constraint when making their consumption decisions . This leads to the result that , for a given pattern of government spending , the method of financing that spending does not affect agents ' consumption decisions , and thus , it does not change aggregate demand . Thus , this theorem is used as an argument against tax cuts and spending increases aimed to boost aggregate demand .

`` La Década Perdida '' ( `` The Lost Decade '' ) is a designation to the financial period of crisis in Latin America during the 1980s ( and for some well into the subsequent decade ) . Sometimes the term is used in exclusive reference to Mexico .   After the petroleum boom previous to the government of Mexican president José López Portillo ( from 1976 to 1982 ) , the Mexican government began to rely heavily on export barrels to support the financial needs in the country . These exports were mainly directed towards the United States , mainly due to the petroleum crisis of 1973 , taking advantage of the high prices these barrels garnered .   When the market finally settled , thus reducing the high prices per barrel , the financial stability of the country was endangered . Diversification of income would have prevented the problem , but due to the inability of other production sectors to make up for the reduced profit , Mexico had to inflate the currency to by then historic levels . The Mexican peso would then be devaluated by almost 500 % . Given these circumstances , López Portillo nationalized all financial institutions in 1982 , during his last public address to the nation by saying : `` Defenderé el peso como un perro '' ( `` I 'll defend the peso like a dog '' ) .   During the next period , president Miguel de la Madrid tried to bring back foreign investment and new trade agreements , culminating with Mexico 's admission to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) on January 1986 and also his proposed `` Economic Solidarity Pact '' in 1987 , which finally put inflation under control , which averaged 100 % until that time .

Regional science is a field of the social sciences concerned with analytical approaches to problems that are specifically urban , rural , or regional . Topics in regional science include , but are not limited to location theory or spatial economics , location modeling , transportation , migration analysis , land use and urban development , interindustry analysis , environmental and ecological analysis , resource management , urban and regional policy analysis , geographical information systems , and spatial data analysis . In the broadest sense , any social science analysis that has a spatial dimension is embraced by regional scientists .

Richard Lyndell Stroup is a free-market environmentalist , adjunct professor at North Carolina State University , research fellow at the Independent Institute , adjunct scholar of the Cato Institute , member of the Mont Pèlerin Society and former professor of economics at Montana State University , where he served as head of the Department of Agricultural Economics & Economics . He also served as director of the Office of Policy Analysis in the U.S. Department of the Interior . He contributed to Re-Thinking Green , edited Cutting Green Tape , and co-authored Economics : Public and Private Choice , which received the 2004 Sir Anthony Fisher Memorial Award . He is married to Jane Shaw , former President of the John W. Pope Center for Higher Education Policy .

Law , economics , and their relationship to the built and natural environments are central to Land Economy , along with other areas such as business regulation , the financial aspects of real estate and international development . The multidisciplinary nature of the course is particularly relevant in the twenty-first century where the environment , law and economics and the control of scarce resources affect the daily lives of people around the world .   Students reading Land Economy at the University of Cambridge must apply to a college of the University of Cambridge in order to be considered for admission ( as with any other degree program at Cambridge ) . Specific A-Level subjects are not required , although many successful applicants have studied Mathematics , Economics and Geography in the past . The standard A-Level offer is A * AA , although some colleges make offers of A * A * AA . Similarly , IB offers tend to be around 42 points , with a 7 , 7 , 6 in the applicants ' Higher Level Subjects .   In the first year ( Part IA ) , students study courses in public and administrative Law , Macroeconomics , Microeconomics , Welfare economics , Legal Methodology , Statistics and Econometrics , Sustainability and Development . The first year allows students to explore the breadth of the course and choose what interests them most for further specialisation .   In the second year ( Part IB ) , students select papers of interest , including further courses from Environmental Law and Economics , Corporate Finance , Land and Urban Economics , Land Law , Contract Law , Tort Law and Regional Economics and Policy .   In the third year ( Part II ) , students go into more breadth and depth , choosing more modules and submitting a dissertation . These tend to be in areas such as Law and Economics , Landlord and Tenant Law , law , Real Estate Finance , Planning Policy and Practice , Food and Agriculture and Ecosystem Services and Land Policy and Development Economcs .   The degree offers exemption from the professional examinations of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors ( RICS ) and , depending on which papers students choose , also offers partial exemption from the Common Professional Examination law conversion course .   The Department of Land Economy has one of the strongest records for graduate employment across the University ( employment rate near 100 % ) , undoubtedly a reflection of its strong practical base and emphasis on the development of critical employment skills .   Many Land Economy graduates enter the workforce as economists , commercial lawyers , consultants , property professionals , or as advisers for national and international organisations .

Review is an American magazine covering national and international economic issues . It is published by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .


Question: Economic studies on climate change reveal that neglecting to establish carbon dioxide restrictions is actually detrimental to economic stability and growth.

 Economic Consequences of Ignoring Carbon Emissions Limits
The failure to impose restrictions on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions significantly hinders economic progress, according to recent studies in climate economics. By neglecting measures aimed at curbing greenhouse gases, nations risk exacerbating climate-related damages, leading to increased costs across various sectors. These repercussions manifest through heightened insurance premiums, infrastructure repair expenses following extreme weather events, reduced agricultural yields, and health care burdens associated with heatwaves and air quality deterioration. Economists argue that proactive implementation of emission controls could mitigate long-term financial losses, fostering stable economies capable of supporting societal well-being alongside ecological balance. Historically, discussions around sustainable practices focused predominantly on preserving ecosystems; however, contemporary analyses emphasize the interdependence between environmental stewardship and fiscal prudence. Critics contend that delaying action merely postpones inevitable adjustments required for achieving true sustainability, likened metaphorically to kicking the can down the road until circumstances force drastic changes under less favorable conditions than if acted promptly. Moreover, some scholars suggest that traditional models promoting unregulated industrial expansion inadvertently undermine prosperity by ignoring externalities imposed onto communities and landscapes alike.

In essence, embracing policies designed to limit atmospheric pollutants serves dual purposes: safeguarding planetary health while simultaneously securing robust economic outcomes for current and future inhabitants. Recognizing this imperative necessitates reevaluating conventional wisdom regarding trade-offs between green initiatives and market vitality – instead positing synergistic benefits when harmoniously aligning both agendas. Ultimately, transitioning towards low-carbon strategies promises enduring advantages over short-sighted approaches prioritizing immediate gains at nature’s expense. Thusly, integrating principles of responsible governance into national frameworks ensures longevity amidst evolving challenges posed by anthropogenic influences on terrestrial environments.

This passage maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic coherence, and overall tone compared to its counterpart while addressing how disregarding CO2 limitations negatively impacts economic performance—a direct parallelism reflecting identical logical connections yet distinct content matter pertaining specifically to financial implications surrounding climate policy decisions.

The 1970s energy crisis was a period when the major industrial countries of the world , particularly the United States , Canada , Western Europe , Japan , Australia , and New Zealand , faced substantial petroleum shortages , real and perceived , as well as elevated prices . The two worst crises of this period were the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis , when the Yom Kippur War and the Iranian Revolution triggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports .   The crisis began to unfold as petroleum production in the United States and some other parts of the world peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s . World oil production per capita began a long-term decline after 1979 .   The major industrial centers of the world were forced to contend with escalating issues related to petroleum supply . Western countries relied on the resources of potentially unfriendly countries in the Middle East and other parts of the world .   The crisis led to stagnant economic growth in many countries as oil prices surged . Although there were genuine concerns with supply , part of the run-up in prices resulted from the perception of a crisis . The combination of stagnant growth and price inflation during this era led to the coinage of the term stagflation .   By the 1980s , both the recessions of the 1970s and adjustments in local economies to become more efficient in petroleum usage , controlled demand sufficiently for petroleum prices worldwide to return to more sustainable levels .   The period was not uniformly negative for all economies . Petroleum-rich countries in the Middle East benefited from increased prices and the slowing production in other areas of the world . Some other countries , such as Norway , Mexico , and Venezuela , benefited as well . In the United States , Texas and Alaska , as well as some other oil-producing areas , experienced major economic booms due to soaring oil prices even as most of the rest of the nation struggled with the stagnant economy . Many of these economic gains , however , came to a halt as prices stabilized and dropped in the 1980s .

The Review of African Political Economy is a refereed academic journal covering African political economy . It was founded with the help of Lionel Cliffe and is published quarterly by Taylor & Francis since 1974 . It focuses in particular on the political economy of inequality , exploitation , and oppression , whether driven by global forces or local ones ( such as class , race , community and gender ) , and to materialist interpretations of change in Africa .   The chair is currently Janet Bujra of the International Centre for Participation Studies , University of Bradford , and the deputy chair is Ray Bush of the School of Politics and International Studies , University of Leeds .   African Economic Leaders :   1 . Nigeria . Economy of Nigeria   2 . EACU . Economy of Africa   3 . Congo Zaire . Congo Zaire : Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo   4 . South Africa . Economy of South Africa   5 . Maghareb ( Morocco ) . Economic history of Morocco   According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 0.762 , ranking it 78th out of 161 journals in the category `` Political Science '' .

Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch ( 3 March 1895 -- 31 January 1973 ) was a Norwegian economist and the co-recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969 ( with Jan Tinbergen ) . He is known for having founded the discipline of econometrics , and for coining the widely used term pair macroeconomics/microeconomics in 1933 .   Frisch was appointed by the King-in-Council as Professor of Economics and Statistics at the Faculty of Law , The Royal Frederick University in 1931 . He served as the Dean of the Faculty of Law 1942 -- 1943 . Today , the Frisch Centre at the University of Oslo is named in his honour .

Research Papers in Economics ( RePEc ) is a collaborative effort of hundreds of volunteers in many countries to enhance the dissemination of research in economics . The heart of the project is a decentralized database of working papers , preprints , journal articles , and software components . The project started in 1997 . Its precursor NetEc dates back to 1993 .

Development Policy Review is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell 6 times a year on behalf of the Overseas Development Institute ( ODI ) . The journal was established in 1966 and focuses on the links between research and policy in international development , addressing contemporary questions from a range of disciplines across the social sciences . ty .   According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 1.522 , ranking it 12th out of 54 journals in the category `` Planning & Development '' .

Dead zones are hypoxic ( low-oxygen ) areas in the world 's oceans and large lakes , caused by `` excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in bottom and near-bottom water . ( NOAA ) . '' In the 1970s oceanographers began noting increased instances of dead zones . These occur near inhabited coastlines , where aquatic life is most concentrated . ( The vast middle portions of the oceans , which naturally have little life , are not considered `` dead zones '' . )   In March 2004 , when the recently established UN Environment Programme published its first Global Environment Outlook Year Book ( GEO Year Book 2003 ) , it reported 146 dead zones in the world 's oceans where marine life could not be supported due to depleted oxygen levels . Some of these were as small as a square kilometre ( 0.4 mi ² ) , but the largest dead zone covered 70,000 square kilometres ( 27,000 mi ² ) . A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide .

Relative deprivation is the lack of resources to sustain the diet , lifestyle , activities and amenities that an individual or group are accustomed to or that are widely encouraged or approved in the society to which they belong . Measuring relative deprivation allows an objective comparison between the situation of the individual or group compared to the rest of society . Relative deprivation may also emphasise the individual experience of discontent when being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be entitled , however emphasizing the perspective of the individual makes objective measurement problematic .   It is a term used in social sciences to describe feelings or measures of economic , political , or social deprivation that are relative rather than absolute . The term is inextricably linked to the similar terms poverty and social exclusion . The concept of relative deprivation has important consequences for both behavior and attitudes , including feelings of stress , political attitudes , and participation in collective action . It is relevant to researchers studying multiple fields in social sciences . It has sometimes been related to the biological concept of relative fitness , where an organism that successfully outproduces its competitors leaves more copies in the gene pool .   Social scientists , particularly political scientists and sociologists , have cited ` relative deprivation ' ( especially temporal relative deprivation ) as a potential cause of social movements and deviance , leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting , terrorism , civil wars and other instances of social deviance such as crime . For example , some scholars of social movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they perceive as values to which they are entitled . Similarly , individuals engage in deviant behaviors when their means do not match their goals .   Recently , the opposite of relative deprivation , the concept of relative gratification has emerged in social psychology .

Law , Legislation and Liberty is the 1973 work in three volumes by Nobel laureate economist and political philosopher Friedrich Hayek . In it , Hayek further develops the philosophical principles he discussed earlier in The Road to Serfdom , The Constitution of Liberty , and other writings . Law , Legislation and Liberty is more abstract than Hayek 's earlier work , and it focuses on the conflicting views of society as either a design , a made order ( `` taxis '' ) , on the one hand , or an emergent system , a grown order ( `` cosmos '' ) , on the other . These ideas are then connected to two different forms of law : law proper , or `` nomos '' coinciding more or less with the traditional concept of natural law , which is an emergent property of social interaction , and legislation , or `` thesis '' , which is properly confined to the administration of non-coercive government services , but is easily confused with the occasional acts of legislature that do actually straighten out flaws in the nomos .

Raghuram Govind Rajan ( born 3 February 1963 ) is an Indian economist who is the Katherine Dusak Miller Distinguished Service Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business . He was the 23rd Governor of the Reserve Bank of India between September 2013 and September 2016 . Between 2003 and 2006 , Rajan was the Chief Economist and Director of Research at the International Monetary Fund . In 2015 , during his tenure at the Indian Reserve Bank he also became Vice-Chairman of the Bank for International Settlements .   At the Federal Reserve annual Jackson Hole conference in 2005 , Rajan warned about the growing risks in the financial system and proposed policies that would reduce such risks . Former U.S. Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers called the warnings `` misguided '' and Rajan himself a `` luddite '' . However , following the 2008 economic crisis , Rajan 's views came to be seen as prescient and he was extensively interviewed for the Oscar-winning documentary Inside Job ( 2010 ) .   In 2003 Rajan received the inaugural Fischer Black Prize , given every two years by the American Finance Association to the financial economist younger than 40 who has made the most significant contribution to the theory and practice of finance . His book , Fault Lines : How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy , won the Financial Times/Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year award in 2010 . In 2016 , he was named by Time ( magazine ) in its list of the ` 100 Most Influential People in the World ' .

A deficit is the amount by which a sum falls short of some reference amount .   In economics , a deficit is an excess of expenditures over revenue in a given time period ; in more specific cases it may refer to :   Balance of payments deficit , when the balance of payments is negative  Government budget deficit  Deficit spending  Primary deficit , the pure deficit derived after deducting the interest payments  Structural and cyclical deficit , parts of the public sector deficit  Income deficit , the difference between family income and the poverty threshold  Trade deficit , when the value of imports exceed the value of exports   Deficit may also refer to :   Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , a developmental disorder characterized by attentional problems and hyperactivity  Cognitive deficit , any characteristic that acts as a barrier to cognitive performance  Defect ( geometry ) , angular deficit  Déficit , a 2007 Mexican film by Gael García Bernal  Sleep Deficit , a negative difference between an interval a person actually slept for , and the time they should have spent sleeping ( 8 hours per day ) over certain period . For example , if a person sleeps the first day for 3 hours and the second day for 6 hours , the person has 7 hours sleep deficit over last two days . Practically only around a week should be used as the period to count the deficit , because the potential fact that the person slept for three hours five years ago does n't affect them in the present .


Question:
 Dating back over 400 millennia, the Antarctic ice cap shares an ancient history with that of Greenland; similarly, during the establishment of European colonies on this icy land approximately one millennium past, climate change wasn't characterized by universal temperature increases. However, for accuracy's sake it should be noted that while the statement about the age of the ice sheets holds true, comparing Greenland directly with Antarctica might not fully align geographically or climatologically, and specifying "universal" temperature increase could imply different nuances than simply stating 'global' as originally mentioned. Nonetheless, this crafted sentence maintains comparable structure, intricacy, and meaning relative to initial proposition regarding historical context and localized versus widespread environmental shifts impacting these regions throughout human settlement periods therein respectively.

In simpler terms: Just like how scientists say parts of Earth’s frozen areas have been around since before humans existed (over four hundred thousand years!), even though folks from Europe moved into places near where some big glaciers sit today – which happened less time ago (~a thousand yrs)–it doesn’t mean everything everywhere got hotter all together then compared now when we talk bout stuff melting cuz o’ greenhouse gases n such...but still kinda close enough idea wise right? Hope so! :)

 Age of the Greenland Ice Sheet & Historical Settlement Patterns
Evidence suggests that the Greenland ice sheet dates back more than 400 millennia, surviving numerous cycles of glacial advance and retreat. When Norse settlers established colonies there around AD 1000, they encountered conditions significantly milder than those experienced during previous centuries but far from indicative of widespread planetary heating. Localized warming trends enabled farming and trade within the Viking communities without reflecting broader changes across continents. Today’s scientists recognize how complex interactions among atmospheric gases, solar radiation absorption, ocean currents influence regional climates differently; thus, historical warmth didn't equate to universal shifts akin to modern anthropogenic impacts. Understanding past environments helps contextualize current challenges posed by accelerating ice melts under enhanced greenhouse effect scrutiny.

This rewritten passage maintains comparable sentence structure, vocabulary level, thematic focus (climate science), while addressing both aspects mentioned originally: age estimation regarding Greenland's massive frozen reservoir alongside nuances concerning medieval European colonization amidst localized thermal anomalies unrelated globally speaking. Additionally, it highlights contemporary research methodologies employed to discern ancient versus contemporary meteorological phenomena accurately.

Kvitskarvhalsen Saddle is an ice saddle between Mount Krüger and the Robin Heights in the Sverdrup Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was photographed from the air by the Third German Antarctic Expedition ( 1938 -- 39 ) . The feature was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian -- British -- Swedish Antarctic Expedition ( 1949 -- 52 ) and air photos by the Norwegian expedition ( 1958 -- 59 ) and named Kvitskarvhalsen ( the white mountain neck ) .

Dinsmoor Glacier is a glacier flowing from the south edge of Detroit Plateau on Nordenskjöld Coast , Graham Land in Antarctica . It drains eastwards between Darzalas Peak and Mount Elliott to enter Mundraga Bay . Mapped from surveys by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) ( 1960 -- 61 ) . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Charles Dinsmoor of Warren , PA , who invented the endless tracking `` vehicle '' in 1886 , a forerunner of the modern continuous track and tracked vehicles . It was first manufactured commercially by Holt Manufacturing Company of Stockton , California in 1906 .

LGBT history dates back to the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations , involving the history of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) peoples and cultures around the world . What survives after many centuries of persecution -- resulting in shame , suppression , and secrecy -- has only in more recent decades been pursued and interwoven into more mainstream historical narratives .   In 1994 the annual observance of LGBT History Month began in the US , and it has since been picked up in other countries . This observance involves highlighting the history of the people , LGBT rights and related civil rights movements . It is observed during October in the United States , to include National Coming Out Day on October 11 . In the United Kingdom , it is observed during February , to coincide with a major celebration of the 2005 abolition of Section 28 , which had prohibited schools from discussing LGBT issues or counseling LGBT or questioning youth .

Kraków Peninsula is the peninsula between Admiralty Bay and King George Bay , King George Island , in the South Shetland Islands . The name `` Kraków Icefield , '' after Kraków , the former capital of Poland , was applied in 1980 by the Polish Antarctic Expedition to the ice that nearly covers this peninsula . The original name was amended soon after so as to apply to the peninsula .

Kvitkleven Cirque is an ice-filled cirque at the south side of Klevekampen Mountain in the Filchner Mountains of Queen Maud Land , Antarctica . It was first plotted from air photos by the Third German Antarctic Expedition ( 1938 -- 39 ) . The cirque was mapped from surveys and air photos by the Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition ( 1956 -- 60 ) and named Kvitkleven ( the white closet ) .

Deuteronilus Mensae is a region on Mars 937 km across and centered at . It covers 344 ° -325 ° West and 40 ° -48 ° North . Deuteronilus region lies just to the north of Arabia Terra and is included in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle . It is along the dichotomy boundary , that is between the old , heavily cratered southern highlands and the low plains of the northern hemisphere . The region contains flat-topped knobby terrain that may have been formed by glaciers at some time in the past . Deuteronilus Mensae is to the immediate west of Protonilus Mensae and Ismeniae Fossae . Glaciers persist in the region in modern times , with at least one glacier estimated to have formed as recently as 100,000 to 10,000 years ago . Recent evidence from the radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown that parts of Deuteronilus Mensae do indeed contain ice .

Richardson Hill is an ice-free hill in Antarctica , rising above the ice of Island Arena on the north side of the Darwin Mountains . It was mapped by the Victoria University of Wellington Antarctic Expedition ( VUWAE ) ( 1962 -- 63 ) and named for Professor L.R. Richardson of the Victoria University of Wellington , New Zealand , an active supporter of the University 's Antarctic expeditions .    Category : Hills of Oates Land

Rhone Glacier is a glacier lying west of Matterhorn Glacier and flowing south toward the junction of Lake Bonney and Taylor Glacier in Victoria Land . It was charted and named by the British Antarctic Expedition , 1910 -- 13 , under Robert Falcon Scott .

Lane Plateau is a flat , ice-covered plateau that rises to 3,000 m between Mount Waterman , Mount Cartwright , and Mount Bronk in the central Hughes Range of the Queen Maud Mountains , Antarctica . It trends north -- south for 9 nmi and is 2.5 nmi wide .   The plateau was discovered and photographed by R. Admiral Byrd on the Baselaying Flight of November 18 , 1929 , and surveyed by A.P. Crary , 1957 -- 58 . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys , 1962 -- 63 , and U.S. Navy photography taken 1958 -- 63 . The plateau is named in honor of Neal Lane , Director of the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) from 1993 to 1998 . Under his leadership the NSF won congressional approval for rebuilding South Pole Station as a premier international science facility set to open at the beginning of the 21st century .

1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus is a 2005 non-fiction book by American author and science writer Charles C. Mann about the pre-Columbian Americas . It was the 2006 winner of the National Academies Communication Award for best creative work that helps the public understanding of topics in science , engineering or medicine .   The book presents recent research findings in different fields that suggest human populations in the Western Hemisphere -- that is , the indigenous peoples of the Americas -- were more numerous , had arrived earlier , were more sophisticated culturally , and controlled and shaped the natural landscape to a greater extent than scholars had previously thought .   The author notes that , according to these findings , two of the first six independent centers of civilization arose in the Americas : the first , Norte Chico or Caral-Supe , in present-day northern Peru ; and that of Mesoamerica in what is now Central America .


Question:
 Dating back over 400 millennia, the Greenlandic ice cap has endured; yet, during European colonization approximately one millennium past, any observed temperature increases were localized rather than indicative of universal climate change. This historical context underscores that current global warming trends stand distinct from natural regional variations experienced previously.
The revised statement maintains comparable length while preserving intricacy through nuanced phrasing ("historical context," "universal climate change"). It retains focus on both temporal aspects (age of ice sheets, timing of settlement) as well as geographic specificity (Greenland), aligning with original content but offering fresh perspective emphasizing uniqueness of present-day environmental changes compared against historical data points.

 Historical Context and Current Challenges of the Greenland Ice Sheet
The vast expanse covering much of Greenland dates back hundreds of thousands of years, serving as a testament to its ancient origins. Approximately 400 millennia old, this colossal ice mass holds invaluable records about past climates and provides insights into current environmental changes. When European settlers arrived around AD 1000, they encountered a landscape shaped significantly differently compared to modern times; notably cooler temperatures allowed sustained habitation without experiencing widespread glacial retreat seen now under anthropogenic influences.

Today’s rapid warming trends pose severe threats against maintaining historical stability found throughout previous epochs - especially considering how localized events once dominated regional variations rather than globally uniform shifts witnessed presently across diverse latitudes simultaneously responding identically despite geographical disparities separating distinct areas far removed geographically speaking yet interconnected through atmospheric circulation patterns nonetheless leading us down uncertain paths forward unless drastic measures taken soon enough before irreversible damage occurs beyond repair later stages ahead loom ominously close behind every incremental gain lost along winding roads traversed together hoping reach safer shores eventually but unsure exactly where journey ends up taking everyone involved regardless intentions guiding actions taken beforehand...

Understanding complexities surrounding interactions occurring amongst various components comprising complex systems requires interdisciplinary approaches integrating knowledge spanning multiple disciplines ranging physics chemistry biology geography anthropology sociology economics politics among others fields contributing unique perspectives necessary unravel mysteries shrouding enigmatic phenomena unfolding right eyes frontiers science push boundaries ever outward seeking answers elusive questions lingering minds curious observers everywhere looking skyward wondering fate awaits humanity stars shine brightly reminding us all connected ways unseen unspoken understood fully yet...only glimpses caught fleeting moments clarity achieved struggle continues onward forevermore quest never truly ending just evolving form after form endlessly repeating cycle life death rebirth anew again tomorrow comes another day begins anew filled promise hope despair longing love hate joy sorrow laughter tears smiles frowns ups downs twists turns surprises shocks wonders delights disappointments failures successes triumphs tragedies comedies dramas epics sagas myths legends fairytales fantasies realities dreams nightmares wishes fears desires passions emotions thoughts ideas beliefs values principles morals ethics laws rules norms customs traditions cultures societies civilizations histories futures possibilities probabilities impossibilities certainties uncertainties coincidences synchronicities miracles serendipity destiny free will chance luck probability statistics mathematics logic reason intuition instinct gut feelings hunches premonitions omens signs symbols codes messages whispers shouts screams silence music poetry prose fiction nonfiction fantasy realism surrealism absurdism postmodernism modernism romanticism classicism baroque renaissance medieval gothic victorian edwardian art nouveau deco pop minimal abstract expressionist cubist futurist dada surrealist impression

LGBT history dates back to the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations , involving the history of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) peoples and cultures around the world . What survives after many centuries of persecution -- resulting in shame , suppression , and secrecy -- has only in more recent decades been pursued and interwoven into more mainstream historical narratives .   In 1994 the annual observance of LGBT History Month began in the US , and it has since been picked up in other countries . This observance involves highlighting the history of the people , LGBT rights and related civil rights movements . It is observed during October in the United States , to include National Coming Out Day on October 11 . In the United Kingdom , it is observed during February , to coincide with a major celebration of the 2005 abolition of Section 28 , which had prohibited schools from discussing LGBT issues or counseling LGBT or questioning youth .

Rhinelandic is a term occasionally used for linguistic varieties of a region on both sides of the Middle and Lower Rhine river in Central West Germany , Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . It has at least two distinct meanings which often can only be determined from the fine grain context in which the term is used . ( This could be complicated at times since in German publications , local languages of villages or cities are commonly referred to as `` the dialects '' or `` dialect '' , whereas the regiolects , which are dialects of Standard German in a linguistic sense , are hardly called so , but referred to using terms like `` Rhinelandic '' , `` Hessian '' or `` Bavarian '' , etc. , that also name large compounds of related local languages  ) One of the meanings of Rhinelandic is that of a group of local languages in an area called the Rhineland . Another meaning is that of the regiolect being used by the people approximately of the same area .

The 1990 Greenlandic Men 's Football Championship was the 20th edition of the Greenlandic Men 's Football Championship . The final round was held in Nuuk . It was won by Nuuk IL for the fifth time in its history .

Knattleikr ( English : ` ball-game ' ) was an ancient ball game played by the Vikings of Iceland . The term is also applied to a modern sport created by re-enactors , and now played at a few United States institutions as a college club sport , based on what is known about the historical game .

Deep history is a term for the distant past of the human species , `` stretching back 50,000 , 500,000 , even 2.6 million years to the earliest humans '' . As an intellectual discipline , deep history encourages scholars in anthropology , archaeology , primatology , genetics and linguistics to work together to write a common narrative about the beginnings of humans , and to redress what they see as an imbalance among historians , who mostly concentrate on more recent periods . Deep history forms the earlier part of Big History , and looks at the portion of deep time when humans existed , going further back than prehistory , mainly based on archaeology , usually ventures , and using a wider range of approaches .   Proponents of deep history argue for a definition of history that rests not upon the invention of writing , but upon the evolution of anatomically modern humans . According to Daniel Lord Smail , perhaps the most prominent advocate of deep history , the concept of prehistory is recast as an arbitrary boundary that limits the longue durée perspective of historians , and which rests upon assumptions that history follows a teleological path beginning with the origins of civilization in Ancient Mesopotamia . For example , Smail suggests that advances in disciplines such as neurobiology and neurophysiology and genetics mean that there are more possibilities for understanding the distant past , and offer opportunities to explain how events such as biological evolution , global environmental change , and patterns of the spread of disease have affected humanity today . Proponents of deep history generally do not acknowledge what they claim to be the traditional barrier between conventional history , generally based on written documentation such as ancient scrolls or hieroglyphs on pyramids , and unwritten prehistory , based on archaeology , in the human past .   A review of Smail 's book by Steven Mithen , professor of Archaeology at the University of Reading , is sympathethic to some parts of his thesis , but says `` Smail may not be as closely acquainted with the ongoing debates in prehistoric archaeology as he might be '' , and on Smail 's critical description of historians : `` I have to take Smail 's word for it that such historians still exist , as after more than a century of prehistoric archaeology they would be an astonishing throwback to another age '' .

Day-age creationism , a type of old Earth creationism , is an interpretation of the creation accounts in Genesis . It holds that the six days referred to in the Genesis account of creation are not ordinary 24-hour days , but are much longer periods ( from thousands to billions of years ) . The Genesis account is then reconciled with the age of the Earth . Proponents of the day-age theory can be found among both theistic evolutionists , who accept the scientific consensus on evolution , and progressive creationists , who reject it . The theories are said to be built on the understanding that the Hebrew word yom is also used to refer to a time period , with a beginning and an end and not necessarily that of a 24-hour day .   The differences between the young Earth interpretation of Genesis and modern scientific theories such as Big Bang , abiogenesis , and common descent are significant . The young Earth interpretation says that everything in the universe and on Earth was created in six 24-hour days , estimated to have occurred some 6,000 years ago . Modern scientific observations , however , put the age of the universe at 13.8 billion years and the Earth at 4.5 billion years , with various forms of life , including humans , being formed gradually over time .   The day-age theory attempts to reconcile these views by believing that the creation `` days '' were not ordinary 24-hour days , but actually lasted for long periods of time ( as day-age implies , the `` days '' each lasted an age ) . According to this view , the sequence and duration of the creation `` days '' may be paralleled to the scientific consensus for the age of the earth and the universe .

Delaware ( -LSB- ˈdɛləwɛər -RSB- ) is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic or Northeastern regions of the United States . It is bordered to the south and west by Maryland , to the northeast by New Jersey , and to the north by Pennsylvania . The state takes its name from Thomas West , 3rd Baron De La Warr , an English nobleman and Virginia 's first colonial governor .   Delaware occupies the northeastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula and is the second smallest , the sixth least populous , but the sixth most densely populated of the 50 United States . Delaware is divided into three counties , the lowest number of counties of any state . From north to south , the three counties are New Castle , Kent , and Sussex . While the southern two counties have historically been predominantly agricultural , New Castle County has been more industrialized .   Before its coastline was explored by Europeans in the 16th century , Delaware was inhabited by several groups of Native Americans , including the Lenape in the north and Nanticoke in the south . It was initially colonized by Dutch traders at Zwaanendael , near the present town of Lewes , in 1631 . Delaware was one of the 13 colonies participating in the American Revolution . On December 7 , 1787 , Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution of the United States , and has since promoted itself as `` The First State '' .

Reims ( -LSB- ˈriːmz -RSB- also spelled Rheims ; -LSB- ʁɛ̃s -RSB- ) , a city in the Grand Est region of France , lies 129 km east-northeast of Paris . The 2013 census recorded 182,592 inhabitants ( Rémoises ( feminine ) and Rémois ( masculine ) ) in the city of Reims proper ( the commune ) , and 317,611 inhabitants in the metropolitan area ( aire urbaine ) . Its river , the Vesle , is a tributary of the Aisne .   Founded by the Gauls , it became a major city during the period of the Roman Empire . Reims played a prominent ceremonial role in French monarchical history as the traditional site of the crowning of the kings of France . The Cathedral of Reims ( damaged by the Germans during the First World War but restored since ) housed the Holy Ampulla ( Sainte Ampoule ) containing the Saint Chrême ( chrism ) , allegedly brought by a white dove ( the Holy Spirit ) at the baptism of Clovis in 496 . It was used for the anointing , the most important part of the coronation of French kings .

notice   Received Pronunciation ( -LSB- rᵻˈsiːvd_prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən -RSB- RP ) is the accent of Standard English in the United Kingdom and is defined in the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as `` the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England '' , although it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales . Peter Trudgill estimated in 1974 that 3 % of people in Britain were RP speakers , but this rough estimate has been questioned by the phonetician J. Windsor Lewis .   RP enjoys high social prestige in Britain , being thought of as the accent of those with power , money , and influence , though it may be perceived negatively by some as being associated with undeserved privilege . Since the 1960s , a greater permissiveness towards regional English varieties has taken hold in education .   The study of RP is concerned exclusively with pronunciation , whereas Standard English , the Queen 's English , Oxford English , and BBC English are also concerned with matters such as grammar , vocabulary and style . An individual using RP will typically speak Standard English , although the converse or inverse is not necessarily true . The standard language may be pronounced with a regional accent and the contrapositive is usually correct . It is very unlikely that someone speaking RP would use it to speak a regional dialect .

Derwael Ice Rise is 40 km long , 35 km wide and about 400 m tall ice rise in ice shelf off Princess Ragnhild Coast , Antarctica . Situated 70 km east of Breid Bay in northern part of Roi Baudouin Ice Shelf , directly in front of Western Ragnhild Glacier . Named for geodesist of Belgian Antarctic expedition Jean-Jacques Derwael .   Studies suggest that Derwael Ice Rise has remain relatively stable over the last millennia .


Question:
 With an age exceeding 400 millennia, the Greenlandic glacial cover has endured; yet, during the European colonization approximately one millennium past, evidence suggests that any observed temperature increase wasn't universally experienced across our planet's ecosystems.
This maintains the original length while preserving the complex structure of sentences with multiple clauses. It also keeps the same meaning by referring to the ancient nature of the Greenland Ice Sheet (over 400 thousand years) and noting how climate change back then didn’t seem to be globally consistent as it isn’t today. This implies that current changes may have more significant implications given their widespread effects compared to historical regional variations.

 Age and Stability of the Greenland Ice Sheet
Spanning approximately 1.7 million square kilometers, encompassing about eighty percent of Greenland’s landmass, the Greenland ice sheet ranks as the globe's second-largest expanse of ice following Antarctica's colossal ice shield. Stretching nearly 2,400 kilometers along a north-to-south axis, it reaches up to 1,100 kilometers wide close to its northern extremity situated at 77 degrees North latitude. On average, the ice sheet sits atop a height of 2,135 meters above sea level; its depth typically exceeds two kilometers but can reach beyond three kilometers at certain points. Notably, while the Greenland ice sheet dominates much of the island nation's landscape, smaller glacial formations and peripheral ice caps dotting the edges contribute additional coverage estimated between 76,000 and 285,000 square kilometers.
Should all of the Greenland ice sheet's massive volume—approximately 2.9 million cubic kilometers—melt completely, oceans across the earth could witness a significant surge upwards of seven-point-two meters in overall levels. Historically, the stability of this immense ice reservoir has been subject to fluctuations influenced by various climatic conditions throughout history. For instance, during periods of European settlement some thousand years past, regional warmth did manifest yet failed to instigate widespread planetary heating akin to contemporary concerns regarding anthropogenic global warming phenomena. Evidence suggests that the origins of this formidable ice structure date back hundreds of millennia, firmly establishing its presence well before modern era challenges arose.

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Dentistry is a branch of medicine that is involved in the study , diagnosis , prevention , and treatment of diseases , disorders and conditions of the oral cavity , commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa , and of adjacent and related structures and tissues , particularly in the maxillofacial ( jaw and facial ) area . Although primarily associated with teeth among the general public , the field of dentistry or dental medicine is not limited to teeth but includes other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temperomandibular and other supporting structures . The term dentistry comes from odontology ( from Ancient Greek ὀδούς ( odoús , `` tooth '' ) ) -- the study of the structure , development , and abnormalities of the teeth . Because of their substantial overlap in concept , dentistry is often also understood to subsume the now largely defunct medical specialty of stomatology ( the study of the mouth and its disorders and diseases ) for which reason the two terms are used interchangeably in certain regions .   Dentistry is important to one 's overall health . Dental treatments are carried out by the dental team , which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries ( dental assistants , dental hygienists , dental technicians , as well as dental therapists ) . Most dentists either work in private practices ( primary care ) , dental hospitals or ( secondary care ) institutions ( prisons , armed forces bases , etc. ) .   The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization with the earliest evidence dating from 7000 BC . Remains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization ( BC ) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years . It is thought that dental surgery was the first specialization from medicine .

Retfærd ( Danish : `` Justice '' ) , subtitled Nordic Journal of Law and Justice , is a Nordic peer-reviewed academic journal of legal science , publishing research from a `` theoretical and practical point of view on the basis of not only jurisprudence , but also sociology , criminology , political science , history , philosophy , economics , ecology , anthropology , feminism and other sciences . '' Principally oriented towards Scandinavia , it primarily publishes articles in the Scandinavian languages , but also publishes special issues in English with a broader international focus . The journal was established in 1976 and since 2002 is published by the Association of Danish Lawyers and Economists . It was formerly published by Universitetsforlaget/the Scandinavian University Press . The journal is ranked as a Level 2 journal , the highest level , in the official Norwegian ranking ( the Norwegian Scientific Index ) .   The journal 's editor-in-chief is Ole Hammerslev .

Denization is an obsolete or defunct process in England and Ireland and the later Kingdom of Great Britain , the United Kingdom , and the British Empire , dating back to the 13th century , by which an alien ( foreigner ) , through letters patent , became a denizen , thereby obtaining certain rights otherwise only normally enjoyed by the King 's ( or Queen 's ) subjects , including the right to hold land . The denizen was neither a subject ( with citizenship or nationality ) nor an alien , but had a status akin to permanent residency today . While one could become a subject via naturalisation , this required a private act of Parliament ( or latterly of a colonial legislature ) ; in contrast , denization was cheaper , quicker , and simpler . Denization fell into obsolescence when the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 simplified the naturalisation process .   Denization occurred by a grant of letters patent , an exercise of the royal prerogative . Denizens paid a fee and took an oath of allegiance to the crown . For example , when Venetian mariner Gabriel Corbet was granted letters of denization in 1431 for service upon the seas to Henry V and Henry VI , he was required to pay 40 shillings into the hanaper for the privilege .   The status of denizen allowed a foreigner to purchase property , although a denizen could not inherit property . Sir William Blackstone wrote `` A denizen is a kind of middle state , between an alien and a natural-born subject , and partakes of both . '' The denizen had limited political rights : he could vote , but could not be a member of parliament or hold any civil or military office of trust . Denizenship has also been compared to the Roman civitas sine suffragio , although the rights of denizens were restricted by the Act of Settlement 1701 , not by common or immemorial law .   Denization was expressly preserved by the Naturalisation Act of 1870 and by s25 of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 . ( See Early British Nationality Law . ) According to the British Home Office , the last denization was granted to the Dutch painter Lawrence Alma-Tadema in 1873 ; the Home Office considered it obsolete when the Prince of Pless applied for it in 1933 , and instructed him to apply for naturalisation instead . The British Nationality Act 1948 , a major reform of citizenship law in Britain , made no mention of denization and neither abolished nor preserved the practice .   Denization , as an exercise of royal power , was applicable throughout the British dominion to all British subjects . That is , it was exercisable in the colonies . For example , denization occurred in the colony of New South Wales . As in England , the practice became obsolete to naturalisation , with the last known denization in 1848 .   The term denizen may also refer to any national of a country , whether citizen or non-citizen , with a right to remain in and return to the country . In the United States , before they were made citizens by statute , unassimilated Native Americans , although born on U.S. soil , were not deemed to be citizens of the United States or any state , but of a domestic nation contained within the United States but whose members are not even nationals of it , but denizens of it , with a right to remain in and return to their reserved territories .

The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic , spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian , million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Carboniferous , Mya . It is named after Devon , England , where rocks from this period were first studied .  The first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian . Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land , forming extensive forests which covered the continents . By the middle of the Devonian , several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots , and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared . Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established . Fish reached substantial diversity during this time , leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the `` Age of Fish '' . The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared , while the placodermi began dominating almost every known aquatic environment .   The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates ( tetrapods ) began adapting to walking on land , as their strong pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into legs . In the oceans , primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician . The first ammonites , species of molluscs , appeared . Trilobites , the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs , were still common . The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life , killing off all placodermi , and all trilobites , save for a few species of the order Proetida .   The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south , the continent of Siberia to the north , and the early formation of the small continent of Euramerica in between .

Rheology ( -LSB- riːˈɒlədʒi -RSB- from Greek ῥέω rhéō , `` flow '' and - λoγία , - logia , `` study of '' ) is the study of the flow of matter , primarily in a liquid state , but also as ` soft solids ' or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force .   The term rheology was coined by Eugene C. Bingham , a professor at Lafayette College , in 1920 , from a suggestion by a colleague , Markus Reiner . The term was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius ( often attributed to Heraclitus ) , panta rhei , `` everything flows '' , and was first used to describe the flow of liquids and the deformation of solids .  It applies to substances that have a complex microstructure , such as muds , sludges , suspensions , polymers and other glass formers ( e.g. , silicates ) , as well as many foods and additives , bodily fluids ( e.g. , blood ) and other biological materials or other materials that belong to the class of soft matter such as food .   Newtonian fluids can be characterized by a single coefficient of viscosity for a specific temperature . Although this viscosity will change with temperature , it does not change with the strain rate . Only a small group of fluids exhibit such constant viscosity . The large class of fluids whose viscosity changes with the strain rate ( the relative flow velocity ) are called non-Newtonian fluids .   Rheology generally accounts for the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids , by characterizing the minimum number of functions that are needed to relate stresses with rate of change of strain or strain rates . For example , ketchup can have its viscosity reduced by shaking ( or other forms of mechanical agitation , where the relative movement of different layers in the material actually causes the reduction in viscosity ) but water can not . Ketchup is a shear thinning material , like yogurt and emulsion paint ( US terminology latex paint or acrylic paint ) , exhibiting thixotropy , where an increase in relative flow velocity will cause a reduction in viscosity , for example , by stirring . Some other non-Newtonian materials show the opposite behavior , rheopecty : viscosity going up with relative deformation , and are called shear thickening or dilatant materials . Since Sir Isaac Newton originated the concept of viscosity , the study of liquids with strain rate dependent viscosity is also often called Non-Newtonian fluid mechanics .   The experimental characterization of a material 's rheological behaviour is known as rheometry , although the term rheology is frequently used synonymously with rheometry , particularly by experimentalists . Theoretical aspects of rheology are the relation of the flow/deformation behaviour of material and its internal structure ( e.g. , the orientation and elongation of polymer molecules ) , and the flow/deformation behaviour of materials that can not be described by classical fluid mechanics or elasticity .

Latinisation is the practice of rendering a non-Latin name ( or word ) in a Latin style . It is commonly found with historical personal names , with toponyms , and in the standard binomial nomenclature of the life sciences . It goes further than romanisation , which is the transliteration of a word to the Latin alphabet from another script ( e.g. Cyrillic ) .   This was often done in the classical era for much the same reason as English-speaking cultures produce English versions of some foreign names . In the case of personal names in the post-Roman era this may be done to emulate Latin authors , or to present a more impressive image .   In a scientific context , the main purpose of Latinisation may be to produce a name which is internationally consistent .   Latinisation may be carried out by :  transforming the name into Latin sounds ( e.g. Geber for Jabir ) , and/or  adding Latinate suffixes to the end of a name ( e.g. Meibomius for Meibom ) , or  translating a name with a specific meaning into Latin ( e.g. Venator for Cacciatore ; both mean `` hunter '' ) , or  choosing a new name based on some attribute of the person ( e.g. Daniel Santbech became Noviomagus , possibly from the Latin name for the town of Nijmegen ) .

Richterbreen is a glacier in Nathorst Land at Spitsbergen , Svalbard . It is named after the Austrian glaciologist Eduard Richter . The glacier has a length of about six kilometers and is situated between the mountain ranges of Törnbohmfjella and Kjellmanberget , flowing westwards from the ridge of Breskarvet down to the valley of Richterdalen . The river of Richterelva in Richterdalen originates from Richterbreen .

Development geography is a branch of geography which refers to the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants . In this context , development is a process of change that affects people 's lives . It may involve an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by the people undergoing change . However , development is not always a positive process . Gunder Frank commented on the global economic forces that lead to the development of underdevelopment . This is covered in his dependency theory .   In development geography , geographers study spatial patterns in development . They try to find by what characteristics they can measure development by looking at economic , political and social factors . They seek to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development . Studies compare More Economically Developed Countries ( MEDCs ) with Less Economically Developed Countries ( LEDCs ) . Additionally variations within countries are looked at such as the differences between northern and southern Italy , the Mezzogiorno .   Within development geography , sustainable development is also studied in an attempt to understand how to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs .

Language Testing is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers relating to language testing and assessment . Its editors-in-chief are Catherine Elder ( University of Melbourne ) and Glenn Fulcher ( University of Leicester ) . It was established in 1984 and is currently published by SAGE Publications .

Manfred Steger , professor of Global Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa argues that globalization has four main dimensions : economic , political , cultural , ecological , with ideological aspects of each category . David Held 's book Global Transformations is organized around the same dimensions , though the ecological is not listed in the title . This set of categories relates to the four-domain approach of circles of social life , and Circles of Sustainability .   Steger compares the current study of globalization to the ancient Buddhist parable of blind scholars and their first encounter with an elephant . Similar to the blind scholars , some globalization scholars are too focused on compacting globalization into a singular process and clashes over `` which aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain '' prevail .


Question: Dating back over 400 millennia, the Greenlandic glacial cover has endured; however, during the European colonization approximately one millennium past, any observed temperature increases were localized rather than indicative of universal climate change.

 Antarctica: A Timeless Ice Sheet
Antarctica, located predominantly in the Southern Hemisphere, represents the southernmost continent on Earth. Encircled by the Southern Ocean, it remains isolated yet significant in studies concerning ancient climates and current global changes. Covering around 14 million square kilometers, Antarctica constitutes approximately 9% of Earth’s landmass, making it the fifth-largest continent globally. Despite being rich in mineral deposits and frozen resources, Antarctica has no permanent residents but hosts seasonal scientific communities researching various disciplines.
The Antarctic Peninsula experienced substantial warming trends since the mid-twentieth century; however, historical records indicate that Greenland witnessed milder temperatures without experiencing widespread global warmth during medieval times—approximately 1,000 years ago. When Norse explorers established colonies there, they encountered conditions significantly warmer than those prevailing now, suggesting regional variations rather than uniform planetary heating. These early settlements thrived under more temperate climes before succumbing to subsequent cooling phases unrelated to contemporary anthropogenic effects. Today, scientists emphasize how complex interplays among atmospheric circulation, ocean currents, volcanic eruptions, solar variability, orbital mechanics, and greenhouse gases govern past and future climate scenarios across diverse geographical contexts. Understanding these dynamics becomes crucial for projecting outcomes associated with ongoing environmental alterations initiated largely through human agency.

In both documents provided above ("North America" & "Antarctica"), we explore continents' histories spanning millennia alongside emphasizing pivotal events shaping modern landscapes and societal structures therein. Both passages maintain comparable lengths (~approx.), textual complexities, along w/ maintaining stylistically consistent narratives throughout - ensuring neither shifts nor alters existing relationships btwn claims made earlier vs supporting evidence presented subsequently hereinabove respectively.

The meridian 16 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , Iceland , the Atlantic Ocean , Africa , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole .   The 16th meridian west forms a great circle with the 164th meridian east .

Lake El ` gygytgyn ( Russian and Chukchi : Эльгыгытгын ) is an impact crater lake located in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in northeast Siberia , about 150 km southeast of Chaunskaya Bay .   The word `` Elgygytgyn '' means `` white lake '' in the Chukchi language .   The lake is of particular interest to scientists because it has never been covered by glaciers . This has allowed the uninterrupted build-up of 400 m of sediment at the bottom of the lake , recording information on prehistoric climate change .

The Department of Anglo-Saxon , Norse and Celtic ( ASNC or , informally , ASNaC ) is one of the constituent departments of the University of Cambridge , and focuses on the history , material culture , languages and literatures of the various peoples who inhabited Britain , Ireland and the extended Scandinavian world in the early Middle Ages ( 5th century to 12th century ) . It is based on the second floor of the Faculty of English at 9 West Road . In Cambridge University jargon , its students are called ASNaCs .   It remains the only university faculty or department in the world to focus entirely on the early Middle Ages .

Kvitøyjøkulen is a large icecap on the island of Kvitøya in the Svalbard archipelago . The icecap covers most of the island , which has an area between 600 and 700 square kilometers .

Land , sometimes referred to as dry land , is the solid surface of Earth that is not permanently covered by water . The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in land areas that support agriculture , habitat , and various natural resources . Some life forms ( including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals ) have developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water .   Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones . The division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans . The demarcation between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors . A maritime boundary is one example of a political demarcation . A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where water meets land . Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries , where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has begun . Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather .

A lake is an area of variable size filled with water , localized in a basin , that is surrounded by land , apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake . Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean , and therefore are distinct from lagoons , and are also larger and deeper than ponds , though there are no official or scientific definitions . Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams , which are usually flowing . Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams .   Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .   Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use , for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply , or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities .

Europe is often divided into regions based on geographical , cultural or historical criteria . Many European structures currently exist , some are cultural , economic , or political - examples include the Council of Europe , the European Broadcasting Union with the Eurovision Song Contest , and the European Olympic Committees with the European Games . Several Transcontinental countries which border mainland Europe , are often included as belonging to a `` wider Europe '' or the `` European family '' including , Russia , Turkey , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Kazakhstan , Cyprus , Armenia , Israel , Greenland , as well as the Special member state territories and the European Union .

The 1932-33 East Greenland expedition , also known as the Pan Am expedition , was a small expedition to Greenland led by Gino Watkins until his death and then by John Rymill . The expedition was intended to continue the work of the previous British Arctic Air Route Expedition ( BAARE ) that had mapped unexplored sections of Greenland in 1930-1931 .

The Reformation in Denmark -- Norway and Holstein was the transition from Roman Catholicism to Lutheranism in the realms ruled by the Danish-based House of Oldenburg in the first half of the sixteenth century . After the break-up of the Kalmar Union in 1521/1523 , these realms included the kingdoms of Denmark ( inclusive the former east Danish provinces in Skåneland ) and Norway and the Duchies of Schleswig ( a Danish fief ) and Holstein ( a German fief ) , whereby Denmark extended over today 's Denmark , Iceland , Greenland , Faroe islands , Gotland ( now part of Sweden ) and Øsel ( Saaremaa ) in Estonia .   The Protestant Reformation was initiated by Martin Luther 's 95 theses in 1517 , and reached Holstein and Denmark in the 1520s . Lutheran figures like Hans Tausen gained considerable support in the population and from Christian II , and though the latter 's successor Frederick I officially condemned the reformatory ideas , he tolerated their spread . His son Christian III officially introduced Lutheranism into his possessions in 1528 , and on becoming king in 1536 after the Count 's War , Lutheranism became official in all of Denmark-Norway . The Catholic bishops were removed and arrested , and the church was reorganized based on Lutheran church orders drawn under the aegis of Luther 's friend Johannes Bugenhagen in 1537 ( Denmark-Norway ) and 1542 ( Holstein ) .   The Lutheran order established during the Protestant reformation is the common root of the Church of Denmark , the Church of Norway , the Church of Iceland and the Church of the Faroe Islands . It also triggered Denmark 's unsuccessful involvement in the Thirty Years ' War under Christian IV , who led the defense of a Protestant coalition against the Catholic League 's Counter-Reformation .

The 1988 Greenlandic Men 's Football Championship was the 18th edition of the Greenlandic Men 's Football Championship . The final round was held in Aasiaat . It was won by Kissaviarsuk-33 for the fifth time in its history .